Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

APPENDIX II

Chapter 4 of this study noted how ‘Ali Naqvi’s reflections on the subject of Karbala and martyrdom of Husayn was organically related to his project of reconfiguration of Islamic theology and praxis.1 Here I provide an illustration of how in his lectures and writings usually the two themes were juxtaposed, and how he employed the powerful symbol of Karbala to the task of religious revival and preservation. In this regard, let me present a representative text “Belief in the Unseen” (Iman bi al-ghayb).2

‘Ali Naqvi’s opening remarks point out the need for addressing this subject. One may recall from the chapter on the “Crisis of Religion” the context from which this need emerged: “Today’s civilized world (mutamaddin dunya) takes pride in that people believe in only what they see. They say that our knowledge is dependent on the empirical (mushahadat). They are not willing to consider the things unseen (an daykhi), although if one is vigilant then it will be known that to limit knowledge to the empirical is not something proper to the distinct qualities of humanity”. It is clear that non-belief in the unseen makes it impossible for people to assent to a belief in God, angels and in the case of Shi‘i theology, in the unseen Imam. After setting up the problem, ‘Ali Naqvi presents his ‘aql-based intellectual response in the following words (quoted at length):

Everyone agrees that the human is comparatively superior to everything else. But from what point of view is this superiority? If seen from the point of view of corporeality (jismiyat) then mountains are many degrees superior. If viewed from the standpoint of bodily growth (nasho numa) trees grow much faster than humans. If observed from the viewpoint of sense-experience (ahsasat) then many animals are ahead of the human: their sight is much sharper than the human’s. If the essential preeminence (jauhar-i imtiyaz) rests on these things then he seems to be lagging behind from other things. Then why is he considered superior?

Now then, if the human being is deemed the crown of creation (ashraf almakhlu qat) then it will have to be accepted that beyond all this there is in him some merit (jauhar)3 which others do not possess. So let us find that special merit. If it is said that it is knowledge (‘ilm) and action (‘amal) –the translation of ‘ilm (knowledge) in Persian is “danistan” (to know) and in Urdu “janana” (to know) – then who says that an animal does not know anything. It knows the place where it resides: If [sent to another location] and made to stand there it will be restless and would not be at peace until it returns to its own place. It recognizes the hand that feeds it and recognizes it well: it will not ask a stranger standing in front for food except the one [it is familiar with]. It knows the food it eats and that is why we do not find sick animals in a jungle. It is only when a human being breeds them that sometimes they get sick. A honey bee makes even boxes without a compass and a fish knows how to swim. In fact, humans have learned these things from animals. Therefore, knowing is not characteristic of humans [alone]. Animals also know much. Then what is that knowledge which is characteristically human?

Pondering over this one understands that animals’ knowledge is restricted to the empirical and sense-experience (mushahadatva mahsusat). I have mentioned that an animal recognizes the hand that feeds it. But it knows only that. If it receives food from a servant it will only know him, not recognizing the master.

Now if a human behaves the same way, taking the very door from which he is fed as his god, assenting to prostrate to the person from whose hands he receive things then there is no difference between him and an animal. The station of human knowledge is elevated and he should find a way to jump across and beyond the four-walled chamber of the empirical and the sense experience. This is why it is stated in the Qur’an that “That is the Book, wherein is no doubt, a guidance to the godfearing who believe in the Unseen.” Now today it is proudly said that we only believe what we see with our eyes. But to what extent is this claim true? Take the example of the material sciences (madi ‘ulum). Do we see matter with our eyes? Have these particles of matter (zarrat-i madah), upon whose existence this science is built, ever been seen?

It is only its effects (asar) and necessities (lavazim) that are observable by the eye through which they [the scientists] have admitted the existence of matter. And when have we said that they believe in the Creator without seeing Him? We also say the same thing: they should see the effects and accept the existence of the Effecter (mu’asir).

The same principle was prevalent in the old days and is prevalent in the contemporary period (daur-i jadid): Our Greek physicians used to observe the pulse to ascertain temperature and doctors [these days] detect temperature in a thermometer. But is the temperature of the patient’s body itself contained in the thermometer? The thermometer is there which can be seen, but they [the doctors] figure out habitually the correspondence (talazum) between the movement of the mercury and the quantity of the temperature. Therefore, through the rational necessity of correspondence, the quantity of the temperature of that body is known through the magnitude of the movement of mercury. What is it? It is the same: to see the effects and discover the effecter.

This search for causality in a child is [present] from its natural beginning.

From the moment the capacity to think (quvvat-isha‘ur ) begins to function within a child, from that very moment he first begins to understand and ask, and immediately thereafter begins to discover. What is this? What is that? There is a profusion of concepts (tasavvurat) that are supplied by its brain (damagh). And then begins the sequence of whys. Why this? Why that? This string ofwhys is sometimes so long that even philosopher-parents find themselves unable to answer. But this is a thirst which the child’s nature feels [the need] to discover the cause of everything. Now from this childhood his nature is resolute that everything has a cause and each effect has an effecter. After growing up, when he asks who is the author (muujid)4 of the whole world (dunya), if you say that it has come into existence on its own and that what he [the grown up child] sees has no inventor beyond it, no cause that has brought it from nothingness (nisti) to existence (hasti), if this response is not against his natural disposition then what is it? That is why the Qur’an says that the divine religion (din-i ilahi) is [human primordial] nature (fitrat), which means that its [the divine religion’s] source (sar cashmah) is the demands of human nature itself, any efforts against which could never yield positive results.

You behold Taj Mahal and praise its builder although you have never seen him. The inventors of the train, airplane, telephone, radio, and all customary machines are praised even when they are absent from our eyes. Then after seeing the whole world if its Creator is conceded, what is [so] novel [or strange] in it, and why is He rejected?

The greatest sign of the Creator which is closest to oneself is one’s soul (nafs). The sun and the moon and everything else in the created order (‘alam-i hasti) is discerned through corporeal eyes and therefore if someone is deprived of eyes then perhaps he would also be considered deficient in his understanding of the Creator (Khaliq). But a human does not know himself by seeing himself, by listening to his voice, by tasting himself, by touching himself, or by smelling himself. Rather it is our existence itself that reveals ourselves to us. And this is itself a sign of the Creator’s sign. In the same way the knowledge of the Creator does not depend upon the eye, ear or hand etc., but requires only the heart and mind. If all the capacities of the senses have halted and it were impossible to see the earth or the sky, the sun or the moon, to the extent that nothing of the universe could be seen, even then he would sense his own existence. And this suffices to accept the existence of the Creator.

Yes, it is often said that without seeing there can only be conjecture (wahm) and opinion (guman), not certainty. But certainty itself is an unseen thing which can only be known through its effects (asar).5 In fact, to the extent that I have discerned, the reality of things (haqaiq-i ashya’) do not affect a human being with their real existence (vujud-i asli); rather their effects are proportionate to stations of understanding. Imagine if there is a lion along your path and you do not have a conception (tasavvur) of a lion. [In this case] you will continue walking without fear or terror. [Imagine now that you do have a conception of a lion and then] somebody says “there is a lion,”: [in this case] even if there is no lion you will be terrorized.

A child is usually afraid of his father. Whenever the father is home he commits no mischief. As soon as the father leaves the house he will create havoc in the house. If somebody says to him, “See your father is here” he will be scared. What is it that has scared him? [It is] the conception of his father’s arrival. Now, the stronger the conception, the greater the impact will be. If it is his peer who breaks the news he will look back [to confirm] and if it is his mother or some other elder from whom he cannot expect jokes, then he would attempt to run as fast as he can [from the place]. It shows that one’s character is in accordance with the degrees of one’s knowledge (madarij-i idrak) (12).

It is evident that ‘Ali Naqvi attempts to prove the reasonability of the “belief in the Unseen” through a number of intellectual arguments. It is important to observe that until this point he uses nothing but intellectual arguments to convince his interlocutors of the reasonability of the Qur’anic and religious demand for the belief in the unseen.6

Having made his intellectual case, ‘Ali Naqvi turns now to the symbolic resources of Islam to reinforce his argument:

Now let us witness the character of those who believe in God. Let us see if they display certainty or not. To us it seems that empirical observation (mushahaydah) is without an effect. Instead it is the belief in the Unseen (ghayb ka ay‘taqad) that has the effect. On the night of emigration (hijrah) Hadrat ‘Ali peacefully slept in the bed of the Prophet while the walls of the house were surrounded by drawn out swords. This siege by the enemies, their flashing swords and terrible words, these were all things of the observable world (‘alam-i shuhud). And what were their goals?To insinuate terror and fear. On the contrary Hadrat ‘Ali was at peace (mutma’in). If there was no sign of any perturbation (iztayrab) then it has to be admitted that it was the effect of belief in the Unseen which dominated the observed reality (mushahaydat) (13).

Along similar lines and to bolster his argument further, he finally brings in examples from Karbala where the belief in the Unseen can be witnessed quite vividly (and is prefigured in the Shi‘i devotional consciousness):

On the soil of Karbala the knowledge of the seen [tells us] that there is an army of at least thirty thousand in front. The thirst of small children and their cries of “I am thirsty” were of the world of the observed reality (mushahaydah). The presence of women and their poor state was obvious. Even more obvious was the youth of ‘Abbas and ‘Ali Akbar, the youth of Qasim, and the beautiful faces of children that were in front of the eyes, all of which demanded that to save one’s life and that of the companions [including the children] one should give allegiance to Yazid. But there was [also] belief in the Unseen Power that was preventing this allegiance. Those were the demands of the observed reality that were subdued, and this was the belief in the Unseen which had made the hardest of sufferings pleasing (14).

He concludes his discussion on the subject with the words that carry strong emotional force for his Shi‘i audience.

In the last moments the fire within chest, dry lips and tongue due to the intensity of thirst, enormity of wounds, boiling fountains of blood and after all this the workings of the blade of a knife on a parched throat, all of this was on the one side and belief in an unseen Being (zat)7 on the other. Even now does anyonehas a right to imagine that there cannot be certainty without seeing (15)?

Bibliography

Selected Writings of Ayatullah ‘Ali Naqi Naqvi

The following is not intended to be a complete list of works by ‘Ali Naqi Naqvi.

Although only a small selection of the large number of published works by the prolific author, these works are representative of his thought.

_____ ‘Aza-yi Husayn ki ahamiyat, Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press,1959 .

_____‘Aza-yi Husayn par tarikhi tabsarah. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, np.

_____ ‘Ibadat aur tariq-i ‘ibadat, 2nd ed. Lucknow: Nizami Press, np.

_____ “‘Alami Mushkilat ka hal” in Shu‘a‘-i ‘Amal (Jul 2009): 30-39

_____ “‘Aurat awr Islam” in Shu‘a‘-i ‘Amal (May 2009): 6-13

_____Abu al-a’aymah ki ta‘limat. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, np.

_____ Ashk-i matam, Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1957.

_____Asiri-yi ahl-i haram. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1940.

_____Bani umayyah ki ‘adavat-i Islam ki mukhtasir tarikh. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1994.

_____Hayat-i qaumi. Lucknow: Imamia Mission, 1941

_____Husayn aur Islam. Lucknow: Manshurah Imamiyah Mission, 1931.

_____Husayn Husayn aik ta‘rruf. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1964.

_____Husayn ka atam balaydan. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1936.

_____Husayn ka paygham ‘alam-i insaniyat kay nam. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1959

_____ Husayn ki yad ka azad Hindustan say mutalbah. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1950

_____Husayni iqdam ka pahla qadam. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1953.

_____ Hamaray rusumva quyud. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1939.

_____ Hazrat ‘Ali ki shakhsiyat: ‘Ilm aur a‘taqad ki manzil par. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1969.

_____ Iqalat al-'athir fi iqamat al-sha'a'ir al-Husayniyah, Najaf: Matba‘ah Haydariyyah, 1929.

_____Isbat-i pardah. Lahore: Imamia Mission, 1961.

_____Islam ka paygham pas-uftadah aqwam kay nam. Lucknow: Imamiah Mission, 1936.

_____Islam ki hakimanah zindagi. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1935.

_____ Islami culturekia hay? Lahore: Imamiyah Mission, 1960.

_____ Karbala ka tarikhi vaqi‘ah mukhtasar hay ya tulani? Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1960.

_____Karbala ki yadgar payas. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1959.

_____Khilafat-i Yazid kay muta‘alliq azad ara’in. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1953.

_____Khuda ki ma‘rafat. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1938.

_____ La tufsidu fi al-‘ard. 3rd ed. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1998.

_____Khutbat-i Sayyidul ‘ulama’ muta‘lliq karnama-yi Husayn. Lucknow: Idarah-yi Payam-i Islam, np.

_____Ma‘rakah-yi Karbala. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1935.

_____Majmu‘ah-yi taqarir. 5 vols. Lahore: Imamiyah Kutubkhana, np.

_____Maqalat-i Sayyidul ‘ulama’. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1996.

_____Maqsad-i Husayn. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1956.

_____Mas’alah-yi hayat an-nabi aur vaqi‘ah-yi vafat-i rusul. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1973.

_____ Masa’ilva dala’il. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1944.

_____Mawlud-e-Ka‘bah. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, np.

_____Mazlum-i Karbala. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission 1941.

_____Mazhab aur ‘aql. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1941.

_____Mazhab shi‘ah aik nazar main. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1970.

_____ Mi‘raj-i insaniyat: sirat-i rasul aur al-i rasul ki roshni main. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1969.

_____Mujahidah-yi Karbala. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1933.

_____Muqaddamah-yi tafsir-i Qur’an. Lucknow: Idarah ‘Ilmiyah and Nizami Press, 1940.

_____ Muslim personal lawna qabil-i tabdil. Lucknow: Imamia Mission, 1996.

_____Mut‘ah aur Islam. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qawmi Press, 1933.

_____Nigarshat-e-Sayyidul ‘ulama’. Lahore: Imamiah Mission, 1997.

_____ Nizam-i zindagi, 4 vols. Lucknow: Al-Va‘iz Safdar Press, 1940.

_____Qatilan-e-Husayn ka madhhab. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1932.

_____Qatil al-‘abrah. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1960.

_____Qur’an aur nizam-i hukumat. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1972.

_____Qur’an kay bayan al-aqvami irshadat. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1976.

_____ Qur’an-i majid kay andaz-i guftagu main ma‘yar-i tahzibva ravadari. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1976.

_____Radd-i Wahhabiyya. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, np.

_____ Rahbar-i kamil: Savanih-i ‘Ali. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1961.

_____Rahnumayan-i Islam. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1962.

_____Rusul-i Khuda. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1961.

_____ Sahifah al-‘amal, Lucknow:np., 1939.

_____ Safar namah-yi Hajj, Lucknow: Nizami Press, 1977.

_____Shahid-i insaniyat. Lahore: Imamiyah Mission Pakistan Trust, 2006.

_____Shuja‘at kay misali karnamay. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1954.

_____ Ta‘ziahdari ki mukhalfat ka asal raz. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1963.

_____Tarikh-i Islam. 4 vols. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1961.

_____ Tadhkirah-i huffaz-i shi‘a. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1935.

_____Tafsir fasl al-khatab. 8 vols. Lahore: Misbah al-Qur’an Trust, 1986.

_____Tahrif-i Qur’an ki haqiqat. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1932.

_____Taqiyah. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1952.

_____Tijarat aur Islam. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1933.

_____Jadid tuhfatul ‘avam. Lahore: Iftikhar Book Depot, np.

_____ Usul aur arkan-idin . Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1973

_____ Usul-i din aur Qur’an, Lahore: Imamiyah Mission, 1964.

_____Usvah-yi Husayni. Lucknow: Imamiyah Mission, 1986.

_____Va‘dah -yi jannat. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qawmi Press, 1979.

_____Vujud-i hujjat. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qawmi Press, 1932.

_____Yad aur yadigar. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qawmi Press, 1968.

_____Yazid aur jang-i Qustantaniyah. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qaumi Press, 1965.

_____Zikr-i Husayn. Lucknow: Imamia Mission, np.

_____Zindah savalat. Aligarh University Press, 1971.

_____Zindah-i javid ka matam. Lucknow: Sarfaraz Qawmi Press, 1935.

Secondary Sources

Abou El Fadl, Khaled, Joshua Cohen, and Deborah Chasman. Islam and the Challenge of Democracy: A Boston Review Book. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004.

Abu Khalil, As’ad.“Revival and Renewal.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. Edited by John Esposito. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Abu-Rabi’, Ibrahim. Women in Contemporary Islamic Thought, inThe Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006.

Aghaie, Kamran Scot. The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi’i Symbols and Rituals in Modern Iran. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004.

_____ , ed. The Women of Karbala: Ritual Performance and Symbolic Discourse in Modern Shi’i Islam. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2005.

Ahmad, Aziz. Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan, 1857-1964. London: Oxford University Press, 1967.

_____ , and Gustave E. von Grunebaum, Muslim Self-Statement in India and Pakistan 1857- 1968. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz, 1970.

Alam, Asiya. “Polygyny, Family and Sharafat: Discourses amongst North Indian Muslims, circa 1870–1918” in Modern Asian Studies 45, no. 3 (2011): 631-668.

Algar, Hamid. “‘Allama Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabataba’i: Philosopher, Exegete, and Gnostic.” Oxford Journal of Islamic Studies 17 (2006): 326-351.doi : 10.1093/jis/etl002.

‘Ali ibn Abi Talib. Nahj al-balaghah. Qom: Dar ul- Intisharat, n.d.

Ameed, Syed Mohammad.The Importance of Weeping and Wailing. Karachi: Peermahomed Ebrahim Trust: 1974.

al-Attas , Muhammad Naguib.Islam, Secularism, and the Philosophy of the Future. Islamic Futures and Policy Studies. New York: Mansell Publications, 1985.

Arberry, A. J. The Koran Interpreted: A Translation. Touchstoneed . New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.

Arjomand, Said Amir. The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Ayoub, Mahmoud. Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of 'Ashura’ in Twelver Shi‘ism. The Hague: Mouton, 1978.

_____ The Crisis of Muslim History: Religion and Politics in Early Islam. Oxford: Oneworld, 2003.

Bellah, Robert.“Islamic Tradition and the Problem of Modernization.” Chap. 3 in Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in a Post-Traditional World. New York: Harper & Row, 1970

Bennett, Clinton. Muslims and Modernity: An Introduction to the Issues and Debates. London: Continuum, 2005. See esp. chap. 5, “Islamic Epistemology.”

Brinton, Jacqueline Jayne Gottlieb.Preaching Islamic Renewal: Muhammad Mutawalli Sha’rawi and the Syncretization of Revelation and Contemporary Life. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Virginia, 2009.

Brunner, Rainer. “A Shi‘ite Cleric’s Criticism of Shiism: Musa al-Musawi” and “The Politics of Shahid-e-Jawid.” In The Twelver Shia in Modern Times: Religious Culture & Political Culture.Edited by Rainer Brunner and Werner Ende. Leiden: Brill, 2001.

Chelkowski, Peter J., ed. Eternal Performance: Taziyah and Other Shiite Rituals. New York: Seagull, 2010.

_____Taziyeh, Ritual and Drama in Iran. New York: New York University Press, 1979.

Cole, Juan R.I. Roots of North Indian Shi’ism in Iran and Iraq: Religion and State in Awadh, 1722-1859. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988; New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991.

Cook, David.Martyrdom in Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Crone, Patricia. God's Rule: Government and Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.

Dallal, Ahmad. “The Origins and Objectives of Islamic RevivalistThought, 1750-1850.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 113, no. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1993): 341- 359.

Davari, Mahmood T. The Political Thought of Ayatullah Murtaza Mutahhari: An Iranian theortetician of of the Islamic state. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005.

Donohue, John J., and John L. Esposito. Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. See esp. “The Modernization of Islamic Law,” and “Reform of Islamic Law: The Changing Status of Women and the Family.” D’Souza, Diane.“Gendered Ritual and the Shaping of Shi‘ah Identity.” In Shared Idioms, Sacred Symbols, and the Architecture of Identities in South Asia. Edited by Kelly Pemberton and Michael Nijhawan New York: Routlege, 2009.

Edwards, Michael. British India 1772-1947. New Delhi: Rupa Press, 1967.

Eickelman, Dale F. and James Piscatori. Muslim Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004.First published 1996 by Princteon University Press.

Ende, Werner. “The Flagellations of Muharram and the Shi’ite 'Ulama’” Der Islam 55 (1978): 19-36.

Esposito, John L. Women in Muslim Family Law. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1982

_____ , ed.The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Euben, Roxanne Leslie, and Muhammad Qasim Zaman. Princeton Readings in Islamist Thought: Texts and Contexts from Al-Banna to Bin Laden. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.

Gibb, H. A. R. "The Heritage of Islam in the Modern World (I)." International Journal of Middle East Studies 1, no. 1 (1970): 221-37.

_____Modern Trends in Islam. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1947.

_____ Whither Islam?A Survey of Modern Movements in the Moslem World. New York: AMS Press, 1973.

al-Ghazali , Abu Hamid.Tahafut al-falasifah. Lahore: Pakistan Philosophical Congress Publication, 1958.

Gleave, Robert. Scripturalist Islam: The History and Doctrines of the Akhbari Shi’i School. Leiden: Brill, 2007.

Gopalpuri, ‘Allamah SayyidSa‘id Akhtar Rizvi.“Sayyid al-‘ulama’ ‘allamah sayyid ‘Ali Naqi Naqvi mujtahid.” Khandan-i ijtihad (February 2004): 74-7.

Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, and Barbara Freyer Stowasser, ed. Islamic Law and the Challenges of Modernity. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2004.

_____ , and John L. Esposito, ed. Islam, Gender, & Social Change. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Hallaq, Wael B. Shari'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. See esp. chap. 16, “Modernizing the Law in the Age of Nation-States.”Halm, Heinz. Shi'a Islam: From Religion to Revolution. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1997.

Hatina, Meir. Guardians of Faith in Modern Times: 'Ulama in the Middle East, Social, Economic and Political Studies of the Middle East and Asia. Leiden: Brill, 2009.

Hodgson, Marshall G. S. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, 3 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.

Howarth, Toby M. The Twelver Shî‘a as a Muslim Minority in India: Pulpit of Tears. New York: Routledge, 2005.

Hunter, Shireen, ed. Reformist Voices of Islam: Mediating Islam and Modernity. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2008.

Hyder, Syed Akbar.Reliving Karbala: Martyrdom in South Asian Memory. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Ikram, Muhammad.Mawj-e-kawthar. Lahore: Idarah Thaqafat-e-Islamiya, 2000.

Inayat, Hamid.“Aspects of Shi‘i Modernism.” Chap. 5 in Modern Islamic Political Thought: The Response of the Shi'i and Sunni Muslims to the Twentieth Century. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2005.

Iqbal, Muhammad.The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. Edited by M. Saeed Sheikh. Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture, 1986.

Ja‘fari , Muhammad Taqi. Tarjumahwa tafsir Nahj al-balaghah [A translation and commentary of Nahj al-Balaghah].Tehran, 1981.

Jalal, Ayesha. Self andSovereignty : Individual and Community in South Asian Islam since 1850. London: Routledge, 2000.

Jones, Justin. "‘Signs of Churning’: Muslim Personal Law and Public Contestation in Twenty-First Century India." Modern Asian Studies 44, no. Special Issue 01 (2010): 175-200.

Jones, Kenneth W. Socio-Religious Reform Movements in British India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. “Law and Society: The Interplay of Revelation and Reason in the Shariah.”In The Oxford History of Islam. Edited by John L. Esposito. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

_____ Shari‘ah Law: An Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2008. See esp. chap. 12, “Adaptation and Reform.” Khalidi, Tarif. Images of Muhammad: Narratives of the Prophet in Islam across the Centuries. New York: Doubleday, 2009. See esp. chap. 9, “The Hero: Muhammad in Modern Biography.”

Khomeini, Ruhollah. Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini (1941-1980). Translated and annotated by Hamid Algar. Mizan Press: Berkeley, 1981.

al-Khu’i , al-Sayyid Abu al-Qasim al-Musawi.The Prolegomena to the Qur’an. Translated by Abdulaziz A. Sachedina. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Krämer, Gudrun, and Sabine Schmidtke, ed. Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies.Social, Economic, and Political Studies of the Middle East and Asia. Leiden: Brill, 2006.

Kugle, Scott Alan. “Framed, Blamed and Renamed: the Recasting of Islamic Jurisprudence in Colonial South Asia.” Modern Asian Studies 35, no. 2 (2001): 257- 313.

Kurzman, Charles. Liberal Islam: A Source Book. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

_____ Modernist Islam, 1840-1940: A Sourcebook. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Lahidji, Abdol Karim.“Constitutionalism and Clerical Authority.” In Authority and Political Culture in Shi'ism. Edited by Said Amir Arjomand. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988.

Lapidus, Ira. “Islamic Revival and Modernity: The Contemporary Movements and the Historical Paradigms.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 40, no. 4 (1997): 110-155.

Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Mahmood, Saba. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005.

al-Majlisi , Muhammad Baqir b. Muhammad.Bihar al-anwar al-jami‘a li-durar akhbar ala’ imma al-athar. Beirut: Mu‘assasat al-Wafa’, n.d.

Malik, Jamal. Madrasas in South Asia: Teaching Terror? New York: Routledge, 2008.

Mann, E. A. Boundaries and Identities: Muslims, Work and Status in Aligarh. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1992.

Martin, Vanessa."Trends in the Shi‘i Response to Constitutionalist Ideology in Iran." In Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2, no. 3 (1992): 347-361.

al-Mashkini , 'Ali.Istalahat al-usul. 5th ed. Qom: Daftar-i Nashr al-Hadi, 1993.

Masud, Muhammad Khalid, Armando Salvatore, and Martin van Bruinessen, ed. Islam and Modernity: Key Issues and Debates. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.

Mavani, Hamid.“Analysis of Khomeini’s Proofs for al-Wilaya al-Mutlaqa.” In The Most Learned of the Shi'a: The Institution of theMarja‘ Taqlid .Edited by Linda S. Walbridge. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Mernissi, Fatima. Women and Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry.Translated by Mary Jo Lakeland. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991.

Metcalf, Barbara Daly. Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1990. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982.

_____ “Islamic Reform and Islamic Women: Maulana Thanawi’s Jewelry of Paradise.” In Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian Islam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.

Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. Islam and Gender: The Religious Debate in Contemporary Iran. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Murata, Sachiko, and William C. Chittick. “Islam in History” inThe Vision of Islam. New York: I. B. Tauris, 1996.

Nadvi, Abul Hasan Ali.Islam and the World. 2nd English ed. Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1967.

Naeem, Fuad S. “A Traditional Islamic Response to the Rise of Modernism.” In Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition: Essays by Western Muslim Scholars, edited by Joseph E.B. Lumbard, 79-120. Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2004.

_____ "Sufism and Revivalism in South Asia: Mawlana Ashraf ‘Ali Thanvi of Deoband and Mawlana Ahmad Raza Khan of Bareilly and Their Paradigms of Islamic Revivalism." The Muslim World 99, no. 3 (July 2009): 435-51.doi : 10.1111/j.1478-1913.2009.01279.x.

Nakash, Yitzhak.“The Muharram Rituals and the Cult of the Saints among Iraqi Shiites.” In The Other Shiites: From the Mediterranean to Central Asia, edited by Alessandro Monsutti, Silvia Naef, and Farian Sabahi. New York: Peter Lang, 2007.

Naqvi, Sayyid Mahmud. Bu’ay gul. Delhi: Nishat Publications, 1989.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, Hamid Dabashi, and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, ed. “The Debates over the Constitutional Revolution.” Chapter 21 in Expectation of the Millennium: Shi'ism in History. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.

Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza. Islamic Leviathan: Islam and the Making of State Power. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

_____Mawdudi & the Making of Islamic Revivalism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

_____ The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution: The Jama’at-i Islami of Pakistan.

Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.

el-Nawawy , Mohammed, and Sahar Khamis. Islam Dot Com: Contemporary Islamic Discourses in Cyberspace. New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2009.

Newbigin, Eleanor. “Personal Law and Citizenship in India’s Transition to Independence” in Modern Asian Studies 45, 1 (2011): 7-32.

Ohlander, Erik."Modern Qur’anic Hermeneutics." Religion Compass 3, no. 4 (2009): 620-36.

Pinault, David. Horse of Karbala: Muslim Devotional Life in India. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.

_____ The Shiites: Ritual and Popular Piety in a Muslim Community. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1992.

_____ “Shia Lamentation Rituals and Reinterpretations of the Doctrine of Intercession: Two Cases from Modern India” History of Religions 38, No. 3 (Feb., 1999): 285-305.

Pirbhai, M. Reza.Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context. Leiden: Brill, 2009. See esp. chap. 3, “Codification and a ‘New’ Sober Path.” Qutb, Sayyid.Social Justice in Islam. Translated by John B. Hardie. Translation revised and introduction by Hamid Algar. New York: Islamic Publications International, 2000.

Rahman, Fazlur.Major Themes of the Qur'an. Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1980.

Rahnema, Ali. An Islamic Utopian: A Political Biography of Ali Shari‘ati. London: I.B. Tauris, 2000.

_____ ,ed . Pioneers of Islamic Revival. New York: Zed Books, 2006

Reetz, Dietrich. Islam in the Public Sphere: Religious Groups in India, 1900-1947. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Ricoeur, Paul.“The Human Experience of Time and Narrative.” In A Ricoeur Reader: Reflection and Imagination.Edited by Mario J. Valdés. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991.

Riexinger, Martin. “Responses of South Asian Muslims to the Theory of Evolution” Die Welt des Islams, 49 no. 2 (June 2009): 212-247.doi : 10.1163/157006009X449465

Rizvi, Salamat ‘Ali. Sayyid al-‘Ulama’: hayatwa karnamay.N.p .: 1988.

_____“Hayat-i sayyid al-‘ulama’.” Khandan-i Ijtihad (November 2010): 46-82.

_____“Sayyid al-mufassirin, sadr al-muhaqqiqin, ayatullah al-‘uzma’ maulana Sayyid ‘Ali Naqi Naqvi.” Khandan-i Ijtihad (December 2005): 80-4.

Rizvi, S. A. A. “The Breakdown of Traditional Society.” In The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West.2 vol., edited by P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, 67-96. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

_____ Shah 'Abd al-'Aziz: Puritanism, Sectarian, Polemics and Jihad. Canberra: Marifat Publishing, 1982.

_____A Socio-Intellectual History of the Ithna' 'Ashari Shi'ism in India, 2 vols. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1986.

Robinson, Francis.Islam and Muslim History in South Asia. Oxford: Oxford, 2000.

_____ “Crisis of Authority: Crisis of Islam?” In Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 19 (2009): 339-54.

_____The ‘Ulama of Farangi Mahall and Islamic Culture in South Asia. London: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2001.

Roded, Ruth, ed. Women in Islam and the Middle East: A Reader. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2008.

Russell, Bertrand. Why I am not a Christian and other Essays on religion and Related Subjects. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc.: 1957.

Sachedina, Abdulaziz.“The Eternal Meaning of Husayn’s Martyrdom.” In Alserat:

Papers from the Imam Husayn Conference London 7 (1986): 183-206.

_____The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

_____ The Just Ruler (Al-Sultan Al-Adil) in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

_____ “Muslim Intellectuals and the Struggle for Democracy.” in Global Dialogue 6, no. 1–2 (Winter/Spring 2004).

al-Sadr , Muhammad Baqir.“Shar’i Rulings and Their Divisions.” In Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence: According to Shi‘i Law. Translated by Arif Abdul Hussain, and edited by Hamid Algar andSa‘eed Bahmanpour. London: ICAS Press, 2003.

Sanyal, Usha. Devotional Islam and Politics in British India: Ahmed Riza Khan Barelvi and His Movement, 1870-1920. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Saliba, Therese, Carolyn Allen, and Judith A. Howard. Gender, Politics, and Islam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002.

Schimmel, Annemarie. Gabriel’s Wing: A Study into the Religious Ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal. Leiden: Brill, 1963.

Schubel, Vernon James. Religious Performance in Contemporary Islam: Shi'i Devotional Rituals in South Asia. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993.

Sharify-Funk, Meena. Encountering the Transnational: Women, Islam and the Politics of Interpretation. Burlington: Ashgate, 2008.

Shirazi, Muhammad Sultan al-Vaizin. Shiah Islam in Sunni Traditions: A Translation of Peshawar Nights.Translated by Hamid Quinlan and Charles Ali Campbell. Dallas: Texas Islamic Press, 1997.

Siavoshi, Sussan. “Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi: Politics, Knowledge, and the Good Life.” Muslim World 100 (January 2010): 124-144.doi : 10.1111/j.1478- 1913.2009.01308.x Sikand, Yoginder. “An Islamic Critique of Patriarchy: Maulana Sayyed Kalb-i Sadiq’s Approach to Gender Relations.”In The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought. Edited by Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi. Malden: Blackwell Pub., 2006.

Sobhani, Ja’far. Doctrines of Shi‘i Islam: A Compendium of Imami Beliefs and Practices. Translated and edited by Reza Shah-Kazemi. London: I.B. Tauris, 2001.

Soroush, Abdolkarim.“Of Concordance of Reason and Revelation.” In Reason, Freedom, and Democracy in Islam: Essential Writings of Abdolkarim Soroush. Edited, translated, and introduction by Mahmoud Sadri and Ahmad Sadri. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Souaiaia, Ahmed E. Contesting Justice: Women, Islam, Law, and Society. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008.

Stowasser, Barbara Freyer.Women in the Qur'an, Traditions, and Interpretation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Tabataba’i, Muhammad Husayn.Shi‘ite Islam. Translated, edited, with introduction by Seyyed Hossein Nasr.Persian Studies Series, no. 5. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1975.

Taji-Farouki, Suha, ed. Modern Muslim Intellectuals and the Qur’an. New York: Oxford University Press in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies London, 2004.

Takim, Liyakatali. The Heirs of the Prophet: Charisma and Religious Authority in Shi'ite Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006.

Thanvi, Ashraf ‘Ali, and Barbara Daly Metcalf. Perfecting Women: Maulana Ashraf 'Ali Thanwi's Bihishti Zewar: A Partial Translation with Commentary. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

Tibi, Bassam. Islam’s Predicament with Modernity: Religious Reform and Cultural Change. New York: Routledge, 2009.

Troll, Christian W. Sayyid Ahmad Khan: A Reinterpretation of Muslim Theology. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978.

Veer, Peter van der. Imperial Encounters: Religion and Modernity in India and Britain. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.

Voll, John. “Renewal and Reform in Islamic History: Tajdid and Islah.”In Voices of Resurgent Islam. Edited by John Esposito. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.

Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Ashraf ‘Ali Thanawi: Islam in Modern South Asia. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2008.

_____“The Ulama and Contestations on Religious Authority.” In Islam and Modernity: Key Issues and Debates.Edited by Muhammad Khalid Masud, Armando Salvatore, and Martin van Bruinessen. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.

_____ The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002.

_____ “Review Essay: Modernity and Religious Change in South Asian Islam” in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3rd series, 14 no. 3 (2004): 253-263.

Zebiri, Kate.Mahmud Shaltut and Islamic Modernism. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993.