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An Introduction to Islamic Philosophy

An Introduction to Islamic Philosophy

Author:
Publisher: www.alhassanain.org/english
English

This book is corrected and edited by Al-Hassanain (p) Institue for Islamic Heritage and Thought

Alhassanain (p) Network for Islamic Heritage and Thought

An Introduction to Islamic Philosophy

This book is taken from “Fundamentals of Islamic Thought: God, Man and the Universe”.

Author(s): Ayatullah Murtadha Mutahhari

Translator(s): R. Campbell

www.alhassanain.org/english

Table of Contents

Lesson 01: What Is Philosophy? (01) 3

Literal and Semantic Definitions 3

Muslim Usage 4

True Philosophy 5

Lesson 02: What Is Philosophy? (02) 8

Metaphysics 8

Philosophy in Modern Times 8

Divorce of the Sciences from Philosophy 10

Lesson 03: Illuminationism and Peripateticism 12

Lesson 04: Islamic Methods of Thought 16

Four Islamic Approaches 16

Lesson 05: Sublime Wisdom 19

Overview of Philosophies and Wisdoms 20

Lesson 06: Problems in Philosophy 22

Being 22

Existence and Essence 23

Lesson 07: The Objective and the Subjective 25

Truth and Error 25

Lesson 08: The Created in Time and the Eternal 28

The Mutable and the Constant 30

Lesson 09: Cause and Effect 34

Lesson 10: The Necessary, the Possible, and the Impossible 36

Notes 37

Lesson 01: What Is Philosophy? (01)

Literal and Semantic Definitions

The logicians say that when one asks about the whatness of a thing, one is actually asking various things. Sometimes one is asking the conceptual meaning of a word. That is, when we ask what a thing is, we are asking about the very word. In asking about its whatness, we seek to know the lexical or idiomatic meaning of that word. Suppose in reading a book we run across the word pupak (hoopoe) and do not know its meaning. We ask someone, “What is a pupak?” He replies, “Pupak is the name of a bird.”

Or suppose we run across the word kalima (word) in the terminology of the logicians and we ask some one, “What does kalima mean in the terminology of the logicians?” He says, “Kalima in the terminology of the logicians is equivalent to fi’l (verb) in the language of the grammarians.” Plainly, the relation between word and meaning is conventional and terminological, whether the terminology is restricted or general.

In answering such a question, one must search out instances of usage or consult a dictionary. Such a question may have numerous answers, all of them correct, because it is possible for a single word to have various meaning in various contexts. For instance, a word may have a special meaning in the usage of the logicians and the philosophers, and another in that of the grammarians.

The word kalima has one meaning in common usage and in the usage of grammarians and another meaning in the usage of the logicians. Or, the word qiyas (analogy, syllogism) has one meaning in the usage of the logicians and another in the usage of the jurists and the legists. When a word has two or more meanings within a single body of usages, one must say that it has this meaning in this expression, and that in that. Answers given to such questions are called verbal definitions.

Sometimes when one inquires into the whatness of a thing, what one seeks is not the meaning of the word, but the reality of its referent. We do not ask, “What is the meaning of this word?” We know the meaning of the word, but not the reality and suchness of its referent. For instance, if we ask, “What is man?” we do not seek to know what the word “man” has been coined to mean. We all know that this word is applied to this bipedal, upright-postured, speaking being. We seek instead to know the identity and the reality of man. Plainly, in this case there can be only one correct answer, called the real definition.

The verbal definition is prior to the real definition. That is, one must ascertain first the conceptual meaning of the word, and then the real definition of the referent so delineated. Otherwise fallacies and pointless disputes will arise because a word has numerous lexical and idiomatic meanings, and this multiplicity of meanings is easily overlooked. Any party may define a word by a special meaning and idiomatic usage, heedless of the fact that it is envisioning something different from what another party has envisioned. So they dispute pointlessly.

The failure to distinguish the meaning of the word from the reality of its referent sometimes results in the transformation and evolution that take place in the meaning of the word being ascribed to the reality of its referent. For instance, a certain word may at first be applied to a whole and then, through changes in usage, to a part of that whole. If one fails to distinguish the meaning of the word from the reality of its referent, he will suppose that that whole actually has been fragmented, whereas in fact no change has occurred in the whole, but rather the word applying to it has been displaced in meaning to apply to a part of that whole.

Just such an error in regard to the word “philosophy” has overtaken all of Western philosophy and its imitators in the East. Philosophy is an idiomatic word and has found numerous and various idiomatic meanings. Various parties of philosophers have defined philosophy each in a special way, but this discrepancy in definition does not bear on any reality. Each party has used this word in a special sense, which it has defined as its object. What one party calls philosophy, another does not call philosophy; the latter will completely deny its value, call it something else, or regard it as part of another science. So neither party will regard the other as philosophers. I shall take these various usages into account.

The Word “Philosophy”

Falsafa has a Greek origin. This word is an Arabic verbal noun derived from the Greek word philosophia, which is a compound of philos and sophia, the former meaning love, the latter, wisdom. Therefore, philosophia means love of wisdom. Plato called Socrates a philosophos in the sense of his being a lover of wisdom.1 Therefore, the word falsafa is an Arabicization, a verbal noun, meaning the work or pursuit of philosophers.

Before Socrates, a party appeared calling themselves the Sophists, meaning the scholars. They made human perception the measure of reality and used fallacious arguments in their deductions. Gradually, “sophist” (sophistes) lost its original meaning and came to mean one who makes use of fallacious arguments. Thus we have the word “sophistry,” which has the cognate in Arabic safsafa, with the same meaning.

Socrates, out of humility and also perhaps a desire to avoid being identified with the Sophists, forbade people to call him a sophistes, a scholar.2 He therefore called himself a philosophos, a lover of wisdom. Gradually, philosophos, with its original sense of lover of wisdom, displaced sophistes as meaning scholar, and the latter was downgraded to its modern sense of one who uses fallacious reasoning. Philosophia became synonymous with wisdom. Therefore, philosophos as a technical term had been applied to no one before Socrates, and it was not applied to anyone immediately after him. The term philosophia, too, had no definite meaning in those days; it is said that not even Aristotle used it. Later, use of the terms philosophia and philosophos became widespread.

Muslim Usage

The Muslims took the word “philosophy” from the Greeks. They gave it an Arabic form and an Eastern nuance, using it to mean pure rational knowledge. Philosophy in the common Muslim usage did not refer to a special discipline or science; it embraced all rational sciences, as opposed to transmitted sciences, such as etymology, syntax, declension, rhetoric, stylistics, prosody, exegesis, tradition, and jurisprudence. Because this word had a generic meaning, only one who comprehended all the rational sciences of his time, including theology, mathematics, the natural sciences, politics, ethics, and domestic economy, would be called a philosopher. Thus it was said, Whoever is a philosopher becomes a world of knowledge, analogous to the objective world.”

When Muslims sought to reproduce Aristotle's classification of the sciences, they used the words falsafa or hikma. They said, “Philosophy, that is, the rational science, has two divisions: the theoretical and the practical.”

Theoretical philosophy addresses things as they are; practical philosophy addresses man's actions as they ought to be. Theoretical philosophy is threefold: theology or high philosophy, mathematics or middle philosophy, and natural science or low philosophy. High philosophy, or theology, in turn comprehends two disciplines, general phenomenology and theology per se. Mathematics is fourfold, each of its areas being a science in itself: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Natural science has numerous divisions. Practical philosophy is divisible into ethics, domestic economy, and civics. The complete philosopher comprehends all these sciences.

True Philosophy

In the philosophers' view, one area enjoys a special prominence among the numerous areas of philosophy. It is called first philosophy, high philosophy, the supreme science, the universal science, theology, or metaphysics. The ancients believed that one of the features distinguishing this science from all others is its firmer foundation on demonstration and certainty. Another is that it presides over all other sciences; it is in truth the queen of the sciences because the others depend on it totally, but it has no such dependence on them. A third distinguishing feature is that it is more general and universal than any other science.3 According to these philosophers, this science is the true philosophy. Accordingly, sometimes the word “philosophy” is restricted in application to this science, but this usage is rare.

Therefore, in the view of the ancient philosophers, the word “philosophy” had two meanings: one, the prevalent meaning of rational knowledge as such, including all but the transmitted sciences, and the other the rare meaning of theology, or first philosophy, one of the three divisions of theoretical philosophy.

Accordingly, there are two possibilities if we choose to define philosophy according to the usage of the ancients. First, ifwe adopt the common usage, because here philosophy is a generic term applying to no special science or discipline, it will have no special definition. It will mean all nontransmitted science. To be a philosopher will mean to comprehend all such sciences. It was in accordance with such a generalised conception of philosophy that it was said, “Philosophy is the perfection of the soul of man from both a theoretical standpoint and a practical one.”

Second, if we adopt the rarer usage, defining philosophy as that activity the ancients called true philosophy, first philosophy, or the supreme science, this will constitute a special definition for philosophy. The answer to the question “What is philosophy?” will be that philosophy consists of a science of the states of being from the standpoint that is being, not from the standpoint of its having a special individuation, for instance, of its being body, quantity, quality, man, vegetable, or what have you.

Our knowledge of things is of two kinds: It may be restricted to a certain species or genus; it may apply to the special states, determinations (ahkam),4 and accidents (avariz) of a certain species or a certain genus, as does, for instance, our knowledge constituting the science of the determinations of numbers (arithmetic), of quantities (geometry), of the states and properties of plants (botany), or of the states, properties, and determinations of the human body (medicine or physiology). This sort of knowledge embraces the rest of the sciences, such as meteorology, geology, mineralogy, zoology, psychology, sociology, and atomics.

Or our knowledge may not be restricted to a certain species; that is, we may say that being has these determinations, states, and properties not from the standpoint that it is of a certain species but from the standpoint that it is being. Sometimes we study the universe from the standpoint of its plurality and discrete subjects, whereas sometimes we study it from the standpoint of unity; that is, we regard being from the standpoint that it is being as a unity, and we pursue our studies with a regard to this unity that embraces all things.

If we liken the universe to a body, we see that our studies of that body will be of two kinds. Some of our studies will pertain to the members of that body (for instance, its head, hands, feet, or eyes); others will pertain to the whole of that body, as we ask, for instance, “When did this body come into being, and how long will it persist?”

Or is it at all meaningful to ask when in relation to the body as an aggregate? Does this body have a real unity, the multiplicity of the members being an apparent, not a real, multiplicity? Or is its unity nominal, on the level of a mechanical interrelationship; that is, does it not exceed the unity of a manufactured device? Has this body a source member from whom the other members have sprung? For instance, has this body a head, which is the source for the other members?

Or is it a body without a head? If it has a head, does this head have a sensible and perceiving mind, or is it hollow and empty? Does the whole of the body down to the nails and bones enjoy a kind of life, or is the intelligence and perception of this body confined to some entities that have appeared by chance, like worms on a corpse - these worms being what we call the animals, including man?

Does this body as a whole pursue an end, course toward a perfection and a reality, or is it an aimless being? Are the appearance and decline of the members an accident, or does the law of causation govern them, no phenomenon being without cause and every particular effect arising from a particular cause? Is the system governing this body certain and inescapable? Or does no necessity or certainty govern this body? Is the order and priority of the members of this body real or not? How many are the basic organs of this body?

The portion of our studies that pertains to an organology of the universe of being is science, and the portion that pertains to a physiology of the universe as a whole is philosophy. There is thus a special class of questions that resemble those of none of the world's sciences, which investigate particular beings, but that compose a class of their own. When we take up the study of this class of questions as an exploration of the parts of the sciences, and when we wish to understand of what subject questions of this class are, technically speaking, accidents, we see that they are accidents of being qua being.

If one of us should ask, “What is philosophy?” before answering we must state that this word has a special sense in the usage of any given party. Among Muslims, it is most commonly a generic noun representing all the rational sciences, not the name of a particular science and less commonly a name for first philosophy, a science of the most universal aspects of being, pertaining to no particular subject but to all subjects. This is a science that investigates all of being as a unified subject.

Lesson 02: What Is Philosophy? (02)

Metaphysics

Aristotle was the first to discern a series of questions that belong to none of the natural, mathematical, ethical, social, or logical sciences and must be seen as belonging to a separate science. He may have been the first to discern the pivot on which all these questions turn as accidents and states, which is being qua being. He may also have been the first one to discover the factor that interconnects the questions of any one science and the standard by which they are to be distinguished from the questions of another science - in other words, what is called the subject of a science.

The questions of this science, like those of any other, were later to be greatly expanded and augmented. This fact grows clear through a comparison of the metaphysics of Aristotle with the metaphysics of Avicenna, not to mention the metaphysics of Mulla Sadra. But Aristotle was the first to elaborate this science as an independent field, to give it a special place among the sciences.

Aristotle gave this science no name. His works were posthumously compiled into an encyclopedia. The section in question followed that on natural philosophy in sequence and, having no special name, came to be known as metaphysika, meaning after physics. It was translated into Arabic as ma ba'd at-tabi 'a.

It was eventually forgotten that this name was given this science because it occurred after natural philosophy in Aristotle's work. It was supposed that this had occurred because at least some of the questions this science addresses, such as God and the pure intelligences, are external to nature. Accordingly, it occurred to some persons, such as Avicenna, that this science should be called not metaphysics but prophysics because it includes the subject of God, Who is prior to nature, not posterior to it.5

This verbal error in translation later led to an error in meaning among some modern students of philosophy. Many Europeans supposed that metaphysics is equivalent to hyperphysics and that the subject of this science consists of phenomena external to nature. In fact, this science includes the natural and the supernatural, in sum, all that exists. This group has erroneously defined this science as follows: Metaphysics is that science which deals solely with God and phenomena separate from nature.

Philosophy in Modern Times

The watershed between the modern era (beginning in the sixteenth Christian century) and the ancient was marked by the displacement of the syllogistic and rational method of science by the experimental and empirical method, a change instituted by a group foremost among whom were the Frenchman, Descartes, and the Englishman, Bacon. The natural sciences en bloc departed the domain of syllogistic reasoning and entered that of the experimental method. Mathematics took on a semi-syllogistic, semi-experimental character.

After this course of events, some decided that the syllogistic method is unreliable. So, if a science is beyond the reach of concrete experiment, if it calls exclusively for syllogistic reasoning, it is groundless. Because this is the case with metaphysics, that is, because concrete experiment has no place in it, this science is groundless. Its questions are beyond confirmation or refutation through research. These persons draw a red line through the science that once had stood above all others and had been called the most noble of sciences and the queen of the sciences. According to them, the science of metaphysics or first philosophy did not and could not exist. They took from man the questions his reason most keenly feels the need to address.

Others maintained that the syllogistic method is not in all cases unreliable and must be employed in metaphysics and ethics. They created a new terminology: “What could take the form of research through the experimental method they called science, and what had to be approached through the syllogistic method, including metaphysics, ethics, and logic, they called philosophy. Philosophy consists of those sciences that consist in research through the syllogistic method only and in which concrete experiment plays no part.

In this view, as in the view of the ancient scholars, philosophy is generic, not specific, in meaning: It is not the name of one science, but comprehends several sciences. But philosophy in this sense encompasses less than it did according to ancient usage. It includes metaphysics, ethics, logic, law, and perhaps a few others, but mathematics and the natural sciences are outside its compass.

Members of the first group totally denied metaphysics and the syllogistic method, trusting in the empirical and experimental sciences. In time, they realised that if all that is falls into the domain of the experimental sciences, and if the questions they address are restricted to particular subjects, then we are going to be wholly deprived of an overall understanding of the universe, which philosophy or metaphysics had undertaken to provide. Thus, they founded a scientific philosophy, that is, a philosophy resting completely on the sciences.

Through comparative study of the sciences, inquiry into how their questions connect to other questions, and discovery of the kind of relationships among the laws and questions of the sciences, the totality they compose, a range of more general questions would devolve. They called these more general questions philosophy. The Frenchman Auguste Comte and the Englishman Herbert Spencer took up this method.

Philosophy was no longer an autonomous science either in its subject matter or in its sources, since such an autonomous science had for its subject being qua being and had its sources - at least its chief source - in first axioms. Philosophy had become a science whose function was to study the products of the other sciences, to interrelate them, and to derive general questions from their more limited questions. Auguste Comte's philosophy of positivism and Herbert Spencer's synthetic philosophy are of this sort. According to this view, philosophy is not a science apart from the other sciences, but constitutes a broader and fuller view of things seen and learned through the sciences.

Some others, such as Kant, thought it necessary first to study knowledge itself, along with the faculty that is its source, that is, reason. They made a critique of human reason and designated their researches philosophy as such or critical philosophy. However, this, too, has nothing but the word in common with what the ancients called philosophy or with Comte's positivism or Spencer's synthetic philosophy. Kant’s philosophy has more to do with logic, which is a special form of ideology in the strict sense (fikr shinasi), than with philosophy in its original meaning, which is cosmology.

In the European cultural sphere, whatever was not science, that is, whatever did not fit into any of the natural or mathematical sciences but was a theory of the universe, man, or society, gradually came to be known as philosophy. If someone were to collect all the “isms” that have been called philosophy in Europe and America and list all their definitions, one would see that they have nothing in common except being not science.

The difference between ancient and modern philosophies is dissimilar in kind to the difference between ancient and modern sciences. Compare ancient and modern medicine, geometry, psychology, or botany. Ancient science is not different in identity from modern science (for example, the word “medicine” did not refer to one science in ancient times and another in modern times).

Ancient and modern medicine share a single definition; medicine has always consisted in knowledge of the states and symptomatic conditions of the human body. But ancient and modern medicine differ in how they approach questions. Modern medicine is the more empirical; ancient medicine is the more deductive and syllogistic. Modern medicine is also the more developed. This sort of difference holds for all other sciences.

The term “philosophy,” however, has had various referents, and a separate definition for each referent, in the course of the ancient and modern periods. In ancient times, philosophy sometimes designated rational science as such and sometimes had a specialised meaning applying to one of the branches of this science (such as metaphysics or first philosophy). In modern times, the word has been applied to numerous referents, having a different definition in accordance with each.

Divorce of the Sciences from Philosophy

An egregious but prevalent error of our time that arose in the West and has grown widespread among Eastern imitators of Western thinkers is the myth of the divorce of the sciences from philosophy.

A linguistic change pertaining to a convention of usage has been mistaken for a change of meaning pertaining to a real referent. In the language of the ancients, the words “philosophy” and “hikma” generally were used to mean rational, as opposed to transmitted knowledge. Thus, these words comprehended all of man's rational and intellectual ideas in their meanings. In this usage, philosophy was a generic, not a proper, noun.

In modern times, this word became restricted to metaphysics, logic, aesthetics, and the like. This change in the name has led some to suppose that in ancient times philosophy was a single science embracing theology and the natural, mathematical, and other sciences and that later the natural and mathematical sciences were divorced from philosophy and grew independent of it.

It is as if the word “body” once meant the human frame, as opposed to the spirit, and included the whole human form from head to feet and later acquired the secondary sense of the trunk and limbs, minus the head. Suppose some came to imagine that the head of man thus had become separated from his body. A linguistic change would have been mistaken for a change in meaning. Consider also the word “Fars,” which once referred to the whole of Iran but today refers only to one of its southern provinces. Someone might think the province of Fars had seceded from Iran.

This is the status of the divorce of the sciences from philosophy. The sciences were once lumped under the name “philosophy,” but today this name is applied to only one of the sciences. This change in name has nothing to do with a divorce of the sciences from philosophy. The sciences have never been part of philosophy proper; so they could not be divorced from it.

Lesson 03: Illuminationism and Peripateticism

Islamic philosophers are divisible into two groups: illuminationists and peripateticists. Foremost among the illuminationist philosophers of Islam is the sixth century scholar Shaykh Shihab ad-Din Suhravardi (otherwise known as Shaykh-i Ishraq, but whom I shall refer to as Suhravardi), and foremost among the peripatetic philosophers of Islam is Shaykh ar-Ra'is Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna).

The illuminationists are considered to be followers of Plato and the peripatetics, of Aristotle. The principal and essential difference between the two methods is that the illuminationists consider deduction and rational thought insufficient for study of philosophical questions, especially of divine wisdom (hikmat-i ilahi), and the path of the heart, asceticism, and purification of the soul as incumbent if one is to realize inner realities. Peripatetics rely solely on deduction.

The word ishraq, meaning illumination, aptly conveys a sense of the illuminationist method, but the word mashsha' or peripatetic, which means ambulant or much ambulant, is purely arbitrary and conveys nothing of the peripatetic method. Aristotle and his followers were called the mashsha 'in, the peripatetics, because Aristotle held forth while taking walks. “Deductionist” actually describes the peripatetics' method. Thus, it is more accurate to label the two kinds of philosophers illuminationists and deductionists, although I shall continue to use the more common term, peripatetic.

The major questions over which illuminationists and peripatetics differ in Islam today generally pertain to Islam and not to Plato or Aristotle. They include the questions of essentialism (isalat-i mahiya) versus existentialism (isalat-i vujud), the unity versus the multiplicity of being, the question of fabrication (ja’l), the question of whether a body is compounded of matter and form, the question of ideas (muthul) and archetypes (arbab-i anva'), and the question of the principle of the more noble possibility (imkan-i ashraf).6

Did Plato and Aristotle actually have two different methods? Did such a difference in outlook exist between the master, Plato, and the pupil, Aristotle? Was Suhravardi's method, propounded in the Islamic era, actually Plato's method? Did Plato follow the way of the Heart, asceticism and the discipline of the soul, or the illumination and witness of the heart? Was he an exponent of what Suhravardi later called experiential wisdom (hikmat-i dhawqi)?

Do the questions that illuminationists and peripatetics have been known to differ over since the time of Suhravardi (questions of essence and existence, of fabrication, of the compoundedness or simplicity of the body, of the formula of the more noble possibility, and of the unity or multiplicity of being) actually date back to differences of opinion between Plato and Aristotle? Or are the questions, at least some of them, later developments unknown to Plato or Aristotle? There were certainly differences of opinion between the two; Aristotle refuted many of Plato's theories and countered them with different ones.

In the Alexandrian period, which was the watershed between the Hellenic and Islamic eras, the followers of Plato and Aristotle formed two opposed ranks. Farabi, in Al-Jam' Bayn Ra'yay al-Hakimayn (The reconciliation of the views of the two sages), discusses the questions over which the two philosophers disagree and strives to resolve these disagreements. There are three basic questions on which Plato and Aristotle differed, questions different from those discussed during the Islamic era.

It is highly doubtful that Plato advocated a spiritual way, with asceticism and discipline of the soul, and witness of the heart. Thus, the notion that Plato and Aristotle had two distinct methods, the illuminationist and the peripatetic, becomes highly debatable. It is by no means clear that Plato was recognised as an illuminationist, an exponent of inner illumination, in his own time or any time soon thereafter. It is not even clear that the term peripatetic was applied exclusively to Aristotle and his followers in his own time.

As Shahristani says: “Now the strict peripatetics then are the members of the Lyceum. Plato, honoured for his wisdom, always taught them while taking walks. Aristotle followed his example, and accordingly he [apparently Aristotle] and his followers were called peripatetics.”7 Aristotle and his followers surely were called peripatetics, and this usage was simply continued in Islamic times. However, it is doubtful and even deniable that Plato was called an illuminationist.

Prior to Suhravardi, we never find any of the philosophers, such as Farabi and Avicenna, or any of the historians of philosophy, such as Shahristani, speaking of Plato as a sage advocating experiential or illuminationist wisdom.8 It was Suhravardi who gave this term currency, and it was he who, in his Hikmat al-Ishraq (Wisdom of Illumination), called a party among the ancient sages, including Pythagoras and Plato, exponents of experiential and illuminationist wisdom and who called Plato chief of the illuminationists.

I believe Suhravardi adopted the illuminationist method under the influence of the ‘urafa 'and the Sufis; the admixture of illumination and deduction is his own invention. But he - perhaps in order to improve acceptance of his theory - spoke of a party among the ancient philosophers as having this same method. Suhravardi offers no sort of documentation on this subject, just as he offers none on the matter of the ancient Iranian sages. Certainly, if he possessed such documentation, he would have presented it and so avoided leaving an idea to which he was so devoted in ambiguity and doubt.

Some writers on the history of philosophy, in writing on Plato's beliefs and ideas, have not mentioned his supposed illuminationist method. Shahristani's Al-Milal wa'n-Nihal, Dr. Human's Tarikh-i Falsafa, Will Durant's History of Philosophy, and Muhammad Ali Furughi's Sayr-i Hikmat dar Urupa do not mention such a method in the sense Suhravardi intends. Furughi mentions Platonic love, which is a love of the beautiful that in Plato's belief - at least as expressed in the Symposium - is rooted in divinity. It bears no relation to what Suhravardi has said about the purification of the psyche and the Gnostic way to God. Plato is said to hold: “Before coming to the world, the spirit beheld absolute beauty; when in this world it sees outward beauty, it remembers absolute beauty and feels pain at its exile. Physical love, like formal beauty, is metaphysical. But true love is something else; it is the basis for illuminate perception and realisation of eternal life.”9

In his History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell repeatedly mentions the admixture of ratiocination and illumination in the philosophy of Plato. However, he offers no documentation or quotations that would shed light on the question of whether Plato's illumination arises from discipline and purification of the soul or is just that experience born of love for the beautiful.10 Further investigation of this question must include direct study of Plato's entire corpus.

Pythagoras may have employed the illuminationist method, apparently under the inspiration of Oriental teachings. Russell, who regards Plato's method as illuminationistic, maintains that Plato came under the influence of Pythagoras in this regard.11

Whether or not we see Plato as an illuminationist in method, there are pivotal ideas among his beliefs that define his philosophy, all of which Aristotle opposed. One such concept is the theory of ideas, according to which all we witness in this world, substances and accidents alike, have their origin and reality in the other world. The individual beings of this world amount to shadows or reflections of other-worldly realities. For instance, all the human individuals who dwell in this world have a principle and reality in the other world; the real and substantive man is that man of the other world.

Plato called these realities ideas. In Islamic times, the Greek word for idea was translated as mithal (likeness, idea), and these realities were called collectively the muthul-i aflatuni (Platonic ideas). Avicenna strenuously opposed the theory of Platonic ideas, and Suhravardi just as strenuously advocated it. Among later philosophers holding to the theory of ideas are Mir Damad and Mulla Sadra. However, these two sages' definitions of idea, especially Mir Damad's, differ from Plato's and even from Suhravardi's.

Mir Findiriski is another advocate of the theory of ideas from the Safavid era. He has a well-known qasida in Persian in which he propounds his own views on this theory. Here is how it begins:

Lo! The star-studded wheel, so beauteous and splendid!

What's above has a form here below correspondent.

Should this lower form scale the ladder of gnosis,

It will ever find union above with its origin.

The intelligible form that is endless, eternal,

Is compendious and single with all or without all.

No external prehension will grasp this discussion,

Be it Bu Nasr Farabi or Bu Ali Sina.12

Another of Plato's pivotal theories concerns the human spirit. He believes that, prior to being attached to bodies, spirits were created and dwelt in a world above and beyond this, which is the world of ideas (or of similitudes, ‘alam-i muthul), and that they are attached to and settled in bodies subsequent to the latter's creation.

The third of Plato's theories is based on the first two and amounts to a corollary of them. It holds that knowledge comes through recollection, not through actual learning. Everything we learn in this world, although we suppose it to be something we were previously ignorant of and have learned for the first time, is in reality a recollection of those things we knew before in that, prior to being attached to the body in this world, the spirit dwelt in a higher world in which it witnessed ideas. Because the realities of all things are the ideas of those things, which the spirits perceived earlier, these spirits knew realities prior to coming to this world and finding attachment to bodies. After finding this attachment, we forgot these things.

For the spirit, the body is like a curtain hung across a mirror that prevents the transmission of light and the reflection of forms from the mirror. Through dialectics (discussion, argument, and rational method), through love, or, as Suhravardi and like-minded people infer, through asceticism, discipline of the soul, and the spiritual way, the curtain is lifted, the light shines through, and the forms are revealed.

Aristotle differs with Plato on all three of these ideas. First, he denies the existence of ideal, abstract, and celestial universals; he regards the universal, or, more properly speaking, the universality of the universal, as a purely subjective phenomenon. Second, he believes that the spirit is created after the body, that is, as the creation of the body is completed and perfected.

Third, Aristotle considers the body in no way a hindrance or curtain to the spirit; on the contrary, it is the means and instrument by which the spirit acquires new learning. The spirit acquires its learning by means of these senses and bodily instruments; it had no prior existence in another world in which to have learned anything.

Plato's and Aristotle's differences of opinion over these basic questions, as well as over some less important ones, were kept alive after them. They each had their followers in the Alexandrian school. Plato's followers there became known as neo-Platonists.

This school was founded by the Egyptian Ammonius Saccas. Its most celebrated and outstanding exponent was the Egyptian of Greek descent, Plotinus, whom the Islamic historians called the Greek master (Ash-Shaykh al-Yunani). The neo-Platonists introduced new topics, perhaps borrowing from ancient Oriental sources. Aristotle's Alexandrian followers and expositors were numerous. The most famous were Themistius and Alexander of Aphrodisias.

Man

The scholastic philosophy gave the place of man to a God conceived by the medieval Church, which was inspired by the ancient Greek views in respect of their gods and mixed this conception with some religious myths. The Greek gods had a hostile relation with man and were considered to be apprehensive of man's gaining access to the Holy Fire and acquiring knowledge and power. They regarded man as their rival on the earth, who should be checked by any means possible.

The lords of the species, which were believed to be con­trolling the forces of nature were afraid lest man should overcome these forces and should subdue nature.

The story of Adam's Paradise was depicted as an attempt by God to keep man ignorant. The Forbidden Tree of which man was not supposed to eat, was represented as the tree of knowledge which man should not approach so that he might not rise in rivalry with God.

Furthermore, Adam's disobedience was believed to be an eternal sin and a total depravity of human nature. At last for the salvation of man and his deliverance from his original sin, God Himself had to appear in the body of Jesus Christ through the Holy Ghost. Thus spirituality became the speciality of the successors of Jesus and the churchmen.

From this point of view man is a despicable sinner. Only the ecclesiastical ministers deserve divine blessing. The key of the hidden treasures being in their hand, one must approach them for one's salvation.

Knowledge became confined to the Christian doctrines and all intellectual faculties were devoted to the discussion and interpretation of the religious texts. Virtue lay in the attachment to the organization of the established church.

Man believed to be deprived of divine grace, became a captive in the hand of the custodians of the sanctuary of the son of God. As he had lost everything, man was com­pelled to surrender himself submissively. In this process what totally disappeared was his self-respect. This was the position of man in the West prior to Renaissance.

Appearance of New Humanism

Naturally this situation had a reaction. Renaissance began as a revolt against the existing conception of God and brought about the re-birth of man. Humanism took roots in a new form and tried to emancipate man from the bondage of the God which was imposed on him. But alas! The emancipated man was put into the clutches of new human gods and was placed under a new bondage, that is to say mechanism, expansion and diversification of consumption and a race of exploitation and making profit.

The way of thinking was freed from the shackles of medieval doctrines. Sciences flourished, but they all were harnessed to serve the cause of the enhancement of production and exploitation.

As all restraints were removed and stress was laid on complete freedom, man was given to libertinism and permissiveness and his life became meaningless (as is the case with Western Liberalism).

Again `man' has been forgotten, and the question still remains: What is man? What should he be? What should he do to remain a man and attain human perfection?

Man from the Qur'anic point of view

The story of Adam as portrayed in the Qur'an shows that in the course of his material development and physiolo­gical changes,1 man reached a stage where he obtained a new birth2 with the infusion of the Divine spirit.3 Then in the course of his normal development, he suddenly experienced a divine change as the result of which he was transformed into such a super being4 that even the angels were asked to pay obeisance5 and the world forces were made subservient, to him.

The Forbidden Tree of Paradise is not that of knowledge which should not be approached, but it is a tree of lust which should be controlled. It is a means by which man tests his will-power and the power of self-control. Even man's disobedience is a symbol of the freedom granted to him by Allah.

To have access to `knowledge' is not forbidden to him: In fact, it is a gift with which he has been especially blessed. Allah taught him that which none else knew.6 Knowledge is one of the factors by which man gained superiority over the angels.7

Even Adam's expulsion from Paradise was a forerunner of a sort of self-sufficiency, the blooming of his talents and the beginning of his creative struggle.8 It was a stage preliminary to his self-making. Though `fall' came in the wake of disobedience, but it did not culminate in condem­nation and permanent contempt. As the result of seeking forgiveness and attaining self-consciousness, it became a matter of blessing.9

Man's relation with Allah is not that of hostility or rivalry, for Allah is Self-sufficient and All-powerful. Even if all men disobey him, He is going to lose nothing.10 He is far away from jealousy and any kind of anxiety. Therefore man cannot place any restraint on Him through his dis­obedience. Man's disobedience is only a manifestation of his free will and power of choice granted to him by Allah.

Allah appointed man as His vicegerent on the earth,11 that is to say, He gave him authority and power. Not only that, whatever man could use and could control in the heavens was also subdued to him.12

Allah is not apprehensive of man. He urges him to settle on the earth13 and make use of all the forces hidden in its mountains and plains.14

Man's domination over land and sea and his control of them is one of the requirements of his dignity.15

According to the Qur'an man is neither a predestined being16 nor has he been given a free reign to pass an aimless life.17

He has been endowed with many capabilities, dispositions and motives accompanied by a sort of inner direction18 and innate guidance19 which, if not corrupted, will lead him to truth, knowledge,20 and all stages of creative skills, including those of new discoveries based on previous experience, those of the invention of new tools and equipment for the expansion of his control of nature and those of increasing his efficiency in overcoming any hurdles which he may have to face.

Besides that, man is also the bearer of the `Divine trust'21 representing consciousness, will and power of choice, which are the symbol of his humanity and make him a responsible being. This Divine trust is that magnificent gift of Allah, which the heavens, the earth and the mountains were not competent enough to accept. Only man could bear the responsibility of having the power of conscious choice and free will.

Range of Man’s Choice and Will

In order to know the conditions, limits and the field of man's choice, to ascertain the effects of this power on him, and to find out what factors influence his way of thinking, we must take the following points into consideration:

(1) Innate nature of man and his disposition

Man has many motives and instincts which pull him towards themselves. Some of his instincts are derived from a material source, and some others from a Divine spirit.

You may call these instincts propensity, disposition, natural urge, tendency or inclination. Some most important of these instincts are as under:

a. Inclination towards and need of food, clothing and shelter;

b. The instinct of self-defense;

c. Sexual urge;

d. Aesthetic sense;

e. The instinct of gaining position and respect;

f. The instinct of seeking truth and liking it;

g. Love of knowledge;

h. Love of justice;

i. Fellow-feeling;

j. Love of perfection and a desire to seek it.

Such instincts and urges are interwoven with the innate nature of man,22 and hence they are not transient and acquired. But still their existence does not mean that man is a captive of them. These instincts only bring about a sort of inclination and attraction. They work as a motive force, but they do not tie the hands of man. Man has the power to follow or not to follow them. It is within his power to satisfy his instinctive desires or to restrain them, to supervise and guide them or to change their direction.

These urges are actually controlled by man's will based on his way of thinking.

(2) Modification of Propensities

The modification of propensities and instincts is essential, though it is very difficult and requires a great deal of effort, awareness and hard work.

It may be easily understood that each of the above­mentioned instincts is in itself a need of life.

Should there be no sexual urge, there shall exist no motive for procreation and formation of a family.

Should there be no inclination to food, man shall take no steps to meet his nutritional requirements and consequently he shall perish.

Should man have no desire to gain honor and social position, he shall succumb to disgrace and humiliation.

A desire to secure position and social respect can impel one to make fruitful efforts and to do social work etc. But if this very desire becomes too excessive, it may over­come all other motives and may turn into a lust for power and position. In that case man begins to worship the idol of power and becomes a tyrant. He may go to any extent and may adopt any means, including spending money­making flattery and taking any mean action. In some cases one may even bear hunger and any other hardships to gain one's selfish ends.

Even after gaining power in order to maintain and enhance it, such a person may commit any crime - and resort to telling lies, and intimidating and slaughtering people.23

In other words he may trample upon the high values of justice, realism and benevolence.24

We observe how one instinct can overpower a man if it is not properly checked and is allowed to exceed the proper bounds; but we must not forget that in this case the instinct becomes an idol which man creates for himself25 by misusing his power of choice, and it is he himself who can break this idol and can promote his higher tendencies. He can check and reform those instincts which exceed the proper bounds, so that he may save himself from sinking into sin.

"As for him who repents, believes and does what is right, it is hoped that be will prosper". (Surah al-Qasas, 28:67).

"But be who fears the position of his Lord and curbs his base desires, shall surely dwell in Paradise". (Surah al-Nazi`at, 79:40-41).

"Those who are saved from their own greed shall surely be prosperous". (Surah al-Hashr, 59:9).

There are many other verses which strongly censure imbalance in tendencies and declare that the problem should be solved by making positive efforts to promote higher tendencies.

The Qur'an considers man to be always responsible to make efforts to reform himself and to guide all his tendencies so that none of them may exceed its limits and shrivel the freshness of human nature.

(3) Role of natural and geographical environment

It is not possible that the natural and geographical environ­ment of a man should have no effect on his spiritual and emotional life. Just as the features and muscles -power of all men cannot be the same, similarly the spirituality of a man who has grown up in the scorching heat of a desert amidst sand-dunes cannot be similar to that of another man who lives in a coastal region having humid climate and dense forests. There is no doubt that hot climate, salt water, or mountainous region cannot have the same effect on human tendencies as for instance, cold climate, sweet water or marshy land has. This is just as the physique of the people of all regions cannot be the same.

However these varied natural and physical conditions do not compel a man to go in a particular direction though they may provide him to some extent a conducive atmos­phere to induce him to adopt a certain way of life. No region compels a man to maintain or lose his self-respect, to defend his freedom or succumb to subjugation, to be virtuous or wicked or to be lazy or industrious.

It is man himself, who in spite of all difficulties and unfavorable conditions, can find his way and use his will-power to strengthen his constructive spirituality.

(4) Role of historical, social and economic factors

The historical factors, social atmosphere, economic relations and social conditions also play a basic role in giving direction to man's tendencies, his motives, his outlook and his way of life. Some times they set up hurdles in the way of man's freedom and his power of choice.

But we should not forget that the present conditions were brought about gradually by some people and other people can fight the existing evil factors under the banner of freedom and knowledge, can add to their intellectual matureness, and by using what remains of their will and decision-making power can fight corruption. This subject will be discussed further while we deal with the historical outlook of Islam.

(5) Role of the rules and regulations in the field of choice

We have come to know that man has certain tendencies and instincts which must be guided and modified. As natural factors and environmental conditions affect his choice and his mode of life, he must take steps to improve his surroundings and change them for the better. The principles and rules on the basis of which this modification and improvement should take place, are one of the most important topics connected with the question of man's choice and his will.

How should he mould his life and in what direction should he turn himself? What should he choose and on what basis? Should he allow others to impose certain principles on him and then of his own accord choose those very principles and go the way to which he is led in an invisible manner, as normally is the case in modern democracy?

Or should he allow himself to be involved in an ideological conflict on the basis of the theory of material compulsion and historical dialectic as advanced by certain schools of thought, and by bringing about further contradiction in this process, invigorate the movement and development of history?

Or should a man, as a principle, free himself from all principles already enunciated, get rid of his own pre­conceived ideas, and then with complete freedom make his choice and create his own principles and rules, because there exists no principle other than that which one himself chooses? Or is there any other way out? If so, what is that?

From Islamic point of view, man has been created free from all such compulsions and no pre-conceived principle or view can be imposed on him to deprive him of his free will and power of choice.

Man should himself choose the rules and principles for moulding himself rightly and to serve his society in the light of his expanded knowledge. All the emphasis which the Qur'an lays on thinking, understanding and reasonable­ness and that too on the thinking free from whims, myths and the wrong notions prevalant in the environment or inherited from forefathers, is aimed at paving the way for finding the truth.

(6) Divine revelation

One of the most important sources of knowledge and the domains of thinking is Divine revelation.

The world is not dark and void. In addition to those inner faculties with which Allah has provided man in order to help him find the truth, He has sent Prophets to guide him aright. This guidance does not mean forced imposition of Allah's will, nor does it mean the suppression of the creative will of man. It only means a sort of exhortation and Divine help. It shows kindness and graciousness of Allah. This guidance is a light which adds to the insight of man and does not restrict his will.

Man should get benefited by this guidance with his eyes wide open, and for that purpose, he should use his knowledge and insight. He should first think and evaluate, and only then make his choice. If even after identifying the truth, he persists in his disbelief, he shall stand condemned.

In support of these points, there is enough evidence in the Qur'an. We have already quoted some verses.

(7) Man's own deeds make his destiny

Another question which gives direction to man's will and choice is his giving attention to the fact that his deeds make his destiny and that every action of his shall have a reaction sooner or later. Man's future actually depends on his own deeds.

The Qur'an says:

`Man gets only what be strives for". (Surah al-Najm, 53:39)

"Corruption has become rife on land and sea because of the misdeeds of the people". (Surah al-Rum, 30:41).

It is the resistance of the people which prevents corruption.

"If Allah had not repelled with the might of others, the earth would have been corrupted". (Surah al-Baqarah, 2:251).

Paradise and Hell are the outcome and the reflection of the deeds of the people.

"This is Paradise which you have inherited by your righteous deeds". (Surah al-Zukhruf, 43:72).

"In fact those who commit evil and are engrossed in their transgression, shall be consigned to the fire in which they shall abide". (Surah al-Baqarah, 2:81).

In fact the deeds of the people are preserved accurately and carefully.

"These shall have a share of what they have earned. No doubt Allah is swift at reckoning". (Surah al-Baqarah, 2:210).

As in this world everything is well-planned and well-managed and there is nothing futile and haphazard, all human deeds have a role and a constructive effect.

This view makes it very clear that a man has to be very careful while making his choice. He is not allowed to set his hand to anything haphazardly and carelessly.

It is also essential that he should choose only what is right. He must not take a decision light-heartedly. That is why he is anxious and apprehensive. Perhaps it is this fear of Allah that leads one to practical piety.26

(8) Aim of Man's efforts

Now let us see what should be the aim of man's efforts. We know that Islam proposes certain goals and principles and calls man to adopt them. This in itself is a blessing of Allah. But it is man himself who should choose his way thoughtfully.

Prosperity and salvation

According to the Qur'an one of the aims of the efforts of man is to achieve falah which means salvation and prosperity.

Fallah means the cultivator, who cleaves the land, prepares it for cultivation and arranges for all the conditions necessary for the growth and development of seed, which under the favorable conditions of soil and water shoots forth from land and with the help of natural forces increases in height and size.

Similarly if man arranges the conditions conducive to his human growth and perfection in every sphere and all dimensions of his nature, he will become free from the shackles of selfishness and base desires. He will be able to take full advantage of his talents and potentialities and his higher instincts will take a firm root. Such a man is said to have achieved falah and to have `prospered'. The Qur'an declare that this prosperity depends on self-making27 modification of natural urges,28 good deeds,29 construc­tive and positive efforts,30 resistance against the evil, co-operation for the good, piety,31 betterment of the environment, diffusion of virtues, prevention of corrup­tion32 and the like.

(9) Ideals and values

With one evolutionary jump man begins co hold an ideal for the sake of which he forgets himself, concentrating his attention on faith and the service of humanity. A stage comes when for the realization of his ideal he not only forsakes his pleasures and comforts, and his position and wealth, but even lays down his life.

A scientist makes sincere efforts to make a discovery, not to serve a tyrant or to get fame or secure a reward, but to add to knowledge and to serve humanity.

A sincere social worker makes efforts for the treatment of the sick for helping the afflicted and the hungry and for defending the oppressed, not for the sake of any reward or publicity and not in a just formal or a professional way, but for the sake of humanity and service.

An ideological worker faces all sorts of hardships and dangers and makes sacrifices for the deliverance of a nation. What name will you give to such a man and how will you interpret his working for an ideal?

There is no harm if you call him an idealist, for what he strives for, does not already exist as a reality, neither in nature nor in society. He only perceives it as an ideal in his mind and makes it a part of his life. This ideal becomes a driving force which moves him to continue his efforts till what was a mere idea, is realized and becomes a historical fact.

Every ideological school must have an ideal, which though does not already exist as a reality, but sacrifice should be made to achieve it. This is a thing which no theory of material compulsion can explain. It cannot be judged by any scientific standard, nor can it be interpreted by any material or natural law.

These very ideals are the high values to which one should dedicate himself and for the sake of which one should make sacrifice. If you want to find a person who really possesses `human' qualities, you should look for one who is dedicated to these ideals and values, which are beyond the scope of physiological and biological laws.

(10) Seeking Allah and Truth

Islam maintains that these values in their highest form are concentrated in Allah, and the man of Islam is enamoured of this absolute perfection. He is fit to yearn for and move towards the source of all virtues and values. A man having a perfect faith actually moves towards this goal. This absolute perfection is a pure reality and the essence of existence, which has created values and power. This truth cannot be perceived by material thinking, which cannot go beyond matter and energy and cannot think of reality and value or the source of power and motion.

As far as man is concerned, it is he himself who begins his move towards perfection, though he is invited and attracted towards it by Allah, but not to the extent of compulsion and imposition, for in that case his move will have no value. He himself is responsible to make the journey with untiring efforts to reach his goal. How encouraging this promise is!

`Man, strive hard to get closer to your Lord, and so you will certainly receive the recompense (of your deeds)': (Surah al-Inshiqaq, 84:6).

Man from the View Point of Existentialism

As existentialism is one of the most well-known contem­porary schools of philosophy which has devoted much of its attention to man, we must study its doctrines in order to have a clear idea about the prevalent theories about man. For this purpose we propose first to reproduce some of the views of the thinkers and the commentators of this school and then to make our comments on them:

Existence of man precedes his essence, and hence, firstly there exists no purpose, plan or destiny con­cerning him prior to the emergence of his personality or his existence; and secondly, as free agents we can choose and change our essence at will. Jean Paul Sartre

I emerge alone and faced by the commotions and anxieties go forward and backward. That is what gives shape to my existence. It is I who can overcome all hurdles and provide value to my existence. Nothing other than me can give satisfaction to me. I have severed my relations with the world. I fight my own basis, that is the non-existence, which I am myself. It is my duty to bestow reality on the meaning of the world and of myself. I alone take a decision. Principles of the Philosophy of Existentialism

As far as `disappointment' is concerned, that means that we confine ourselves to depending on what is within our will or within the total possibilities, which make our action possible. We sever our relations with everything else and cherish no hope. When Rene Descartes said: "Subdue yourself, not the world", he actually meant that we should work without cheri­shing a hope. Sartre

The conception of man is synonymous with a mixture of anxiety and encouragement. When a man makes a commitment and determines that by his action he is not only deciding about himself and choosing what he shall be, but is also giving a law for all mankind, at that moment he cannot avoid feeling complete and deep responsibility. Sartre

Those who bear such a responsibility as that of a military commander who undertakes to launch an attack, know well the anxiety with which we are concerned. Sartre

In respect of `bad intention' and `self deception', which must be avoided, Sartre says:

As the human beings are free and independent beings and they themselves invent their moral standards, the only thing which they may be asked to do is to be loyal to their own standards and values.

The assertion that man is a free agent, necessarily means that human beings are not a plaything in the hands of gods or any power other than themselves. They have absolute freedom, and are `released', `independent', not interrelated and `not interconnected'. In short, `they axe what they axe'.

Quoting Dostoyevsky, who wrote: "If God did not exist, everything would have been permissible", Sartre says: This is the starting point of this school. Really if God does not exist, everything is permissible. Consequently man feels dejected, for he finds nothing to depend upon either within himself or outside himself.

Man is condemned to be free. I say "Condemned", because he has not created himself. Still he is free, and from the moment he is dropped into this world, he is responsible for all his actions.

In respect of the views of this school in regard to man, the following points may be deduced from what has been cited above:

(1) In contrast to other natural beings which have a definite and ready-made essence, man has no particular essence. His essence is that which he makes himself.

(2) Man is a free agent and has power of choice.

(3) No will, principle or law restricts the range of man's freedom.

(4) It is man himself who is responsible for his own making. His destiny rests exclusively on his personal choice. He is also responsible for making his social environment and bringing about changes in his natural surroundings, and that too on the basis of the principles which he formulates himself.

(5) For this very reason he is always agitated and he feels uneasy because he can have no guidance or support from outside and the choice he makes is not easy.

(6) Man feels lonely and detatched from everything. As he has to depend on himself alone, he feels disappointed.

(7) The uneasiness and constructive `disappointment' that induce him to `action', are like everything else the outcome of his own `action'.

As for the belief in God, it may be said that this philosophy does not necessarily amount to atheism.

Sartre says:

There are two types of the existentialists. On the one hand there are Christian existentialists, among whom I name Karl Jaspers and Gabriel Marcel, both of whom confess to be Catholics. On the other hand, there are existentialists, who are atheists, like Martin Heidegger and I. The only thing common between these two types of individuals is that they generally believe that existence of man precedes his essence.

At another place Sartre says:

In the philosophy of existentialism the conception of atheism does not involve the denial of the Creator. It only means that nothing would be upset even if the Creator did not exist. Man should himself find out and know that no means of his deliverance exist anywhere.

He again says:

If the existentialist is greatly disturbed at the idea of the non-existence of God, that is because in that case the possibility of finding `values' in perceptible Paradise disappears totally. Further, obviously no virtue can exist, for no conscience is so perfect and infinite that it should think of every virtue. It is not written anywhere that the virtue has a definite existence and is always judged rightly.

We observe that the existentialists who hold atheistic views do so because they imagine that man can have absolute freedom only if there is no outside `will' behind him to determine his action.

Sometimes they expressly say: Should there be a God who destines everything or at least knows everything, all future events will necessarily take place as anticipated by Him. For this reason the denial of an Almighty Creator is a logical pre-condition of the absolute freedom of man.

We propose to analyse this point while making a compara­tive study of Islamic and existentialist view-points.

Man from the View Point of Islam

Taking into consideration what we have already said concerning man and the range of his will and choice, we can come to certain conclusions. Here we briefly refer to some of the principles only. While doing so, we will try to touch upon the basic views of the Existentialist School in order to make clear the questions under consideration:

(1) Essence of man (what he has and what he himself should make)

Man has an inborn essence. He has a nature which is terres­trial and celestial at the same time. He has various tendencies and instincts and various capabilities and desires. But he has to develop his individual essence through his personal efforts and will. His tendencies and talents provide a ground on which he has to build his essence and decide what he should be.

(2) Human freedom and Divine destiny

Man is a free agent, but this freedom has been given to him by Allah. In the words of some contemporary writers, man is destined to be free.

No school of thought asserts that it is man himself who has given freedom to him. All agree that freedom has been given to him and imposed on him from outside. If it is so, why should we not admit that it has been bestowed on him by Allah33 and it is a Divine gift.

It may be said that such a belief leads to predetermina­tion, which amounts to the negation of man's freedom and his free will.

We know that according to the religious outlook, if there exists any Divine compulsion in respect of man, that compulsion is in regard to his having volition and freedom, and if there is any predetermination by Allah, that means that man should exercise his choice with consciousness and freedom. Hence divine will necessarily implies the freedom of man and not his predestination.

(3) Sphere of choice and role of guidance

We know that natural urges, Divine guidance and even environmental conditions affect man's choice and his freedom. But their role is not compelling. They only create a tendency and pave the way for taking action. It is always man's own free will which gives a definite shape to these tendencies and modifies them. It is up to him to identify the truth and take advantage of the guidance with insight. We have already said that Divine revelation is a guidance which is enlightening, instructive and helpful. It is a blessing of Allah which guides man to the right path.

(4) Man has a purpose

We have already stated that the universe has not been created without a purpose and in vain. Man and life also cannot be without a purpose. He has been created to make an evolutionary progress in all the dimensions of his existence and ultimately to make a journey towards Absolute Perfection (as we have stated earlier).

(5) Man is responsible

It is man who is responsible to make himself and his environment. But responsible to whom?

Some schools of thought give no answer to this question, for they maintain that beyond man there is no conscious authority to question him. But in Islam there exists a responsibility and that too towards the Almighty, the Wise and the All-knowing, who will call every one to account, and recompense him.

The holy Qur'an says:

"You will indeed be questioned about what you used to do" (Surahal-Nahl, 16:93).

"By Allah! You shall indeed be called to account for what you have been forging". (Surah al-Nahl, 16:56).

`Detain them for they are to be interrogated". (Surah al-Saffat, 37: 24).

`Allah cannot be questioned as to what He does, but they will be questioned". (Surah al-Anbiya, 21:23).

Such a responsibility can produce a great effect, and may work as an incentive.

(6) Vigilance and anxiety

A man who has received training in Islamic ways, is vigilant. In other words he feels anxious and uneasy, because he is responsible for making the right choice. He is responsible for his salvation, for his well-being and for the well-being of his society. Similarly he is accountable for his fall and his decadence. Every action of his is lasting and produces a result. Therefore this anxiety and vigilance axe constructive, add to his responsibility and affect his choice.

(7) Man is not without a refuge

In Islam man's free will does not mean that he has no refuge and that he has to depend on himself alone totally. He is blessed with Divine protection and favor. If he makes effort and moves in the right direction, he receives Allah's help.34 He is not alone; Allah is with him.35 You may say that everything is in the hand of man. If he really establishes relation with Allah, the doors of clear thinking, knowledge and power are opened to him.36 He feels encouraged and a spirit of new zeal is infused in him.

(8) Self-dependence, fear and hope

Islam recognizes a particular sort of `disappointment'. One must not depend on the deeds of others.37 Family position, children and wealth can save none.38 Everyone is self-made and has to depend on his own deeds.

Thus man is a mixture of fear and hope,39 and yearning and apprehension. His fear is such that it saves him from making mistakes and falling into sin. It is not that kind of fear which may. frustrate him and lead him to inertness.

His hope inspires him to good deeds and renders him neither haughty and selfish nor lazy and sluggish.

View Point of Dialectical Materialism

According to this philosophical theory it is society, which has the main importance. Man is studied only as a part of society, the laws of whose development originate from the dialectical law which is supposed to govern nature. As such, in order to be able to know the views of this philo­sophical school concerning man, we have to study the basic principles of dialectical materialism in regard to nature and society. Here again we first reproduce some of the views of the exponents of this school. Thereafter we shall describe the point of view of Islam in regard to them.

(1) Nature does not consist of things heaped together or events detached from each other. It is a collection of things and events which are interrelated. No natural phenomenon can be understood and studied in isolation from other natural events and their environment.

(2) Nature is not static and at rest. It is in a state of motion and continuous change. Every moment something emerges, changes and evolves, and something else is annihilated.

(3) The developmental movement of things is not a simple movement of growth. It is a development in which slight and hidden changes are suddenly and speedily transformed into open and basic qualitative changes, of inevitable and unavoidable character. The develop­mental movement is not a circular movement, nor is it a simple repetition of anything. It is a forward movement, and a shifting from an old qualitative state to a new qualitative state. This movement is from below to above.

(4) All things and all natural events contain an inner contradiction. The previously existing thesis comes in conflict with an antithesis produced by it. Their conflict produces a new synthesis, which in turn rises in conflict with another antithesis that emerges from within it. Thus the way for evolution is paved. According to this theory, all developments originate from this very inner contradiction.

Now let us see what this school says about man and society and how it interprets history.

(5) Man is a material and natural being, whose brain and nervous system are more developed than those of all other animals, and because of this evolution he enjoys a better power of understanding and grasping.

It is society which has real importance. Individual man is a weak being whose efforts are confronted with failure. It is society which grants will to him. Man minus society is prone to make too many mistakes and is always in danger of utter destruction.

(6) As the material world exists independently of human perception and thinking, the material existence of man and the material life of society are more important than their intellectual life, which is only a secondary element derived from the material life. Even the perception and the thinking of the people are only a reflection of the material world.

(7) The means and methods of production constitute the life of society. At various stages of the development of society the methods of production and the appliances used in this connection differ. The people in the primitive social system have one method of production and in the slave-holding system another. Similarly in the feudal system the method and the appliances used are different.

And so on and so forth. As the methods of production change, the social system of the people, their intellectual life, their views and their political organizations also undergo a change.

(8) The main motive force of history is the change in the means and the methods of production, which brings about a contradiction with the old productive relation­ships. As a result of this conflict and contradiction the productive relationship are changed.

In every period of history the economic and social system which was forced by such a change, has constituted the political and intellectual history of that period. Conse­quently since the ownership of land displaced the primitive social system, history has been mainly a record of class war between the oppressors and the oppressed and the rulers and the ruled. It is this contradiction and conflict which brought about the various stages of the evolution of society.

(9) According to the views of this school, history comprises five periods which successively displace each other. They are the periods of:

(1) Primitive socialism, (2) Slavery, (3) Feudalism, (4) Capitalism, and lastly (5) Socialism leading to Communism

(10) In respect of the role of the new ideas in bringing about a change in society, this school says:

The new social ideas and the new social theories appear only when a change in the material life of society creates new duties towards society. As the new ideas develop, they turn into a power which facilitates the discharge of the new duties and enables society to make progress. As every change is caused by contradiction, the contradic­tion within society should be intensified so that the solution of the problems facing society may be found. It is contradiction only that introduces new ideas and new theories which help to solve the existing problems.

Islam's approach to these questions

As for the points raised in the first four paragraphs, we have discussed them in detail in the preceding chapters of this book. Anyhow, to maintain continuity, here again we refer to them briefly:

(1) There is no doubt that there exists a definite coherence and harmony in the universe, and all the elements and phenomena of nature are minutely inter­related. That is why it is not possible to have an accurate and full knowledge of any single natural phenomenon without having a knowledge of all the elements which form it and all the causes and factors which affect it, and similarly without having a knowledge of its relation­ships and its evolutionary tendency.

(2) All the natural phenomena are ceaselessly and uninterruptedly in a state of motion. No material element and no natural phenomenon is static and at rest. Change and evolution, growth and decay, life and death and transformation and transfiguration are the patterns by which matter is governed.

(3) On the whole this movement is evolutionary and progressive. It is purposive, well-calculated and well­organized. Generally speaking, the net result of this movement of the world and its phenomena is growth, development, resistance against anti-evolutionary factors and utilization of positive factors for evolutionary progress and a change for the better.

(4) This motion and this transformation have certain characteristics and produce certain effects in accordance with the laws concerning matter and nature. These laws affect every material thing from within and without, and influence its relationship with other phenomena. This influence may be either in the form of contradiction and conflict or in the form of harmony and agreement, or simply in the form of preserving the existence and growth of the thing concerned.

The sum total of these laws and relationships constitutes the Divine ways, the creative design and the judicious will of Allah. As we shall see, these Divine ways operate in nature and society ceaselessly and uninterruptedly.

Now we come to the main feature of our discussion relating to man and society. The Islamic point of view in this respect may be summarized as under:-

(5) Man is a part of nature, having material and natural characteristics. But he has reached such a stage of evolution that he has become fit for being gifted with Divine spirit and supernatural values. Consequently he has acquired the faculties of free will, knowledge and responsibility. Because of these gifts, he is not subservient to the material phenomena nor bound by the genetic relationships. In contrast, he is capable of subduing nature and bringing about changes in material relationships and natural phenomena.

(6) Man, as we know, despite his being an integral part of society, is an independent being. He is not so subservient to society that he should have no personal will, freedom and the right of choice. His conduct is not determined by society and history only, though he cannot be regarded as being apart from society.

(7) As the entire existence of man is not the direct result of the evolution of matter, his mental and intellectual life cannot be purely inspired by and derived from matter or from material and genetic relationships of society. Nevertheless, as he is embedded in matter and has emerged out of it, the natural, geographical and physical conditions and the material relationship of society are bound to affect him.

(8) The contradiction which exists within man is the outcome of the conflict between his material yearnings (human desires) and his celestial impulses (inspirations from beyond this world). As man is endowed with free­dom and knowledge, he should make the best use of this contradiction, and should take steps to modify all his impulses and to guide them towards his own evolution, the betterment of his surroundings, the making of history and moving it forward.

While discussing dialectical materialism, we reproduced certain views having a direct bearing on the historical conception of this school. Hence it will be in the fitness of things to study also the Islamic conception of history and the factors which make and move it. We propose to discuss this question in a comprehensive manner.

"They fear their Lord and dread the evil consequences of the Reckoning". (Surah al-Ra'd, 13:21).

Notes

1. "We created you from clay, then from a living germ, then from a clot of blood and then from a lump of flesh ". (Surah al- Hajj, 22:5)

2. "….Then from it We produced anew being". (Surah al- Mo'minun, 23:14).

3. "He completed him and breathed His spirit into him ". (Surah al- Sajdah, 32:9).

4. "Indeed We have honored the children of Adam and have definitely given them superiority above many of Our creatures": (Surah al- Isra, 17:70).

5. "When I have completed him and breathed My spirit into him, then fall prostrate before him" : (SurahSad, 38:72).

6. "He taught man what he did not know ". (Surah al- Alaq, 96:5)

7. "He taught Adam all the names, then He presented those (things) to the angels ….(Surahal- Baqarah, 2:31).

8. "The earth will provide you dwelling and sustenance for an appointed time". (Surah al- A'raf, 7:24).

9. "Adam acted contrary to the counsel of his Lord and thus he erred. Thereafter his Lord forgave him. He accepted his repentance and rightly guided him ". (Surah Taha, 20:121- 122).

10. “If you all those who are on the earth prove to be ungrateful, Allah does not at all need your thanks. He is Laudable". (Surah Ibrahim, 14:8).

11. “When your Lord said to the angels: I am appointing on earth a vicegerent": (Surah al- Baqarah, 2:30).

12. "Have you not seen that Allah has put at your service what­ever there a in the heavens and the earth". (Surah Luqman, 31:20).

13. "He produced you from the earth and settled you there": (Surah Hud, 11:61).

14. 'It is He who has made the earth subservient to you. So walk about in its regions and eat what Allah has produced". (Surah al- Mulk, 67:15).

15. "Indeed We have honored the children of Adam. We carry them on the land and the sea ". (Surah al- Isra, 17:70).

16. "Does man think that be will be left unchecked". (Surah al- Qiyamah, 75:36).

17."Did you think We have created you in vain and that you would never be returned to Us?" (Surah al- Mo'minun, 23:115).

18. “Indeed We have created man from the union of sperm and egg, to test him. We gave him the faculties of bearing and seeing". (Surah al- Dahr, 76:2).

19. "By the soul and its Creator who inspired it as to what is right and what is wrong for it". (Surah al- Shams, 91:7- 8).

20. "Follow the dictates of (true) human nature as created by Allah. Allah's creation is not to be changed. This is surely the upright religion". (Surah al- Rum, 30:30).

21. "We offered the trust to the heavens, the earth and the moun­tains, but they declined to bear it and were afraid of it. And man undertook to bear it . . . ". (Surahal- Ahzab,- 33:72)

22. "Follow the dictates of (true) human nature as created by Allah" : (Surahal- Rum, 30:30).

"Surely man was created restless". (Surah al- Ma'arij, 70:19).

"Alluring for people is the love of the joys that come from women, sons, hoarded heaps of gold and silver, horses of mark, cattle and plantations ". (Surah Ale Imran 3 :14).

"He is passionate in his love for wealth ". (Surah al- Adiyat, 100: 8).

23. "Look! Indeed man rebels, when he considers himself to be independent and self sufficient". (Surah al- Alaq, 96:5- 6).

24. "Judge rightly between people and do not follow your own caprices, which will deviate you from the path of Allah". (SurahSad, 38:26).

25. "If we give him a taste of affluence after adversity that had befallen, he says: My bad days are over, and becomes proud and insolent; except those who are steadfast and do good deeds ". (SurahHud, 11:10).

26. "This is the punishment of which Allah warns His slaves. Therefore, my slaves! Have fear of Me". (Surah al- Zumar, 39:16).

27."The prosperous is he who purified himself". (Surah al- A'la, 87:14).

28.

“Those who are saved from their own greed, shall surely be prosperous". (Surah al- Hashr, 59:9).

29. "Worship Allah, and do good so that you may prosper". (Surah al- Hajj, 22:77).

30. `Prosperous indeed are the believers, who are humble in their prayers, who keep themselves aloof from what is absurd . . . ' (Surah Mo'minun, 23:1- 11).

31. Believers, have patience, help each other with patience, establish good relations with one another and have fear of Allah so that you may prosper". (Surah Ale lmran, 3 :200).

32. …. They call to virtue, exhort to what is good and restrain from evil. It is such people who shall prosper". (Surah Ale Imran, 3:104).

33. "We offered our Trust . . .". (Surah al- Ahzab, 33:72).

34. "As for those who strive for Our cause We will definitely guide them to Our paths' : (Surahal- Ankabut, 29:69).

35. "We are closer to him than his jugular vein ". (Surah Qaf, 50:16).

36. "Do not lose heart and do not grieve, for you shall have true dignity, provided you are believers ". (Surah Ale Imran, 3 :139).

37. "No one shall bear the burden of someone else". (Surah al- Fatir, 35:18).

38. "The Day when wealth and sons will be of no use; and only he who brings a sound heart to Allah (will be profited by it) ". (Surah al- Shu'ra, 26:89).

39. "None but the disbelieving people despair of His mercy". (Surah Yusuf, 12:87).

`My slaves! You have nothing to fear or regret today". (Surah al- Zukhruf, 43:68).

"Who forsake their beds to pray to their Lord in fear and hopes". (Surah al- Sajdah, 32:16).

Man

The scholastic philosophy gave the place of man to a God conceived by the medieval Church, which was inspired by the ancient Greek views in respect of their gods and mixed this conception with some religious myths. The Greek gods had a hostile relation with man and were considered to be apprehensive of man's gaining access to the Holy Fire and acquiring knowledge and power. They regarded man as their rival on the earth, who should be checked by any means possible.

The lords of the species, which were believed to be con­trolling the forces of nature were afraid lest man should overcome these forces and should subdue nature.

The story of Adam's Paradise was depicted as an attempt by God to keep man ignorant. The Forbidden Tree of which man was not supposed to eat, was represented as the tree of knowledge which man should not approach so that he might not rise in rivalry with God.

Furthermore, Adam's disobedience was believed to be an eternal sin and a total depravity of human nature. At last for the salvation of man and his deliverance from his original sin, God Himself had to appear in the body of Jesus Christ through the Holy Ghost. Thus spirituality became the speciality of the successors of Jesus and the churchmen.

From this point of view man is a despicable sinner. Only the ecclesiastical ministers deserve divine blessing. The key of the hidden treasures being in their hand, one must approach them for one's salvation.

Knowledge became confined to the Christian doctrines and all intellectual faculties were devoted to the discussion and interpretation of the religious texts. Virtue lay in the attachment to the organization of the established church.

Man believed to be deprived of divine grace, became a captive in the hand of the custodians of the sanctuary of the son of God. As he had lost everything, man was com­pelled to surrender himself submissively. In this process what totally disappeared was his self-respect. This was the position of man in the West prior to Renaissance.

Appearance of New Humanism

Naturally this situation had a reaction. Renaissance began as a revolt against the existing conception of God and brought about the re-birth of man. Humanism took roots in a new form and tried to emancipate man from the bondage of the God which was imposed on him. But alas! The emancipated man was put into the clutches of new human gods and was placed under a new bondage, that is to say mechanism, expansion and diversification of consumption and a race of exploitation and making profit.

The way of thinking was freed from the shackles of medieval doctrines. Sciences flourished, but they all were harnessed to serve the cause of the enhancement of production and exploitation.

As all restraints were removed and stress was laid on complete freedom, man was given to libertinism and permissiveness and his life became meaningless (as is the case with Western Liberalism).

Again `man' has been forgotten, and the question still remains: What is man? What should he be? What should he do to remain a man and attain human perfection?

Man from the Qur'anic point of view

The story of Adam as portrayed in the Qur'an shows that in the course of his material development and physiolo­gical changes,1 man reached a stage where he obtained a new birth2 with the infusion of the Divine spirit.3 Then in the course of his normal development, he suddenly experienced a divine change as the result of which he was transformed into such a super being4 that even the angels were asked to pay obeisance5 and the world forces were made subservient, to him.

The Forbidden Tree of Paradise is not that of knowledge which should not be approached, but it is a tree of lust which should be controlled. It is a means by which man tests his will-power and the power of self-control. Even man's disobedience is a symbol of the freedom granted to him by Allah.

To have access to `knowledge' is not forbidden to him: In fact, it is a gift with which he has been especially blessed. Allah taught him that which none else knew.6 Knowledge is one of the factors by which man gained superiority over the angels.7

Even Adam's expulsion from Paradise was a forerunner of a sort of self-sufficiency, the blooming of his talents and the beginning of his creative struggle.8 It was a stage preliminary to his self-making. Though `fall' came in the wake of disobedience, but it did not culminate in condem­nation and permanent contempt. As the result of seeking forgiveness and attaining self-consciousness, it became a matter of blessing.9

Man's relation with Allah is not that of hostility or rivalry, for Allah is Self-sufficient and All-powerful. Even if all men disobey him, He is going to lose nothing.10 He is far away from jealousy and any kind of anxiety. Therefore man cannot place any restraint on Him through his dis­obedience. Man's disobedience is only a manifestation of his free will and power of choice granted to him by Allah.

Allah appointed man as His vicegerent on the earth,11 that is to say, He gave him authority and power. Not only that, whatever man could use and could control in the heavens was also subdued to him.12

Allah is not apprehensive of man. He urges him to settle on the earth13 and make use of all the forces hidden in its mountains and plains.14

Man's domination over land and sea and his control of them is one of the requirements of his dignity.15

According to the Qur'an man is neither a predestined being16 nor has he been given a free reign to pass an aimless life.17

He has been endowed with many capabilities, dispositions and motives accompanied by a sort of inner direction18 and innate guidance19 which, if not corrupted, will lead him to truth, knowledge,20 and all stages of creative skills, including those of new discoveries based on previous experience, those of the invention of new tools and equipment for the expansion of his control of nature and those of increasing his efficiency in overcoming any hurdles which he may have to face.

Besides that, man is also the bearer of the `Divine trust'21 representing consciousness, will and power of choice, which are the symbol of his humanity and make him a responsible being. This Divine trust is that magnificent gift of Allah, which the heavens, the earth and the mountains were not competent enough to accept. Only man could bear the responsibility of having the power of conscious choice and free will.

Range of Man’s Choice and Will

In order to know the conditions, limits and the field of man's choice, to ascertain the effects of this power on him, and to find out what factors influence his way of thinking, we must take the following points into consideration:

(1) Innate nature of man and his disposition

Man has many motives and instincts which pull him towards themselves. Some of his instincts are derived from a material source, and some others from a Divine spirit.

You may call these instincts propensity, disposition, natural urge, tendency or inclination. Some most important of these instincts are as under:

a. Inclination towards and need of food, clothing and shelter;

b. The instinct of self-defense;

c. Sexual urge;

d. Aesthetic sense;

e. The instinct of gaining position and respect;

f. The instinct of seeking truth and liking it;

g. Love of knowledge;

h. Love of justice;

i. Fellow-feeling;

j. Love of perfection and a desire to seek it.

Such instincts and urges are interwoven with the innate nature of man,22 and hence they are not transient and acquired. But still their existence does not mean that man is a captive of them. These instincts only bring about a sort of inclination and attraction. They work as a motive force, but they do not tie the hands of man. Man has the power to follow or not to follow them. It is within his power to satisfy his instinctive desires or to restrain them, to supervise and guide them or to change their direction.

These urges are actually controlled by man's will based on his way of thinking.

(2) Modification of Propensities

The modification of propensities and instincts is essential, though it is very difficult and requires a great deal of effort, awareness and hard work.

It may be easily understood that each of the above­mentioned instincts is in itself a need of life.

Should there be no sexual urge, there shall exist no motive for procreation and formation of a family.

Should there be no inclination to food, man shall take no steps to meet his nutritional requirements and consequently he shall perish.

Should man have no desire to gain honor and social position, he shall succumb to disgrace and humiliation.

A desire to secure position and social respect can impel one to make fruitful efforts and to do social work etc. But if this very desire becomes too excessive, it may over­come all other motives and may turn into a lust for power and position. In that case man begins to worship the idol of power and becomes a tyrant. He may go to any extent and may adopt any means, including spending money­making flattery and taking any mean action. In some cases one may even bear hunger and any other hardships to gain one's selfish ends.

Even after gaining power in order to maintain and enhance it, such a person may commit any crime - and resort to telling lies, and intimidating and slaughtering people.23

In other words he may trample upon the high values of justice, realism and benevolence.24

We observe how one instinct can overpower a man if it is not properly checked and is allowed to exceed the proper bounds; but we must not forget that in this case the instinct becomes an idol which man creates for himself25 by misusing his power of choice, and it is he himself who can break this idol and can promote his higher tendencies. He can check and reform those instincts which exceed the proper bounds, so that he may save himself from sinking into sin.

"As for him who repents, believes and does what is right, it is hoped that be will prosper". (Surah al-Qasas, 28:67).

"But be who fears the position of his Lord and curbs his base desires, shall surely dwell in Paradise". (Surah al-Nazi`at, 79:40-41).

"Those who are saved from their own greed shall surely be prosperous". (Surah al-Hashr, 59:9).

There are many other verses which strongly censure imbalance in tendencies and declare that the problem should be solved by making positive efforts to promote higher tendencies.

The Qur'an considers man to be always responsible to make efforts to reform himself and to guide all his tendencies so that none of them may exceed its limits and shrivel the freshness of human nature.

(3) Role of natural and geographical environment

It is not possible that the natural and geographical environ­ment of a man should have no effect on his spiritual and emotional life. Just as the features and muscles -power of all men cannot be the same, similarly the spirituality of a man who has grown up in the scorching heat of a desert amidst sand-dunes cannot be similar to that of another man who lives in a coastal region having humid climate and dense forests. There is no doubt that hot climate, salt water, or mountainous region cannot have the same effect on human tendencies as for instance, cold climate, sweet water or marshy land has. This is just as the physique of the people of all regions cannot be the same.

However these varied natural and physical conditions do not compel a man to go in a particular direction though they may provide him to some extent a conducive atmos­phere to induce him to adopt a certain way of life. No region compels a man to maintain or lose his self-respect, to defend his freedom or succumb to subjugation, to be virtuous or wicked or to be lazy or industrious.

It is man himself, who in spite of all difficulties and unfavorable conditions, can find his way and use his will-power to strengthen his constructive spirituality.

(4) Role of historical, social and economic factors

The historical factors, social atmosphere, economic relations and social conditions also play a basic role in giving direction to man's tendencies, his motives, his outlook and his way of life. Some times they set up hurdles in the way of man's freedom and his power of choice.

But we should not forget that the present conditions were brought about gradually by some people and other people can fight the existing evil factors under the banner of freedom and knowledge, can add to their intellectual matureness, and by using what remains of their will and decision-making power can fight corruption. This subject will be discussed further while we deal with the historical outlook of Islam.

(5) Role of the rules and regulations in the field of choice

We have come to know that man has certain tendencies and instincts which must be guided and modified. As natural factors and environmental conditions affect his choice and his mode of life, he must take steps to improve his surroundings and change them for the better. The principles and rules on the basis of which this modification and improvement should take place, are one of the most important topics connected with the question of man's choice and his will.

How should he mould his life and in what direction should he turn himself? What should he choose and on what basis? Should he allow others to impose certain principles on him and then of his own accord choose those very principles and go the way to which he is led in an invisible manner, as normally is the case in modern democracy?

Or should he allow himself to be involved in an ideological conflict on the basis of the theory of material compulsion and historical dialectic as advanced by certain schools of thought, and by bringing about further contradiction in this process, invigorate the movement and development of history?

Or should a man, as a principle, free himself from all principles already enunciated, get rid of his own pre­conceived ideas, and then with complete freedom make his choice and create his own principles and rules, because there exists no principle other than that which one himself chooses? Or is there any other way out? If so, what is that?

From Islamic point of view, man has been created free from all such compulsions and no pre-conceived principle or view can be imposed on him to deprive him of his free will and power of choice.

Man should himself choose the rules and principles for moulding himself rightly and to serve his society in the light of his expanded knowledge. All the emphasis which the Qur'an lays on thinking, understanding and reasonable­ness and that too on the thinking free from whims, myths and the wrong notions prevalant in the environment or inherited from forefathers, is aimed at paving the way for finding the truth.

(6) Divine revelation

One of the most important sources of knowledge and the domains of thinking is Divine revelation.

The world is not dark and void. In addition to those inner faculties with which Allah has provided man in order to help him find the truth, He has sent Prophets to guide him aright. This guidance does not mean forced imposition of Allah's will, nor does it mean the suppression of the creative will of man. It only means a sort of exhortation and Divine help. It shows kindness and graciousness of Allah. This guidance is a light which adds to the insight of man and does not restrict his will.

Man should get benefited by this guidance with his eyes wide open, and for that purpose, he should use his knowledge and insight. He should first think and evaluate, and only then make his choice. If even after identifying the truth, he persists in his disbelief, he shall stand condemned.

In support of these points, there is enough evidence in the Qur'an. We have already quoted some verses.

(7) Man's own deeds make his destiny

Another question which gives direction to man's will and choice is his giving attention to the fact that his deeds make his destiny and that every action of his shall have a reaction sooner or later. Man's future actually depends on his own deeds.

The Qur'an says:

`Man gets only what be strives for". (Surah al-Najm, 53:39)

"Corruption has become rife on land and sea because of the misdeeds of the people". (Surah al-Rum, 30:41).

It is the resistance of the people which prevents corruption.

"If Allah had not repelled with the might of others, the earth would have been corrupted". (Surah al-Baqarah, 2:251).

Paradise and Hell are the outcome and the reflection of the deeds of the people.

"This is Paradise which you have inherited by your righteous deeds". (Surah al-Zukhruf, 43:72).

"In fact those who commit evil and are engrossed in their transgression, shall be consigned to the fire in which they shall abide". (Surah al-Baqarah, 2:81).

In fact the deeds of the people are preserved accurately and carefully.

"These shall have a share of what they have earned. No doubt Allah is swift at reckoning". (Surah al-Baqarah, 2:210).

As in this world everything is well-planned and well-managed and there is nothing futile and haphazard, all human deeds have a role and a constructive effect.

This view makes it very clear that a man has to be very careful while making his choice. He is not allowed to set his hand to anything haphazardly and carelessly.

It is also essential that he should choose only what is right. He must not take a decision light-heartedly. That is why he is anxious and apprehensive. Perhaps it is this fear of Allah that leads one to practical piety.26

(8) Aim of Man's efforts

Now let us see what should be the aim of man's efforts. We know that Islam proposes certain goals and principles and calls man to adopt them. This in itself is a blessing of Allah. But it is man himself who should choose his way thoughtfully.

Prosperity and salvation

According to the Qur'an one of the aims of the efforts of man is to achieve falah which means salvation and prosperity.

Fallah means the cultivator, who cleaves the land, prepares it for cultivation and arranges for all the conditions necessary for the growth and development of seed, which under the favorable conditions of soil and water shoots forth from land and with the help of natural forces increases in height and size.

Similarly if man arranges the conditions conducive to his human growth and perfection in every sphere and all dimensions of his nature, he will become free from the shackles of selfishness and base desires. He will be able to take full advantage of his talents and potentialities and his higher instincts will take a firm root. Such a man is said to have achieved falah and to have `prospered'. The Qur'an declare that this prosperity depends on self-making27 modification of natural urges,28 good deeds,29 construc­tive and positive efforts,30 resistance against the evil, co-operation for the good, piety,31 betterment of the environment, diffusion of virtues, prevention of corrup­tion32 and the like.

(9) Ideals and values

With one evolutionary jump man begins co hold an ideal for the sake of which he forgets himself, concentrating his attention on faith and the service of humanity. A stage comes when for the realization of his ideal he not only forsakes his pleasures and comforts, and his position and wealth, but even lays down his life.

A scientist makes sincere efforts to make a discovery, not to serve a tyrant or to get fame or secure a reward, but to add to knowledge and to serve humanity.

A sincere social worker makes efforts for the treatment of the sick for helping the afflicted and the hungry and for defending the oppressed, not for the sake of any reward or publicity and not in a just formal or a professional way, but for the sake of humanity and service.

An ideological worker faces all sorts of hardships and dangers and makes sacrifices for the deliverance of a nation. What name will you give to such a man and how will you interpret his working for an ideal?

There is no harm if you call him an idealist, for what he strives for, does not already exist as a reality, neither in nature nor in society. He only perceives it as an ideal in his mind and makes it a part of his life. This ideal becomes a driving force which moves him to continue his efforts till what was a mere idea, is realized and becomes a historical fact.

Every ideological school must have an ideal, which though does not already exist as a reality, but sacrifice should be made to achieve it. This is a thing which no theory of material compulsion can explain. It cannot be judged by any scientific standard, nor can it be interpreted by any material or natural law.

These very ideals are the high values to which one should dedicate himself and for the sake of which one should make sacrifice. If you want to find a person who really possesses `human' qualities, you should look for one who is dedicated to these ideals and values, which are beyond the scope of physiological and biological laws.

(10) Seeking Allah and Truth

Islam maintains that these values in their highest form are concentrated in Allah, and the man of Islam is enamoured of this absolute perfection. He is fit to yearn for and move towards the source of all virtues and values. A man having a perfect faith actually moves towards this goal. This absolute perfection is a pure reality and the essence of existence, which has created values and power. This truth cannot be perceived by material thinking, which cannot go beyond matter and energy and cannot think of reality and value or the source of power and motion.

As far as man is concerned, it is he himself who begins his move towards perfection, though he is invited and attracted towards it by Allah, but not to the extent of compulsion and imposition, for in that case his move will have no value. He himself is responsible to make the journey with untiring efforts to reach his goal. How encouraging this promise is!

`Man, strive hard to get closer to your Lord, and so you will certainly receive the recompense (of your deeds)': (Surah al-Inshiqaq, 84:6).

Man from the View Point of Existentialism

As existentialism is one of the most well-known contem­porary schools of philosophy which has devoted much of its attention to man, we must study its doctrines in order to have a clear idea about the prevalent theories about man. For this purpose we propose first to reproduce some of the views of the thinkers and the commentators of this school and then to make our comments on them:

Existence of man precedes his essence, and hence, firstly there exists no purpose, plan or destiny con­cerning him prior to the emergence of his personality or his existence; and secondly, as free agents we can choose and change our essence at will. Jean Paul Sartre

I emerge alone and faced by the commotions and anxieties go forward and backward. That is what gives shape to my existence. It is I who can overcome all hurdles and provide value to my existence. Nothing other than me can give satisfaction to me. I have severed my relations with the world. I fight my own basis, that is the non-existence, which I am myself. It is my duty to bestow reality on the meaning of the world and of myself. I alone take a decision. Principles of the Philosophy of Existentialism

As far as `disappointment' is concerned, that means that we confine ourselves to depending on what is within our will or within the total possibilities, which make our action possible. We sever our relations with everything else and cherish no hope. When Rene Descartes said: "Subdue yourself, not the world", he actually meant that we should work without cheri­shing a hope. Sartre

The conception of man is synonymous with a mixture of anxiety and encouragement. When a man makes a commitment and determines that by his action he is not only deciding about himself and choosing what he shall be, but is also giving a law for all mankind, at that moment he cannot avoid feeling complete and deep responsibility. Sartre

Those who bear such a responsibility as that of a military commander who undertakes to launch an attack, know well the anxiety with which we are concerned. Sartre

In respect of `bad intention' and `self deception', which must be avoided, Sartre says:

As the human beings are free and independent beings and they themselves invent their moral standards, the only thing which they may be asked to do is to be loyal to their own standards and values.

The assertion that man is a free agent, necessarily means that human beings are not a plaything in the hands of gods or any power other than themselves. They have absolute freedom, and are `released', `independent', not interrelated and `not interconnected'. In short, `they axe what they axe'.

Quoting Dostoyevsky, who wrote: "If God did not exist, everything would have been permissible", Sartre says: This is the starting point of this school. Really if God does not exist, everything is permissible. Consequently man feels dejected, for he finds nothing to depend upon either within himself or outside himself.

Man is condemned to be free. I say "Condemned", because he has not created himself. Still he is free, and from the moment he is dropped into this world, he is responsible for all his actions.

In respect of the views of this school in regard to man, the following points may be deduced from what has been cited above:

(1) In contrast to other natural beings which have a definite and ready-made essence, man has no particular essence. His essence is that which he makes himself.

(2) Man is a free agent and has power of choice.

(3) No will, principle or law restricts the range of man's freedom.

(4) It is man himself who is responsible for his own making. His destiny rests exclusively on his personal choice. He is also responsible for making his social environment and bringing about changes in his natural surroundings, and that too on the basis of the principles which he formulates himself.

(5) For this very reason he is always agitated and he feels uneasy because he can have no guidance or support from outside and the choice he makes is not easy.

(6) Man feels lonely and detatched from everything. As he has to depend on himself alone, he feels disappointed.

(7) The uneasiness and constructive `disappointment' that induce him to `action', are like everything else the outcome of his own `action'.

As for the belief in God, it may be said that this philosophy does not necessarily amount to atheism.

Sartre says:

There are two types of the existentialists. On the one hand there are Christian existentialists, among whom I name Karl Jaspers and Gabriel Marcel, both of whom confess to be Catholics. On the other hand, there are existentialists, who are atheists, like Martin Heidegger and I. The only thing common between these two types of individuals is that they generally believe that existence of man precedes his essence.

At another place Sartre says:

In the philosophy of existentialism the conception of atheism does not involve the denial of the Creator. It only means that nothing would be upset even if the Creator did not exist. Man should himself find out and know that no means of his deliverance exist anywhere.

He again says:

If the existentialist is greatly disturbed at the idea of the non-existence of God, that is because in that case the possibility of finding `values' in perceptible Paradise disappears totally. Further, obviously no virtue can exist, for no conscience is so perfect and infinite that it should think of every virtue. It is not written anywhere that the virtue has a definite existence and is always judged rightly.

We observe that the existentialists who hold atheistic views do so because they imagine that man can have absolute freedom only if there is no outside `will' behind him to determine his action.

Sometimes they expressly say: Should there be a God who destines everything or at least knows everything, all future events will necessarily take place as anticipated by Him. For this reason the denial of an Almighty Creator is a logical pre-condition of the absolute freedom of man.

We propose to analyse this point while making a compara­tive study of Islamic and existentialist view-points.

Man from the View Point of Islam

Taking into consideration what we have already said concerning man and the range of his will and choice, we can come to certain conclusions. Here we briefly refer to some of the principles only. While doing so, we will try to touch upon the basic views of the Existentialist School in order to make clear the questions under consideration:

(1) Essence of man (what he has and what he himself should make)

Man has an inborn essence. He has a nature which is terres­trial and celestial at the same time. He has various tendencies and instincts and various capabilities and desires. But he has to develop his individual essence through his personal efforts and will. His tendencies and talents provide a ground on which he has to build his essence and decide what he should be.

(2) Human freedom and Divine destiny

Man is a free agent, but this freedom has been given to him by Allah. In the words of some contemporary writers, man is destined to be free.

No school of thought asserts that it is man himself who has given freedom to him. All agree that freedom has been given to him and imposed on him from outside. If it is so, why should we not admit that it has been bestowed on him by Allah33 and it is a Divine gift.

It may be said that such a belief leads to predetermina­tion, which amounts to the negation of man's freedom and his free will.

We know that according to the religious outlook, if there exists any Divine compulsion in respect of man, that compulsion is in regard to his having volition and freedom, and if there is any predetermination by Allah, that means that man should exercise his choice with consciousness and freedom. Hence divine will necessarily implies the freedom of man and not his predestination.

(3) Sphere of choice and role of guidance

We know that natural urges, Divine guidance and even environmental conditions affect man's choice and his freedom. But their role is not compelling. They only create a tendency and pave the way for taking action. It is always man's own free will which gives a definite shape to these tendencies and modifies them. It is up to him to identify the truth and take advantage of the guidance with insight. We have already said that Divine revelation is a guidance which is enlightening, instructive and helpful. It is a blessing of Allah which guides man to the right path.

(4) Man has a purpose

We have already stated that the universe has not been created without a purpose and in vain. Man and life also cannot be without a purpose. He has been created to make an evolutionary progress in all the dimensions of his existence and ultimately to make a journey towards Absolute Perfection (as we have stated earlier).

(5) Man is responsible

It is man who is responsible to make himself and his environment. But responsible to whom?

Some schools of thought give no answer to this question, for they maintain that beyond man there is no conscious authority to question him. But in Islam there exists a responsibility and that too towards the Almighty, the Wise and the All-knowing, who will call every one to account, and recompense him.

The holy Qur'an says:

"You will indeed be questioned about what you used to do" (Surahal-Nahl, 16:93).

"By Allah! You shall indeed be called to account for what you have been forging". (Surah al-Nahl, 16:56).

`Detain them for they are to be interrogated". (Surah al-Saffat, 37: 24).

`Allah cannot be questioned as to what He does, but they will be questioned". (Surah al-Anbiya, 21:23).

Such a responsibility can produce a great effect, and may work as an incentive.

(6) Vigilance and anxiety

A man who has received training in Islamic ways, is vigilant. In other words he feels anxious and uneasy, because he is responsible for making the right choice. He is responsible for his salvation, for his well-being and for the well-being of his society. Similarly he is accountable for his fall and his decadence. Every action of his is lasting and produces a result. Therefore this anxiety and vigilance axe constructive, add to his responsibility and affect his choice.

(7) Man is not without a refuge

In Islam man's free will does not mean that he has no refuge and that he has to depend on himself alone totally. He is blessed with Divine protection and favor. If he makes effort and moves in the right direction, he receives Allah's help.34 He is not alone; Allah is with him.35 You may say that everything is in the hand of man. If he really establishes relation with Allah, the doors of clear thinking, knowledge and power are opened to him.36 He feels encouraged and a spirit of new zeal is infused in him.

(8) Self-dependence, fear and hope

Islam recognizes a particular sort of `disappointment'. One must not depend on the deeds of others.37 Family position, children and wealth can save none.38 Everyone is self-made and has to depend on his own deeds.

Thus man is a mixture of fear and hope,39 and yearning and apprehension. His fear is such that it saves him from making mistakes and falling into sin. It is not that kind of fear which may. frustrate him and lead him to inertness.

His hope inspires him to good deeds and renders him neither haughty and selfish nor lazy and sluggish.

View Point of Dialectical Materialism

According to this philosophical theory it is society, which has the main importance. Man is studied only as a part of society, the laws of whose development originate from the dialectical law which is supposed to govern nature. As such, in order to be able to know the views of this philo­sophical school concerning man, we have to study the basic principles of dialectical materialism in regard to nature and society. Here again we first reproduce some of the views of the exponents of this school. Thereafter we shall describe the point of view of Islam in regard to them.

(1) Nature does not consist of things heaped together or events detached from each other. It is a collection of things and events which are interrelated. No natural phenomenon can be understood and studied in isolation from other natural events and their environment.

(2) Nature is not static and at rest. It is in a state of motion and continuous change. Every moment something emerges, changes and evolves, and something else is annihilated.

(3) The developmental movement of things is not a simple movement of growth. It is a development in which slight and hidden changes are suddenly and speedily transformed into open and basic qualitative changes, of inevitable and unavoidable character. The develop­mental movement is not a circular movement, nor is it a simple repetition of anything. It is a forward movement, and a shifting from an old qualitative state to a new qualitative state. This movement is from below to above.

(4) All things and all natural events contain an inner contradiction. The previously existing thesis comes in conflict with an antithesis produced by it. Their conflict produces a new synthesis, which in turn rises in conflict with another antithesis that emerges from within it. Thus the way for evolution is paved. According to this theory, all developments originate from this very inner contradiction.

Now let us see what this school says about man and society and how it interprets history.

(5) Man is a material and natural being, whose brain and nervous system are more developed than those of all other animals, and because of this evolution he enjoys a better power of understanding and grasping.

It is society which has real importance. Individual man is a weak being whose efforts are confronted with failure. It is society which grants will to him. Man minus society is prone to make too many mistakes and is always in danger of utter destruction.

(6) As the material world exists independently of human perception and thinking, the material existence of man and the material life of society are more important than their intellectual life, which is only a secondary element derived from the material life. Even the perception and the thinking of the people are only a reflection of the material world.

(7) The means and methods of production constitute the life of society. At various stages of the development of society the methods of production and the appliances used in this connection differ. The people in the primitive social system have one method of production and in the slave-holding system another. Similarly in the feudal system the method and the appliances used are different.

And so on and so forth. As the methods of production change, the social system of the people, their intellectual life, their views and their political organizations also undergo a change.

(8) The main motive force of history is the change in the means and the methods of production, which brings about a contradiction with the old productive relation­ships. As a result of this conflict and contradiction the productive relationship are changed.

In every period of history the economic and social system which was forced by such a change, has constituted the political and intellectual history of that period. Conse­quently since the ownership of land displaced the primitive social system, history has been mainly a record of class war between the oppressors and the oppressed and the rulers and the ruled. It is this contradiction and conflict which brought about the various stages of the evolution of society.

(9) According to the views of this school, history comprises five periods which successively displace each other. They are the periods of:

(1) Primitive socialism, (2) Slavery, (3) Feudalism, (4) Capitalism, and lastly (5) Socialism leading to Communism

(10) In respect of the role of the new ideas in bringing about a change in society, this school says:

The new social ideas and the new social theories appear only when a change in the material life of society creates new duties towards society. As the new ideas develop, they turn into a power which facilitates the discharge of the new duties and enables society to make progress. As every change is caused by contradiction, the contradic­tion within society should be intensified so that the solution of the problems facing society may be found. It is contradiction only that introduces new ideas and new theories which help to solve the existing problems.

Islam's approach to these questions

As for the points raised in the first four paragraphs, we have discussed them in detail in the preceding chapters of this book. Anyhow, to maintain continuity, here again we refer to them briefly:

(1) There is no doubt that there exists a definite coherence and harmony in the universe, and all the elements and phenomena of nature are minutely inter­related. That is why it is not possible to have an accurate and full knowledge of any single natural phenomenon without having a knowledge of all the elements which form it and all the causes and factors which affect it, and similarly without having a knowledge of its relation­ships and its evolutionary tendency.

(2) All the natural phenomena are ceaselessly and uninterruptedly in a state of motion. No material element and no natural phenomenon is static and at rest. Change and evolution, growth and decay, life and death and transformation and transfiguration are the patterns by which matter is governed.

(3) On the whole this movement is evolutionary and progressive. It is purposive, well-calculated and well­organized. Generally speaking, the net result of this movement of the world and its phenomena is growth, development, resistance against anti-evolutionary factors and utilization of positive factors for evolutionary progress and a change for the better.

(4) This motion and this transformation have certain characteristics and produce certain effects in accordance with the laws concerning matter and nature. These laws affect every material thing from within and without, and influence its relationship with other phenomena. This influence may be either in the form of contradiction and conflict or in the form of harmony and agreement, or simply in the form of preserving the existence and growth of the thing concerned.

The sum total of these laws and relationships constitutes the Divine ways, the creative design and the judicious will of Allah. As we shall see, these Divine ways operate in nature and society ceaselessly and uninterruptedly.

Now we come to the main feature of our discussion relating to man and society. The Islamic point of view in this respect may be summarized as under:-

(5) Man is a part of nature, having material and natural characteristics. But he has reached such a stage of evolution that he has become fit for being gifted with Divine spirit and supernatural values. Consequently he has acquired the faculties of free will, knowledge and responsibility. Because of these gifts, he is not subservient to the material phenomena nor bound by the genetic relationships. In contrast, he is capable of subduing nature and bringing about changes in material relationships and natural phenomena.

(6) Man, as we know, despite his being an integral part of society, is an independent being. He is not so subservient to society that he should have no personal will, freedom and the right of choice. His conduct is not determined by society and history only, though he cannot be regarded as being apart from society.

(7) As the entire existence of man is not the direct result of the evolution of matter, his mental and intellectual life cannot be purely inspired by and derived from matter or from material and genetic relationships of society. Nevertheless, as he is embedded in matter and has emerged out of it, the natural, geographical and physical conditions and the material relationship of society are bound to affect him.

(8) The contradiction which exists within man is the outcome of the conflict between his material yearnings (human desires) and his celestial impulses (inspirations from beyond this world). As man is endowed with free­dom and knowledge, he should make the best use of this contradiction, and should take steps to modify all his impulses and to guide them towards his own evolution, the betterment of his surroundings, the making of history and moving it forward.

While discussing dialectical materialism, we reproduced certain views having a direct bearing on the historical conception of this school. Hence it will be in the fitness of things to study also the Islamic conception of history and the factors which make and move it. We propose to discuss this question in a comprehensive manner.

"They fear their Lord and dread the evil consequences of the Reckoning". (Surah al-Ra'd, 13:21).

Notes

1. "We created you from clay, then from a living germ, then from a clot of blood and then from a lump of flesh ". (Surah al- Hajj, 22:5)

2. "….Then from it We produced anew being". (Surah al- Mo'minun, 23:14).

3. "He completed him and breathed His spirit into him ". (Surah al- Sajdah, 32:9).

4. "Indeed We have honored the children of Adam and have definitely given them superiority above many of Our creatures": (Surah al- Isra, 17:70).

5. "When I have completed him and breathed My spirit into him, then fall prostrate before him" : (SurahSad, 38:72).

6. "He taught man what he did not know ". (Surah al- Alaq, 96:5)

7. "He taught Adam all the names, then He presented those (things) to the angels ….(Surahal- Baqarah, 2:31).

8. "The earth will provide you dwelling and sustenance for an appointed time". (Surah al- A'raf, 7:24).

9. "Adam acted contrary to the counsel of his Lord and thus he erred. Thereafter his Lord forgave him. He accepted his repentance and rightly guided him ". (Surah Taha, 20:121- 122).

10. “If you all those who are on the earth prove to be ungrateful, Allah does not at all need your thanks. He is Laudable". (Surah Ibrahim, 14:8).

11. “When your Lord said to the angels: I am appointing on earth a vicegerent": (Surah al- Baqarah, 2:30).

12. "Have you not seen that Allah has put at your service what­ever there a in the heavens and the earth". (Surah Luqman, 31:20).

13. "He produced you from the earth and settled you there": (Surah Hud, 11:61).

14. 'It is He who has made the earth subservient to you. So walk about in its regions and eat what Allah has produced". (Surah al- Mulk, 67:15).

15. "Indeed We have honored the children of Adam. We carry them on the land and the sea ". (Surah al- Isra, 17:70).

16. "Does man think that be will be left unchecked". (Surah al- Qiyamah, 75:36).

17."Did you think We have created you in vain and that you would never be returned to Us?" (Surah al- Mo'minun, 23:115).

18. “Indeed We have created man from the union of sperm and egg, to test him. We gave him the faculties of bearing and seeing". (Surah al- Dahr, 76:2).

19. "By the soul and its Creator who inspired it as to what is right and what is wrong for it". (Surah al- Shams, 91:7- 8).

20. "Follow the dictates of (true) human nature as created by Allah. Allah's creation is not to be changed. This is surely the upright religion". (Surah al- Rum, 30:30).

21. "We offered the trust to the heavens, the earth and the moun­tains, but they declined to bear it and were afraid of it. And man undertook to bear it . . . ". (Surahal- Ahzab,- 33:72)

22. "Follow the dictates of (true) human nature as created by Allah" : (Surahal- Rum, 30:30).

"Surely man was created restless". (Surah al- Ma'arij, 70:19).

"Alluring for people is the love of the joys that come from women, sons, hoarded heaps of gold and silver, horses of mark, cattle and plantations ". (Surah Ale Imran 3 :14).

"He is passionate in his love for wealth ". (Surah al- Adiyat, 100: 8).

23. "Look! Indeed man rebels, when he considers himself to be independent and self sufficient". (Surah al- Alaq, 96:5- 6).

24. "Judge rightly between people and do not follow your own caprices, which will deviate you from the path of Allah". (SurahSad, 38:26).

25. "If we give him a taste of affluence after adversity that had befallen, he says: My bad days are over, and becomes proud and insolent; except those who are steadfast and do good deeds ". (SurahHud, 11:10).

26. "This is the punishment of which Allah warns His slaves. Therefore, my slaves! Have fear of Me". (Surah al- Zumar, 39:16).

27."The prosperous is he who purified himself". (Surah al- A'la, 87:14).

28.

“Those who are saved from their own greed, shall surely be prosperous". (Surah al- Hashr, 59:9).

29. "Worship Allah, and do good so that you may prosper". (Surah al- Hajj, 22:77).

30. `Prosperous indeed are the believers, who are humble in their prayers, who keep themselves aloof from what is absurd . . . ' (Surah Mo'minun, 23:1- 11).

31. Believers, have patience, help each other with patience, establish good relations with one another and have fear of Allah so that you may prosper". (Surah Ale lmran, 3 :200).

32. …. They call to virtue, exhort to what is good and restrain from evil. It is such people who shall prosper". (Surah Ale Imran, 3:104).

33. "We offered our Trust . . .". (Surah al- Ahzab, 33:72).

34. "As for those who strive for Our cause We will definitely guide them to Our paths' : (Surahal- Ankabut, 29:69).

35. "We are closer to him than his jugular vein ". (Surah Qaf, 50:16).

36. "Do not lose heart and do not grieve, for you shall have true dignity, provided you are believers ". (Surah Ale Imran, 3 :139).

37. "No one shall bear the burden of someone else". (Surah al- Fatir, 35:18).

38. "The Day when wealth and sons will be of no use; and only he who brings a sound heart to Allah (will be profited by it) ". (Surah al- Shu'ra, 26:89).

39. "None but the disbelieving people despair of His mercy". (Surah Yusuf, 12:87).

`My slaves! You have nothing to fear or regret today". (Surah al- Zukhruf, 43:68).

"Who forsake their beds to pray to their Lord in fear and hopes". (Surah al- Sajdah, 32:16).