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Exploring Perspectives on Child Care With Families of Children With Autism

Exploring Perspectives on Child Care With Families of Children With Autism

Author:
Publisher: www.ecrp.uiuc.edu
English

This book is corrected and edited by Al-Hassanain (p) Institue for Islamic Heritage and Thought

Exploring Perspectives on Child CareWith Families of Children With Autism

MarianaMereoiu

Bowling Green State University

Carol Bland

Radford University

Nicole Dobbins and Judith A. Niemeyer

University of North Carolina at Greensboro

www.ecrp.uiuc.edu

www.alhassanain.org/english

Notice:

This workis published on behalf of www.alhassanain.org/english

The typing errorsaren’t corrected.

Table of Contents

Abstract 4

Introduction 5

Challenges to Inclusion 6

Experiences With Services 7

Methods 9

Study Design 10

Setting and Sample 11

Procedures 12

Data Analysis 13

Findings 14

Child Care Providers’ Recognition of ASD Characteristics 15

Child Care Providers’ Knowledge of Strategies, Services, and Resources 16

Child Care Professionals’ Knowledge and Parents’ Need to Advocate 17

Teacher’s Attitude Toward the Child 18

Importance of Peer Friendships 19

Discussion 20

Implications for Future Research and Limitations of the Study 22

References 23

Abstract

Early childhood programs serve increasing numbers of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and their families. While many programs have made significant progress in providing educational services responsive to the needs of children with ASD, concerns persist about whether early education programs can meet the educational needs of such children and collaborate effectively with their families. The authors explored self-reported experiences and concerns of families who have children diagnosed with ASD and their experiences with preschool educational services in a northern county of a southeastern state. In focus groups, participants discussed program/family relationships, their priorities for their children, and how these needs and prioritieswere addressed, or not addressed, in the programs serving their children . Findings indicate that families were concerned with their children’s access to the educational environment, the availability of emotional and social development support for children with ASD, and the overall reflection of inclusion as a program philosophy in the program settings.

Introduction

If you have benefited from free access to ECRP, please consider making a financial contribution to ECRP so that the journal can continue to be available free to everyone.

Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are the most rapidly growing group of students served in special education (Barnhill,Polloway , &Sumutka , 2011; Ludlow,Keramidas , & Landers, 2007). For 2010, the overall prevalence of ASD at 11 different U.S. monitoring sites was 1 in 68 children aged 8 years (CDC,n.d .).

The increased rates of ASD diagnosis have led families and policy makers to call for initiatives to increase knowledge and understanding of the needs of children with ASD and enhance the effectiveness of interventions and related services (Bloch & Weinstein, 2010; Boyd, Odom, Humphreys, & Sam, 2010). Families’ unique expertise and insights can help teachers and specialists better understand the strengths and needs of children with ASD (Becker-Cottrill , McFarland, & Anderson, 2003; A. Turnbull, H. R. Turnbull, Erwin,Soodak , &Shogren , 2011; Woods & McCormick, 2002). Information from families can also benefit practitioners and teacher educators who seek to promote parental participation in assessment, evaluation, goal identification, or service planning for children with ASD.

The developmental and academic benefits of inclusive settings for young children with disabilities have been documented by an extensive body of literature (Buysse & Hollingsworth, 2009;Etscheidt , 2006) . In their joint statement on inclusion in early childhood education, the Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children and the National Association for the Education of Young Children assert the critical importance of meaningful interaction between young children with disabilities and their typically developing peers (DEC/NAEYC, 2009; Kohler,Greteman ,Raschke &Highnam , 2007; Kohler, Strain, & Goldstein, 2005).

Research suggests that significant numbers of parents are dissatisfied with limited inclusivity in their children’s placements. In an analysis of services received by families of 3,104 preschool children with autism and parents’ satisfaction with these services,Bitterman , Daley,Misra , Carlson, and Markowitz (2008) found that while most of the parents reported receiving good or excellent services, more than a quarter thought their children did not spend enough time with typically developing peers. These parents also reported spending significant amounts of time identifying and obtaining services for their preschool children (Bitterman et al., 2008). Some research indicates that, compared with families of children with other disabilities, families of children with ASD are more likely to experience delays and other difficulties with referrals and appropriate education services as well as financial struggles. Parents of children with ASD are also more likely to reduce workload or even stop working to attend to their children’s needs when needed services are not in place (Honberg ,Kogan , Allen, Strickland, &Newacheck , 2009;Kogan et al., 2008; Lord & Bishop, 2010).

Challenges to Inclusion

High-quality programs with appropriately trained professionals have potential to address the needs of the growing number of children with disabilities and their families in early childhood programs (Buysse & Hollingsworth, 2009;Buysse , Skinner, & Grant, 2001). Teacher educators and professional organizations have sought to infuse the goal of inclusion into teacher preparation and professional development programs. In particular, they have advocated a culture of inclusive practice with instructional strategies and curriculum that address the needs of all children. Moreover, training to prepare teachers to meet the needs of young children with disabilities is viewed as critical in developing positive attitudes toward inclusion (Baker-Ericzén ,Mueggenborg , & Shea, 2009;Cross ,Traub ,Hutter-Pishgahi , & Shelton, 2004). However, full inclusion of young children with ASD remains challenging. Insufficient planning and instructional time and lack of training for early childhood special educators and specialists are among the identified barriers to addressing the needs of children with ASD (Anderson, Moore, Godfrey, & Fletcher-Flinn , 2004; Kemp & Hayes, 2005;Kishida & Kemp, 2009). Research also suggests that support for positive social and emotional development of children with ASD may be inadequate because of insufficient resources and limited training opportunities for early childhood teachers (Blair, Lee, Cho & Dunlap, 2011; Brown, Odom, & Conroy, 2001;Wolery &Gast , 2000).

These challenges are confirmed by reports from parents of young children with moderate and severe disabilities, indicating that finding high-quality child care programs for their children can be particularly difficult, due in part to child care providers’ attitudes toward inclusion and the lack of resources for addressing these children’s complex needs and abilities (Baker-Ericzén et al., 2009;Mulvihill , Cotton, &Gyaben , 2004; Odom,Vitztum , et al., 2004). Families of young children with ASD report significant challenges in accessing and maintaining enrollment in high-quality service programs (Braddock &Twyman , 2014; Murphy & Ruble, 2012; Ruble,Heflinger , Renfrew, & Saunders, 2005; Thomas, Ellis,McLaurin , Daniels, & Morrissey, 2007).

ExperiencesWith Services

Infants, toddlers, and preschool children and their families may receive services (e.g., diagnostic services) under federal and state-funded programs under Part C and Part B of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) or through private programs.

Diagnosis. Early diagnosis by specialist ASD teams including trained physicians or psychologists is seen as crucial for children with ASD; timely referral for early intervention services has been shown to lead to improved language, social, and adaptive functioning and increased likelihood of successful inclusion (Schwartz,Sandall , McBride, &Boulware , 2004; Strain & Bovey, 2011). However, families have historically experienced challenges at various levels of special education services, and the diagnosis phase can be particularly stressful. While recommended practices for ASD screening and evaluation of young children include use of formal developmental screening tools and specific procedures, a large proportion of physicians do not employ them consistently (Lord & Bishop, 2010;Sices ,Feudtner , McLaughlin,Drotar , & Williams, 2003). The route from detection of early signs to provision of early intervention services can vary across states and education or health care systems. Families often rely on teachers and educational professionals to inform them of developmental concerns for their children, although educators may not be prepared to identify early signs of developmental needs or to relay concerns to families or other professionals. Diagnosiscan be delayed by the need to navigate multiple evaluation procedures involving several professionals; extended time may also be required to accurately determine what a child’s needs are (Siklos & Kerns, 2007). In a study of parents’ experiences with special education services for their children with disabilities, A. Webster,Feiler , V. Webster, and Lovell (2004) found that most of the families had to wait more than one year for a formal evaluation and diagnosis.

Family engagement. Family engagement in early education programs for children with disabilitiesis generally considered extremely important (Hedges & Gibbs, 2005). Early childhood educators and interventionists are expected to engage parents in a range of services for their children at various levels, including assessment, evaluation, identifying goals, or service planning. Parent education programs have been important elements of therapy for children with ASD, although not all parents have the time, energy, and resources to participate (Whittingham ,Sofronoff , Sheffield & Sanders, 2009). Parent-implemented interventions have been effective for young children with ASD (Boyd et al., 2010); however, parents of children with ASD have reported significant challenges topartnering with teachers and specialists.

This study addressed the following questions regarding the experiences of families with young children with ASD inchild care settings: (a) What are the families’ perceptions of child care providers’ willingness to accept their young children with ASD? (b) What are the families’ perceptions ofchild care providers’ willingness and ability to support young children with ASD? (c) What do families recommend forchild care providers to better meet the needs of young children with ASD?

Methods

Study Design

The researchers employed qualitative methods to explore the views of parents of preschool children with ASD inchild care programs. Focus groupswere conducted to collect comprehensive data from parents to enhance understanding of the family perspectives based on their experiences. Focus groupsare viewed as particularly useful for obtaining in-depth information on participants’ perspectives and exploring ideas relevant to a topic (Christinsen , Johnson, & Turner, 2011).

Setting and Sample

Research sites. This study took place in the United States, in a state that includes a population of almost 630,000 children under 5 years old and has high rates of cultural and linguistic diversity. The parent focus groupswere conducted in one county with a population of more than 488,000, of which 6.8 percent are children under 5 years old. The focus groups took place at a community building of a partnering community agency.

Participants. Participants in this research (N=22) were parents of children with ASD who have attended preschool programs. Almost all participants in this study were European American (n=19), with one African American participant, one Asian, and one of Latino heritage. All but onewere female. Almost half of the participants (n=10) were residents of urban areas; seven lived in suburban areas, and five in rural areas. Six participants reported having children ages 20 months to 4 years old, and 19 reported having children ages 5 and older; some had more than one child across these categories. All had children whohad been diagnosed with ASD before age 6; three of the children had additional diagnoses. One child’s diagnosis was yet to be established. Twelve were diagnosed before age 2½, and 14 at age 3 or older. Participants reported having their children enrolled in private early childhood education programs (n=6), public early childhood education programs (n=3), privatechild care programs (n=6), early childhood education programs supported by both public and private funding (n=5), and child care programs supported by public funding and partial private funding (n=2).

Procedures

A purposeful homogeneous sample of participantswas recruited through an announcement about the research posted in the newsletter of a local community service organization. The research team worked with that agency to organize the focus group sessions. Each session lasted approximately one and a half hours. The research team included two lead researchers and two research assistants, all of whomwere trained for their roles in the study. Research assistants took field notes while a lead researcher led five focus groups of between five and nine participants. Sessionswereaudiotaped and data was transcribed into electronic files.

The focus group discussion began with broad, open-ended questions and continued with in-depth questions regarding the experiences of families with preschool programs.Questions addressed (a) families’ overall experience with the programs their children were currently attending or their recollections from the past three years; (b) families’ hopes and expectations regarding early childhood care and education services; (c) families’ desires regarding their children’s and families’ needs regarding the child care services provided, or not provided; (d) families’ perceptions of how well prepared the professionals working with their child were; (e) families’ descriptions of the barriers the early educators might have encountered when trying to address family expectations or the children’s needs; (f) families’ descriptions of the strengths of the programs in addressing the needs of children and their families; and (g) families’ recommendations for ways child care providers might better meet the needs of children with ASD and their families.

Data Analysis

All collected datawere transcribed verbatim from audiotape to electronic text files. Two team research members analyzed one focus group transcript (25% of the data) independently forinterrater reliability. The transcripts were set in a three-column table with the verbatim transcription in the first column. During multiple readings, researchers noted and coded common elements; recurring patternswere identified as specific themes. The researchers discussed disagreements across the themes until reaching full agreement. Transcripts of the remaining focus groupswere equally divided and analyzed by two research team members . A final index of themes and codeswas developed from comparison and discussion of the analyzed data.

Findings

We identified five major themes about the participants’ experiences withchild care programs serving their young children with ASD.

Child care providers’ lack of knowledge about the characteristics of ASD affects families’ initial experiences.

Parents thoughtchild care professionals needed to know more about the appropriate instructional strategies, services, and resources that are critical for serving children with ASD and their families.

After recognizing this lack of knowledge amongchild care professionals, parents advocated for their child by finding resources and information themselves.

Parents want teachers to love, respect, and acknowledge the unique needs of their child.

It’s important to parents that their child with ASD has peer friendships.

Child Care Providers’ Recognition of ASD Characteristics

Focus group participants emphasized the importance of teachers’ ability to recognize and understand the early signs of ASD. In some cases, professionals’ lack of knowledge about ASD affected families’ awareness of their children’s needs; one of the parents stated, “I needed someone to raise the red flag, and no one did that.” However, some participants indicated that, even when teachers were knowledgeable about early signs of ASD, process-related requirements impeded them from sharing that information with families. Teacherswere not allowed to provide parents with their input when they suspected specific developmental problems. One participant remarked, “I think that if a teacher … sees some things that they identify, that they should be allowed to give you that approach, and to help you and to guide you.”

Parents emphasized the need for timely evaluations. They emphasized the importance of early identification and the use of appropriate screening and evaluation tools as steps toward accessing early intervention in atime frame perceived as “sensible” for their children’s growth and development. For example, a parent stated:

I know it’sgonna vary parent to parent, but I guess my point is some sort of consistent evaluation that can be marketed to these preschools or required of these preschools just because early intervention we’re seeing so much now is so important, and somehow stemming the tide a little bit when it comes to these children.

Participants reported challenges associated with teachers’ ability to discriminate between behavioral indicators of ASD and typical developmental responses of children in their programs. Some reported that teachersmay have overlooked the needs of children who, though not developing typically, did not exhibit hard-to-manage classroom behaviors, such as disruptive responses. One participant summarized:

I think sometimes a teacher might thinkthey’re OK because they’re not screaming andtantrumming and they’re not hitting or biting someone else, but when you look at that child, are they doing anything productive?Or are they just engaging in self-stimulatory behaviors in the corner?And if the teacher is OK with that, because it’s manageable, […] I think that’s a problem, because that’s not being a successful experience.

Child Care Providers’ Knowledge of Strategies, Services, and Resources

Participants frequently expressed the wish that teachers serving their children had greater knowledge of strategies, services, and resources to address the needs of children with ASD. Regular communication between school and home, generally considered strategically important for working with children with ASD,was frequently described as challenging. Often teachers did not recognize or acknowledge the importance of regular communication with families about the child. One participant commented: “So I feel like that’s one of the biggest problems with him at that school is that I just, I never know what happened at school.”

The participants also reported that lack of regular communication between teachers and families sometimes undermined their trust in the programs and affected their perspective on services provided. The lack of transparent, consistent communicationwas sometimes seen as extending to relationships among the professionals working with a child. One parent elaborated: “It’s the lack of a team approach. They’re supposed to be a team, you know, and it’s just not there. Some participants perceived that this might have significant consequences for children with ASD whose educational success depends on the effective, coherent, and harmonious integration of specialized services: A parent remarked:

Being open to that therapy, IEP team, coming in the classroom,that’s just such an important piece to make it work. If you have a teacher notreal happy about an educational therapist coming in the room a couple of times a week, that’s going to be a barrier.

Participants also discussed the need for teachers to use instructional strategies that accommodate the needsnot only of children with ASD but all children. For example, one parent stressed the importance of sensory-based learning approaches.

They need those visuals, they need those tactile experiences wherethey’re doing the hands-on things, and that’s how they’re getting their learning. Not giving them the verbal orders and telling them … what to do and how to do it and expecting them to follow that, and I think what a lot of the centers don’t realize is that it not only affects the kids with autism, it affects the other kids as well.

Similarly, participants indicated that they wanted teachers to employ developmentally appropriate curriculum and instructional strategies with their children with ASD, sometimes linking the need for such curricula and strategies to the importance of collaboration among professionals to ensure that IEP goalsare achieved .As one parent said: “So, I think, having a developmentally appropriate curriculum and also having teachers that are going to embrace … the opportunity to work with an IEP makes that be able to be successful.”

Child Care Professionals’ Knowledge and Parents’ Need to Advocate

Some focus group participants indicated that because their children’s teachers frequently were not knowledgeable about ASD, they as parents felt “on their own” as they advocated for their children by seeking available resources and information. Some parents described becoming advocates for their children because they were not provided with necessary information or appropriate support in thechild care setting. Parents frequently reported that they struggled to create access to services and supports in their communities; they perceived this as an intense effort in which they faced difficulties without support. One of the parents commented: “…and we’re the front people on the front line with all these kids!”

Learning that a childhas been diagnosed with ASD can be traumatic for a family, many participants indicated, especially when they then face additional difficulties.One parent explained that after receiving the diagnosis, the prospect of addressing challenges with the child care program seemed beyond the family’s personal resources, noting: “Probably, had I not already been traumatized from diagnosis, if I had gone to the director, I think some things would have been set straight in the classroom, but you can only fight so many fights.” Parents in such situations sometimes hired a facilitator to help them obtain appropriate education services for children. One parent said: “Later I found out that most of the parents there hired their own facilitator to go in, and had I known that, I might have reconsidered [removing my child from the program].”

Teacher’s AttitudeToward the Child

Focus group participants emphasized their desire that teachers love, respect, and acknowledge the unique needs of their children with ASD. They frequently described the importance of having the children and their strengths valued and embraced by teachers and peers, though they recognized that teachers and other professionalsmight be challenged by the children’s behavioral difficulties.

Our kids are difficult sometimes to handle, and unless you have someone who is willing to see past the differences and see how wonderful they really are, you know, I mean I can understand you might be a little daunted, butthey’re really great kids.

In fact, parents reported that above all else, they wanted teachers to love and accept their children. One parent summarized, “I wanted someone to love them first. Another parent commented, “I really just think it’s the feedback, and the caring for your child, you know, they care for every one of those children like they’re their own. In general, confidence that the children were accepted and appreciated, and that teachers were understanding and compassionate, were critical to parents’ comfort. As one parent said: “In a few months a different teacher came in and I just think [there’s a] level of compassion and concern and they view my child like their child and they work very well.”

Importance of Peer Friendships

Parents in the focus groups frequently cited development of peer friendships as an important goal they had for their children with ASD. They perceived that support and opportunities for peer acceptance and friendship were essential. One parentcommented,“The teacher knows that our big goal is the social component, so she is giving me feedback on my number one concern, [which] is that I want [my child] to initiate with a peer.” Another participantstated: “I had that in my head, I was replaying that they have to be with their typical peers because that’s how they learn best.” Another parent said, regarding her child’s relationships, “I just want you to talk and have a friend, and everything else … will fall into place.” However, many of the parents noted that this objective had yet tobe accomplished . One parent said: “I just wanted him to like it, and to make a friend, and we haven’t done that yet.”

Discussion

Findings of this study are consistent with other research documenting the importance of proactively addressing the needs of children with autism in early childhood programs (Dingfelder &Mandell , 2011;Ferraioli & Harris, 2011). Early intervention services and therapies delivered in a timely fashion are crucial, yet this study and others have found that families often report that professionals do not fully address their concerns related to intervention and therapy (Reznick ,Baranek ,Reavis , Watson, &Crais , 2007;Schall , 2000).

The findings also align with other research that has found that many families’ greatest concerns are related to identification of and service provision for young children with ASD and their families inchild care programs (Kishida & Kemp, 2011). Concerns identified in other studies include lack of resources (e.g., insufficient time for teachers to plan instructional strategies or insufficient specialized materials) and challenges to consulting with the teachers (Kemp & Hayes, 2005;Kishida & Kemp, 2011).

This study and prior research have noted that parents want to trust that teachers are knowledgeable about and vigilant recognizing their children’s needs. Indeed, professionals can play a critical role in providing families with emotional support, encouragement, and information on their child’s disability and ways to identify and address the needs of their child and family (Bloch & Weinstein, 2010; Murray, Ackerman-Spain, Williams, &Ryley , 2011). However, as participants in this study indicated,child care professionals may be unable to do so.

The National Research Council (NRC) identified six priority areas of focus for interventions for young children with autism: functional spontaneous communication, social instruction, play skills, cognitive development, functional academic skills, and proactive approaches in addressing behavioral problems (Stansberry-Brusnahan &Collet-Klingenberg , 2010). The parents in our study shared recommendations that aligned with those of NRC. Among other points, they commented on the critical importance of teachers’ ability to detect early signs of ASD so children could benefit from early intervention and on the need for teachers to use approaches that are specifically effective for children with autism. Study participants also emphasized the importance of their children’s ability to communicate effectively and their overallsocioemotional development. This suggests a critical need for professionals to be prepared to provide inclusive opportunities, ongoing evaluations and adjustments, family engagement, and consistent, systematically planned and developmentally appropriate activities for young children with ASD (Stansberry-Brusnahan &Collet-Klingenberg , 2010).

Environments that are emotionally secure and nurturing enhance child development and create opportunities for children to develop emotional and social skills vital for children with ASD. Teachers need support to be prepared to provide such opportunities. Parents also strongly emphasized acknowledging their children’s strengths and celebrating their achievements. This is consistent with research findings and professional recommendations for a strengths-based approach for working with families of students with disabilities (A. Turnbull et al., 2011). Research also suggests that parental support for children’s social-emotional development and interactions with peers are critical for development in all other areas for children with ASD (Bass &Mulick , 2007; Harper,Symon , &Frea , 2008;Trembath ,Balandin ,Togher , &Stancliffe , 2009).

Parents’ first-hand knowledge of their children’s experiences and needs could make them valuable partners in preparing teachers to work with children who have ASD if teacher education programs establish collaborative relationships with parents and family members. At present, few examples can be found of systematic participation of family members in teacher training programs (Leatherman & Niemeyer, 2005; Murray, Curran, & Zellers, 2008; Niemeyer, 2001). Teacher education programs with a strong focus on family engagement have involved families in various ways, ranging from being guest speakers or panel participants to co-teaching, curriculum development, and internships. Collaborative in-service/professional developmental opportunities involvingchild care providers and parents of children with ASD can also build on available resources and enhance services to all children.

Implications for Future Research and Limitations of the Study

Like parents in similar studies, the participants in this study referred particularly to the importance of early identification of children with ASD (Crane &Winsler , 2008;Samms -Vaughan & Franklyn-Banton , 2008). These results suggest that early childhood program administrators should prioritize professional training that helps teachers recognize early signs of ASD and effective ways to address them.

For families in this study, the quality ofsocioemotional support teachers provided their children with ASD was of critical importance. The role of teachers and specialists in establishing positive relationships with and supportive environments for children should be explored further (Odom, Brown, et al., 2003; Robertson, Chamberlain, &Kasari , 2003).

Finally, collaboration between professionals and families with children who have ASD is not only recommended practice aligned with the families’ rights regarding education of their children, it is also a central piece in the support teachers and other specialists can create for children with ASD (Moes &Frea , 2002; Odom, Brown, et al., 2003). Families have unique knowledge and expertise that professionals can and should incorporate in the educational environments they create for children with ASD (Iovannone , Dunlap, Huber, & Kincaid, 2003). Research should continue to explore ways to prepare educators for collaboration with families whose children have ASD.

This study of what families identify as critical issues in the education of preschool children with ASD has several limitations. Sample size was small; to increasegeneralizability , a larger sampleshould be recruited to investigate families’ concerns related to inclusion of preschoolers with ASD. In addition, this study presented data collected only from families. Future research should include data from the teachers and specialists working with these children to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the different contexts for inclusion and other factors that influence the experiences of children with ASD and their families.

The First Year of Hijra

According to the investigations of the late Mahmood Pasha al-Falaki of Egypt, the day when Muhammad Mustafa, the Messenger of God, arrived in Quba was Monday, 8th of Rabi-I of the year 13 of the Proclamation, a date which corresponds to September 20, 622.

On the following Friday, 12th of Rabi-I (September 24), the Messenger of God left Quba, and entered Yathrib. He was lodged at the house of Abu Ayyub, as already noted.

The Construction of the Mosque in Yathrib

The first act of Muhammad Mustafa, may God bless him and his Ahlul-Bait, upon arrival in Yathrib, was to build a mosque in which to worship Allah. In front of the house of Abu Ayyub there was a vacant lot which belonged to two orphans. The Apostle summoned them and their guardians, and told them that he wanted to buy that land. They told him that they would be very happy to make that land a gift to him. But he refused to accept it as a gift, and insisted on paying its price. They eventually agreed to accept payment for their land. Payment was made and ground-breaking was begun immediately.

Explaining the reasons why the Apostle of God did not accept the land as a gift, M. Abul Kalam Azad says in his book, Rasul-e-Rahmet (Messenger of Mercy), (Lahore, Pakistan, 1970):

The Apostle did not want to take anyone's obligation. Who can claim to be more faithful to him than Abu Bakr? And he himself said that he was more grateful to Abu Bakr for his moral and material support than to anyone else. And yet, when Abu Bakr wished to make a present to him of a camel on the eve of their departure from Makkah to Yathrib, he did not accept it until he had paid Abu Bakr its price. Similarly, in Yathrib, when he wanted to buy land to build a mosque on it, its owners offered it to him as a gift. But he refused to accept it as a gift. The land was acquired only when its owners agreed to accept its price from him which he paid.

The mosque of Yathrib was the ultimate in simplicity of conception and design. The material used in its construction was unbaked bricks and mortar for the walls, and date fronds for the roof which was supported by trunks of palm trees. The alcove of the mosque pointed toward Jerusalem in the north. Each of the other three sides was pierced by a gate. The floor of the mosque had no covering at the beginning, not even a coarse matting.

Two huts were also built on the outer wall, one for Sauda the daughter of Zama'a; and the other for Ayesha, the daughter of Abu Bakr, the two wives of the Prophet at the time. New huts were built for new wives as they came in later years. It was the first time when Muslims worked as a team in a community project. In the years to come, this team was to build the mighty edifice of Islam.

Inspired by the presence of the Messenger of God, everyone of the Companions was vying to outdo the others. Among the Companions was Ammar ibn Yasir, who, according to Ibn Ishaq, was the first man in Islam to build a mosque. Ibn Ishaq, did not specify which mosque it was that Ammar built. But Dr. Taha Husain of Egypt says that Ammar had built a mosque in Makkah itself and he prayed in it, long before he migrated to Yathrib.

When the mosque was being built, an incident took place which Ibn Ishaq has recorded as follows:

“Ammar b. Yasir came in when they had overloaded him with bricks, saying, “They are killing me. They load me with burdens they cannot carry themselves.” Umm Salama, the Prophet’s wife said: “I saw the Apostle run his hand through his (Ammar’s) hair – for he was a curly-haired man – and say, “Alas, Ibn Sumayya! It is not they who will kill you, but a wicked band of men.”

(This prophecy is said to have been fulfilled when Ammar was killed at Siffin – Suhayli, ii, p.3)

Ali composed a rajaz verse on that day (when the mosque was being built):

There’s one that labors night and day

To build us mosques of brick and clay

And one who turns from dust away.

Ammar learned it and began to chant it.

When he persisted in it, one of the Prophet's companions thought that it was he who was referred to in it, according to what Ziyad b. Abdullah el-Bakkai told me from Ibn Ishaq. The latter had actually named the man.

He said: “I have heard what you have been saying for a long time, O Ibn Sumayya, and by God I think, I will hit you on the nose!” Now he had a stick in his hand, and the Apostle was very angry and said: “What is wrong between them and Ammar? He invites them to Paradise while they invite him to hell. Ammar is as dear to me as my own face. If a man behaves like this he will not be forgiven, so avoid him.”

Sufyan b. Uyana mentioned on the authority of Zakariya from al-Shabi that the first man to build a mosque was Ammar bin Yasir.

(Suhayli says: Ibn Ishaq did name the man, but Ibn Hisham preferred not to do so, as not to mention one of the Prophet's companions in discreditable circumstances. Therefore it can never be right to inquire after his identity. Abu Dharr says: Ibn Ishaq did name the man and said, “This man was Uthman b. Affan.” The Cairo editors say that in the Mawahib al-Laduniya, al-Qastallani, d. A.D. 1517, said that the man is said to be Uthman b. Mazun. This latter writer may safely be ignored on this point.) “

At the site of the construction of the mosque, one may witness a most touching scene in the story of the early days of Islam – Muhammad Mustafa, the Messenger of God, removing dust, with his own hands, from the head and the face of Ammar ibn Yasar. He did not honor any other companion with a sign of such affection, love and tenderness.

When the Apostle of God reproved his companions for meddling with Ammar, and said that he (Ammar) was inviting them to paradise whereas they were inviting him to hell, he (the Apostle) was, most probably, paraphrasing the 41st verse of the 40th chapter (Sura-tul-Momin) in Qur’an which reads as follows:

And o my people! How strange it is for me to call you to salvation while you call me to the fire.

Commenting upon this verse, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, the translator of Al-Qur’an al-Majid, says:

It may seem strange according to the laws of this world that he should be seeking their good while they are seeking his damnation; but that is the merit of Faith.

The companion who tangled with Ammar ibn Yasir when the mosque of Yathrib was being built, was no one other than Uthman b. Affan, one of the future khalifas of the Muslims. He was squeamish about working in dust and mud, and getting his clothes soiled. When the Apostle of God showed him his displeasure, he had to keep quiet but the incident rankled in his heart, and he never forgot it. Many years later when he became khalifa, and found power in his hand, he ordered his slaves to knock down Ammar ibn Yasir and to beat him up – the man who was as dear to Muhammad Mustafa, the Apostle of God, as his (the Apostle's) own face.

The claim that it was not Uthman bin Affan but Uthman bin Mazun or somebody else who, by threatening Ammar ibn Yasir, roused the anger of the Apostle of God, is only an attempt at window-dressing by the “court” historians of later times.

At this time, Ammar ibn Yasir already enjoyed four distinctions which must have made him the envy of all the other companions of Muhammad, the Messenger of God.

They were:

1. He belonged to theFirst Muslim Family .

2. He was the son of the First and the Second Martyrs of Islam. His mother, Sumayya, was the first, and his father, Yasir, was the second martyr in Islam. It was an honor not attained by any other companion of Muhammad Mustafa.

3. He was the builder of the first mosque.

4. He was the beloved of Muhammad Mustafa, the Apostle of God.

May God bless Ammar ibn Yasir and his parents.

Adhan and Prayer

It was mandatory for Muslims to pray five times a day. They had to suspend their workaday activities, and to perform this duty. But there was no way to alert them that the time had come for praying.

According to the Sunni traditions, a companion suggested to the Prophet that a trumpet should be blown or a bell should be rung to alert Muslims before the time of each prayer. He did not accept this suggestion, as he said that he did not want to adopt the Jewish or Christian customs.

Abdullah bin Ziyad was a citizen of Yathrib. He came to see the Prophet, and said that while he was half-awake or half-asleep, a man appeared before him and told him that the human voice ought to be used to call the faithful to prayer; and he also taught him the Adhan (call to prayer), and the manner of saying it.

The Sunni historians say that the idea appealed to the Prophet, and he adopted it forthwith. He then called Bilal, taught him how to call the Muslims to prayer, and appointed him the first Muezzin (caller to prayer) of Islam.

These stories are discounted by the Shia Muslims. They say that just as Al-Qur’an al-Majid was revealed to Muhammad Mustafa, so was Adhan. They assert that the manner of calling the faithful to prayer could not be left to the dreams or reveries of some Arab. They further say that if the Apostle could teach Muslims how to perform lustrations, and how, when and what to say in each prayer, he could also teach them how and when to alert others before the time for each prayer.

According to the Shia traditions, the angel who taught the Messenger of God how to perform lustrations preparatory to prayers, and how to say the prayers, also taught him how to call others to prayer.

Yathrib Becomes Medina

The name “Yathrib” soon became obsolete. People began to call it “Medina-tun-Nabi,” – the City of the Prophet. In due course, usage caused a contraction of this name to be adopted simply as “Medina” – “the City,” and that's what the name of the city of the Prophet of Islam has remained ever since.

The Groupings in Medina

When the Prophet and the refugees from Makkah arrived in Yathrib (now Medina), they found three Jewish tribes, viz., Quainuqa, Nadheer and Qurayza, and two Arab tribes, viz., Aus and Khazraj, living in that city.

E. A. Belyaev

The basic population of Medina consisted of its three Jewish tribes, the Quainuqa, the Quraiza and the Nadhir; and of the two Arab tribes, the Aus and the Khazraj. (Arabs, Islam and the Arab Caliphate in the Early Middle Ages. 1969)

The Jews were farmers, merchants, traders, money-lenders, landlords and industrialists. They had grown rich through the practice of usury and they enjoyed a monopoly of the armaments industry in Arabia.

The two Arab tribes of Medina, Aus and Khazraj, made their living by farming. Before the arrival of the Prophet, they had been locked up in a war against each other which had lasted for more than five generations. They had fought their last battle only four years earlier, i.e., in A.D. 618, and it had left them utterly exhausted and prostrate.

There were a few Christians also living in Medina. They did not cotton to the Prophet of Islam because he repudiated the doctrine of Trinity, and preached the Unity of the Creator.

A fourth group in Medina was to spring up a little later, made up of the “hypocrites” or the “disaffected.” During the Prophet's mission in Makkah, there were many Muslims who had to hide their true faith for fear of persecution. In Medina, the situation was reversed. These people (the hypocrites) were nominal Muslims; they outwardly professed Islam but they were not sincere. They were a potential source of subversion, sabotage and insurrection.

The Charter or Constitution of Medina

The citizens of Yathrib acknowledged Muhammad as their sovereign, and he gave them a “Citizen's Charter” which is believed to have been the first written document in Islam (other than Qur’an). The original charter as preserved by Ibn Ishaq, contains forty-seven (47) clauses. Following are the more important ones out of them:

* All disputes between any two parties in Yathrib would be referred to Muhammad for his decision on them.

* Muslims and Jews would enjoy the same rights.

* Each group in Yathrib would follow its own faith, and no one group would meddle in the affairs of any other groups.

* In the event of an external attack upon Yathrib, both groups, i.e., the Muslims and the Jews, would defend the city.

* Both groups would refrain from shedding blood in the city.

* Muslims would not go to war against other Muslims for the sake of non-Muslims.

R. V. C. Bodley

Mohammed drew up a charter with the Jews whereby, among other things, it was established that Jews and Moslems were to aid each other in all matters concerning the city. They were to be allies against all common enemies, and this without any mutual obligations toward Islam or Judaism. The main clause of this charter ran as follows: The Jews who attach themselves to our commonwealth shall have an equal right with our own people to our assistance and good offices. The Jews of the various branches domiciled in Yathrib shall form with the Moslems one composite nation. They shall practice their religion as freely as the Moslems. The clients and allies of the Jews shall enjoy the same security and freedom. (The Messenger, the Life of Mohammed, New York, 1946)

Muhajireen and Ansar

Muhammad changed the names of the two Muslim groups now living in Medina. He called the refugees from Makkah “Muhajireen” (Emigrants); and he called the citizens of Yathrib who had welcomed them, “Ansar” (Supporters). The two groups were known by these names ever after.

Economic Conditions in Medina

The wealth of Medina was almost entirely concentrated in the hands of the Jews. The Arabs (now the Ansar) lived in poverty and perennial want. One reason why they were chronically poor, was the high rates of interest they had to pay to the Jews on their loans.

D. S. Margoliouth

Though we hear the names of one or two wealthy Yathribites, the bulk of them appear to have been poor. In Yathrib in the Prophet's time, there was only one wedding garment; ornaments had to be borrowed from the Jews. This poverty was probably aggravated by the Jewish money-lending. (Mohammed and the Rise of Islam, London, 1931)

But if the Ansar were poor, the Muhajireen were even poorer. In fleeing from Makkah, they had abandoned everything they had possessed, and when they came to Yathrib seeking sanctuary, they were penniless. In a short time, their situation became desperate. They had to do something to make a living. But since they knew nothing about agriculture, the best they could do was to work as unskilled laborers in the fields and gardens of the Jews and the Ansar.

D. S. Margoliouth

It had originally been arranged that the Refugees should assist the Helpers (Ansar) in their field-work; but knowing nothing of palmiculture, they could only perform the most menial services; thus some literally hewed wood and drew water; some were employed in watering palms, carrying skins on their backs; and Ali, at least on one occasion, earned sixteen dates by filling buckets with water, and emptying them over mould for brick-making at the rate of a date a bucket; which hardly earned a meal he shared with the Prophet. (Mohammed and the Rise of Islam, London, 1931)

To integrate the Muhajireen into the economic life of Medina, was an extremely complex problem, and it taxed all the ingenuity of the Apostle. He did not want any member of the Muslim society, much less all the Muhajireen, to be a burden to anyone else, and did all that he could to curtail their dependence upon the Ansar.

The Brotherhood of the Muhajireen and the Ansar

One of the gambits in the efforts of the Apostle to rehabilitate the homeless Muhajireen in Medina, and to integrate them into the economic and social life of the city, was to make them “brothers” of the Ansar. A few months after his arrival in Medina, he told the Muhajireen and the Ansar that they had to live as “brothers” of each other, and paired them off as follows:

Muhajir Brother of Ansari

Ammar ibn Yasir “ Hudhayfa al-Yamani

Abu Bakr Siddique “ Kharja bin Zayd

Umar bin al-Khattab “ Utban bin Malik

Uthman bin Affan “ Aus bin Thabit

Abu Dharr el-Ghiffari “ Al-Mundhir b. Amr

Mas'ab ibn Umayr “ Abu Ayyub

Abu Obaidah Aamer al-Jarrah “ Saad ibn Maadh

Zubayr ibn al-Awwam “ Salama bin Waqsh

Abdur Rahman bin Auf “ Saad ibn Rabi

Talha bin Obaidullah “ Ka'ab ibn Malik

Ali ibn Abi Talib alone was left without a “brother.” He was wondering why when the Apostle of God held him by his arms and said to him: “You are my brother in this world and in the next.”

Muhammad ibn Ishaq

The Apostle himself took Ali by hand and said: “This is my brother.” So God's Apostle, the Lord of the sent ones, and leader of the God-fearing, Apostle of the Lord of the worlds, the peerless and unequaled, and Ali ibn Abi Talib became brothers. (The Life of the Messenger of God)

Edward Gibbon

After a perilous and rapid journey along the sea-coast, Mohammed halted at Koba, two miles from the city, and made his public entry into Medina sixteen days after his flight from Mecca. His bravest disciples assembled round his person; and the equal, though various merits of the Moslems were distinguished by the names of Mohajireen and Ansar, the fugitives of Mecca, and the auxiliaries of Medina.

To eradicate the seeds of jealousy, Mohammed judiciously coupled his principal followers with the rights and obligations of brethren; when Ali found himself without a peer, the Prophet tenderly declared that he would be the companion and brother of the noble youth. (The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire)

Muhammad Husayn Haykal

The first idea to occur to him (Muhammad) was that of reorganizing Muslim ranks so as to consolidate their unity and to wipe out every possibility of a resurgence of division and hostility. In the realization of this objective, he asked the Muslims to fraternize with one another for the sake of God and to bind themselves in pairs. He explained how he and Ali ibn Abi Talib were brothers… (The Life of Muhammad, 1935)

Muhammad, may God bless him and his Ahlul-Bait, had made the Muhajireen and the Ansar “brothers” of each other. But Ali, like himself, was a Muhajir (Emigrant), and yet he (Muhammad) chose him (Ali) to be his brother. In doing so, he was accenting the extraordinary position and special status of Ali in Islam. Ali, though still young, already outranked everyone else in service to Islam and devotion to duty toward God, and His Messenger. He won this high position by dint of his ability and character.

This was not, however, the first time that the Apostle of God had declared Ali to be his brother. Earlier, while still in Makkah, he had made his leading companions the “brothers” of each other. The pairs of “brothers” in Makkah were made up by Abu Bakr and Umar; Uthman bin Affan and Abdur Rahman bin Auf; Talha and Zubayr; Hamza and Zayd bin Haritha; and Mohammed Mustafa ibn Abdullah and Ali ibn Abi Talib.

Imam Nooruddin Ali ibn Ibrahim al-Shafei'i has quoted the Messenger of God in his book, Seeret Halabia (vol. II, p. 120) as saying: “Ali is my brother in this world as well as in the world Hereafter.”

An Assessment of the Roles of the Muhajireen and the Ansar

The Muhajireen had lost all their material possessions in Makkah, and all of them entered Yathrib (Medina) empty-handed. They consisted of two distinct groups. One group was made up of those men who were merchants and traders by profession, and they were very rich. When they went to Medina, they entered business, were successful at it, and they became rich again.

The other group comprised the “ascetics” of Islam. They were poor in Makkah, and when they migrated to Medina, they still chose to be poor. They spurned worldly riches, and they never held economic power in their hands at any time. Representatives of this group were men like Abu Dharr el-Ghiffari; Ammar ibn Yasir and Miqdad ibn al-Aswad. God paid them His tributes in His Book as follows:

(some part is due) to the indigent Muhajirs, those who were expelled from their homes and their property , while seeking grace from Allah and (His) good pleasure, and aiding Allah and His Apostle: such are indeed the sincere ones. (Chapter 59; verse 8)

The Ansar treated the Muhajireen from Makkah better than the real brothers of the latter would have done. They lodged them in their own homes, gave them household effects; made them partners in farming, or gave them half of their land. Those Ansars who were in business, made the Muhajirs their partners in business.

History cannot produce a parallel to the generosity of the Ansars. They were “hosts” not only to the homeless and destitute Muhajireen but also to Islam itself. Islam, uprooted in Makkah, struck new roots in Medina, burgeoned and soon became viable.

The Ansar were indispensable for the physical survival of Islam. Where would Islam be and where would the Muhajireen be if the Ansar had not given them sanctuary? When hostilities with the idolaters began, it were the Ansar, and not the Muhajireen, who bore the brunt of fighting. Without the massive and monolithic support that they gave to the Prophet, the battles of Islam could not have been fought, much less victory won. They were also the recipients of Heaven's compliments and recognition, as we read in the following verse of Al-Qur’an al-Majid:

But those who, before them, had homes (in Medina) and had adopted the faith, – show their affection to such as came to them for refuge, and entertain no desire, in their hearts for things given to the (latter), but give them preference over themselves, even though poverty was their (own lot). And those saved from the covetousness of their own souls, – they are the ones that achieve prosperity. (Chapter 59; verse 9)

The Muhajireen, at the beginning, had no way of repaying the Ansar for their generosity and kindness. But did they ever acknowledge their gratitude? It appears that with the exception of two Muhajirs, no one else ever did. The two exceptions were Muhammad Mustafa, the Apostle of God, and Ali, his vicegerent.

They acknowledged their debt of gratitude to the Ansar both by word and by deed, and they never missed an opportunity of doing so. After all, both Muhammad and Ali, as the only guardians of the ethos of Islam, were aware that it (Islam) had found a haven in Medina with the Ansar. The latter, therefore, held a very special place in their hearts.

The rest of the Muhajireen, i.e., the rich ones among them, did not share the solicitude of Muhammad and Ali for the Ansar. When power came into their hands, they pushed the Ansar into the background, and relegated them to play only minor roles. In the beginning, they merely ignored the Ansar. But being ignored was not so bad compared to what was to befall them in later times.

(Between the period covered by the Sira and the editing of the book itself loom two tragedies of Kerbela, when Husayn and his followers were slain in 61 A.H., and the sack of Medina in A.H. 63, when some ten thousand of the Ansar including no less than eighty of the Prophet’s companions were put to death). – Quoted in the Introduction to the biography of the Prophet by Ibn Ishaq).

The Muhajireen foisted the crypt-pagans of Makkah – the Umayyads - upon them. The Umayyads were the arch-enemies of the Ansar. If the generosity of the Ansar to the Muhajireen has no parallel in history, the ingratitude of the latter toward their benefactors also has no parallel. When the Muhajireen came to Medina, the Ansar were its masters.

It was only through the courtesy of the Ansar that the Muhajireen could enter and live in Medina. But as soon as Muhammad Mustafa, the Messenger of God, and the friend and patron of the Ansar, died, they ceased to be masters in their own home. His death was the signal for the abrupt reversal in their fortunes.

The Battles of Islam

Muhammad Mustafa, the Messenger of God, had to fight a series of battles in the defense of Islam from his new home in Medina. Those battles in which he led the army of Islam in person, are called “Ghazwa” and those expeditions which he sent out from Medina under the command of any one of his companions, are called “Sariyya”.

Roughly speaking, the Prophet launched 80 campaigns during the ten years from his migration in A.D. 622 to his death in A.D. 632. Some of these campaigns were nothing more than reconnaissance missions.

The numbers involved in them were minuscule, and all they did was to watch the movements of some clan or tribe. Some were missionary expeditions. Many others were minor skirmishes. Still others were of interest only because of some particular incident attaching to them. I shall give a cursory account of the minor campaigns, and will then put the focus on the major battles of Islam.

Long before Islam, the Greeks and the Romans had learned that a battle could change the destinies of nations. Among the campaigns of the Prophet, there are five battles about which it can be said that they changed the destinies of nations. They are the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khyber and Hunayn.

These battles were inevitable. The Quraysh of Makkah believed that if all Arabs accepted Islam, it would mean to them (the Quraysh) the loss of all the pilgrim revenues, and the loss of their privileges which they enjoyed as the guardians of the idols. A triumph of Islam was correctly foreseen by them as a death blow to privilege. It was this fear, the fear of the loss of economic and political power and prestige that precipitated war between them and the Muslims.

Since the emigration of the Muslims from Makkah, a de facto state of war had existed between them and the Quraysh. In the early days in Medina, the Muslims did not dare to remove their armor at any time. Pickets were posted around the city every night to warn the citizens if the enemy made a sudden raid.

The Apostle could not sleep at nights being fearful of an attack at any time. It was in these circumstances that he had to take some defensive measures for the security of Medina. As head of the nascent state, its security was his first responsibility.

In the interests of security, the Muslims had to keep an eye on the movements of the enemy, his friends and his allies.

The Prophet sent out the first expedition in the ninth month of the first year of Hijra, under the command of his uncle, Hamza ibn Abdul Muttalib. Thirty Muhajirs took part in it. Their aim was to intercept a caravan of Quraysh. But a tribe, friendly to both sides, interposed between them. There was no fighting, and the expedition returned to Medina.

In the following month, the Prophet sent sixty Muhajirs under the command of his cousin, Obaida ibn al-Harith, to Rabigh, near the Red Sea. They encountered a caravan of the Quraysh. Both sides shot a few arrows at each other but there were no casualties. Two Makkan traders deserted their caravan, came over to the Muslim side, accepted Islam, and accompanied the expedition when it returned to Medina.

Obaida ibn al-Harith is said to have shot an arrow at the enemy. It was the first arrow shot for Islam.

Sir William Muir

Obaida is distinguished in tradition as he who upon this occasion, “shot the first arrow for Islam.” (The Life of Mohammed, London, 1877)

There were no more campaigns in the remainder of the first year of Hijra.

The Second Year of the Hijra

The first expedition that Muhammad Mustafa led in person, was the Ghazwa (campaign) of Waddan. He appointed Saad ibn Ubadah as governor of Medina, and took a group of his followers to Waddan, a village between Medina and Makkah. A caravan of the Quraysh was reported to have halted there. But the caravan had left Waddan before the arrival of the Muslims. They, therefore, rested for a few days and then returned to Medina.

In the seventh month (Rajab) of the second year of Hijra, i.e., fifteen months after the migration from Makkah, the Apostle sent seven men under the command of his cousin, Abdullah ibn Jahash, to Nakhla, an oasis in the south, where they had to watch the movements of a certain caravan of the Quraysh.

In Nakhla, Abdullah found a small caravan of the Quraysh which was returning to Makkah. The caravaneers were Amr bin al-Hadhrami, Uthman bin Abdullah bin al-Mughira, and his brother, Naufal, and Hakam bin Kaisan. Abdullah attacked them and seized their goods. Amr bin al-Hadhrami was killed; Uthman and Hakam were captured; and Naufal succeeded in escaping.

This expedition is considered important because it was the first time when there was a clash between the Muslims and the pagans. It was also the first time when there was bloodshed between them, and the Muslims captured booty from them.

Abdullah ibn Jahash and his party returned to Medina with their prisoners and the spoils of war. Of the two prisoners, Hakam bin Kaisan accepted Islam and stayed in Medina. Uthman bin Abdullah was ransomed by his folks, and he went to Makkah.

Change of Qibla – February 11, A.D. 624

During the first sixteen months after the Hijra (Migration), the Qibla of the Muslims for prayers was Jerusalem (they faced Jerusalem when saying their prayers). Then the Apostle of God received Wahi (Revelation) commanding him to change the orientation point from Jerusalem in the north to Makkah in the south.

Dr. Montgomery Watt and John Christopher have given their”reasons” for the change in the direction of Qibla. They say that in the beginning, the Prophet had hoped that facing Jerusalem when praying, would cause the hearts of the Jews of Yathrib to incline toward him, and they would acknowledge him as a Messenger of God. But he noticed, they further say, that though he faced Jerusalem, when praying, the Jews remained skeptical of his truthfulness and sincerity. Then they add that after 16 months, the Prophet gave up the hope of converting the Jews to Islam.

According to Dr. Montgomery Watt and John Christopher and some other orientalists, once the Prophet lost hope of winning the Jews to Islam, he lost interest in them, and he decided to focus attention on the Arabs. The change of Qibla, they assert, was a gesture to please the Arabs.

We do not know if the Jews were displeased or if the Arabs were pleased with the change of Qibla. We, in fact, do not even know which Arabs, according to Dr. Watt, the Prophet was trying to please – the Arabs of Medina or the Arabs of Makkah!

The Arabs of Medina had accepted Islam and they obeyed the Prophet. For them the important thing was to obey him since he was the Interpreter of God's message to mankind. They faced Makkah when praying and didn't ask any questions why Qibla was changed.

The Arabs of Makkah were still idolaters. They also heard the news of the change of Qibla from Jerusalem to Makkah. But there is no evidence that any of them, pleased and flattered by this change, came to Medina and volunteered to become Muslims. They remained what they were whether the Qibla was Jerusalem or Makkah.

The Muslim explanation is simple and logical; God commanded His slave, Muhammad, to change the Qibla, and he obeyed. The command to change the Qibla was given in verse 144 of the second chapter of Al-Qur’an al-Majid.

In Sha'aban (8th month) of the second year of Hijra, fasting during the month of Ramadan (9th month) was made mandatory for the Muslims. They, therefore, fasted during the following month. At the end of the month of fasting, they were required to pay Zakat-al-Fitr, a special poor-tax.

In the same year, another tax, Zakat-ul-Mal, was imposed upon the Muslims. This tax is assessed at the rate of 2.5 per cent of a Muslim's wealth. In the times of the Prophet, this tax was paid into the Bayt-ul-Mal or public treasury, and was spent on the welfare of the poor and the sick members of the community. But if there is no Bayt-ul-Mal, the Muslims must pay it to the deserving poor, the widows, the orphans and those members of the community who have no means of supporting themselves.