Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

118 - الاحتياط

118 PRECAUTION

593 - احتَط لِدِينِكَ‏

593 TAKE PRECAUTION WITH YOUR RELIGION

1790. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : أخوكَ دِينُكَ، فاحْتَطْ لدِينِكَ بم شِئتَ1

1790. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'Your religion is your brother so take precaution with your religion however much you can.'2

1791. الإمامُ الصّادقُ عليه السلام : لَكَ أنْ تَنْظُرَ الحَزْمَ وتأخُذَ الحائطَةَ لدِينِكَ3

1791. Imam al-Sadiq (AS) said, 'It is upon you to be resolute and precautious with your religion.'4

1792. الإمامُ الصّادقُ عليه السلام: خُذْ بالاحْتياطِ في‏جَميعِ ما تَجِدُ إلَيهِ سبيلاً.5

1792. Imam al-Sadiq (AS) said, 'Be precautious with all things that you have the ability to carry out.'6

Notes

1. الأمالي للطوسي : 110 / 168 .

2. Amali al-Tusi, p. 110 , no. 1680

3. بحار الأنوار : 2 / 259 / 9 .

4. Bihar al-Anwar, v. 2 , p. 259 , no. 9

5. بحار الأنوار : 2 / 260 / 11 .

6. Ibid. v. 2 , p. 260 , no. 11

119 - الحياة

119 LIFE

594 - قِيمَةُ الحَياةِ

594 THE VALUE OF LIFE

1793. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : اعلَموا أنّهُ لَيس مِن شي‏ءٍ إلّا ويَكادُ صاحِبُهُ يَشبَعُ مِنهُ ويَمَلُّه إلّا الحياةَ ؛ فإنّهُ لا يَجِدُ في المَوتِ راحةً1

1793. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'Know that man gets satiated and wearied with everything except life, because he does not find any comfort in death.'2

Notes

1. نهج البلاغة : الخطبة 133 .

2. Nahj al-Balagha, Sermon 133

595 - الماءُ وَالحَياةُ

595 WATER AND LIFE

(وَجَعَلْنَا مِنَ الْمَاءِ كُلَّ شَيْ‏ءٍ حَيٍّ)1

“And we made everything living out of water” 2

1794. الإمامُ الصّادقُ عليه السلام : طَعْمُ الماءِ الحياةُ3

1794. Imam al-Sadiq (AS) said, 'The flavour of water is life.'4

Notes

1. الأنبياء : 30 .

2. Qur'an 21 :30

3. تحف العقول : 370 .

4. Tuhaf al-Uqul, no. 370

596 - ما هُوَ خَيرٌ مِنَ الحَياةِ

596 That Which is Better than Life

1795. الإمامُ العسكريُّ عليه السلام : خَيرٌ مِن الحياةِ ما إذا فَقَدْتَهُ أبْغَضْتَ الحياةَ ، وشَرٌّ مِن المَوتِ ما إذا نَزَلَ بِكَ أحْبَبتَ المَوتَ1

1795. Imam al-Askari (AS) said, 'Better than life is that thing which if you lose it you become disgusted with life, and worse than death is that thing which if it comes to you makes you love death.'2

Notes

1. تحف العقول : 489 .

2. Ibid. no. 489

597 - الحَياةُ الحَقيقِيَّةُ

597 THE REAL LIFE

1796. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : لا حياةَ إلّا بالدِّينِ ، ولا مَوتَ إلّا بجُحودِ اليَقينِ1

1796. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'There is no life except through religion, and there is no death except through denial of the certain truth.'2

1797. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : التّوحيدُ حياةُ النّفْسِ3

1797. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'Monotheism is the life of the soul.'4

Notes

1. الإرشاد : 1 / 296 .

2. al-Irshad, v. 1 , p. 297

3. غرر الحكم : 540 .

4. Ghurar al-Hikam, no. 540

120 - الحيوان‏

120 ANIMALS

598 - حُقوقُ الحَيَوانِ‏

598 THE RIGHTS OF ANIMALS

1798. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله - لَمّا أبْصَرَ ناقَةً مَعْقولَةً وعلَيها جِهازُها - : أينَ صاحِبُها ؟ مُروهُ فلْيَسْتعِدَّ غَداً للخُصومَةِ1

1798. When the Prophet (SAWA) saw a she-camel, whose knees were tied up, carrying her load, he said, 'Where is her owner? Tell him that he should prepare for the lawsuit tomorrow [the Day of Resurrection].'2

1799. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : إنّ اللَّهَ يُحِبُّ الرِّفْقَ ويُعينُ علَيهِ، فإذا رَكِبْتُمُ الدَّوابَّ العُجْفَ فأنْزِلوها مَنازِلَها ، فإنْ كانتِ الأرضُ مُجْدِبَةً فانْجوا عَنها ، وإنْ كانتْ مُخْصِبةً فأنْزِلُوها مَنازِلَها3

1799. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Verily Allah loves gentleness and He aids in implementing it, so when you ride a lean animal, dismount it at the right place for if the land is barren and arid then get away from it and if the land is lush and fertile then dismount the animal [and allow it to rest].'4

1800. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : ارْكَبوا هذهِ الدَّوابَّ سالِمَةً واتَّدِعُوها سالِمَةً ، ولا تَتَّخِذوها كَراسِيَّ لأحاديثِكُم في الطُّرُقِ والأسْواقِ ، فَرُبَّ مَرْكوبَةٍ خَيرٌ مِن راكِبِها وأكْثَرُ ذِكْراً للَّهِ تباركَ وتعالى‏ مِنهُ5

1800. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Mount the sound animals and look after them properly and do not treat them as chairs for your conversations in the streets and the markets, for many riding animals are better than their rider and are more remembering of Allah - Blessed and most High.'6

1801. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : للدّابّةِ على‏ صاحِبِها سِتُّ خِصالٍ : يَعْلِفُها إذا نَزلَ ، ويَعْرِضُ علَيها الماءَ إذا مَرَّ بهِ ، ولا يَضْرِبُها إلّا على‏ حقٍّ ، ولا يُحَمّلُها ما لا تُطيقُ‏7 ، ولا يُكلّفُها مِن السَّيرِ إلّا طاقَتَها ، ولا يَقِفُ علَيها فُواقاً8

1801. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'The animal has six rights over its owner: once the owner has dismounted the animal he should allow it to graze, he should give it access to water if they pass by it, he should not hit the animal except when it truly deserves it, he should not burden it with a load that it cannot bear, he should not overtask it with a journey that it cannot endure and he should not sit on it for lengthy periods of time.'9

1802. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : لا تَضْرِبوا الدَّوابَّ على‏ وُجوهِها؛ فإنَّها تُسَبِّحُ بحَمْدِ اللَّهِ10

1802. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Do not hit animals on their faces for verily they praise and glorify Allah.'11

1803. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : غُفِرَ لامْرأةٍ مُومِسَةٍ مرَّتْ بكلبٍ على‏ رأسِ رَكِيٍّ يَلْهَثُ كادَ يَقْتُلُهُ العَطَشُ ، فنَزَعَتْ خُفَّها فأوْثَقَتْهُ بخِمارِها فنَزَعَتْ لَهُ مِن الماءِ ، فغُفِرَ لَها بذلكَ12

1803. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'A prostitute was forgiven when she passed a panting dog almost dying of thirst at the foot of a well, whereby she took off her shoe and tied it to her headscarf and lowered it into the well to extract water [for the dog], and for that action she was forgiven.'13

1804. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : ما مِن دابَّةٍ - طائرٍ ولا غَيرِهِ - يُقتَلُ بغَيرِ الحقِّ إلّا ستُخاصِمُهُ يَومَ القِيامَةِ14

1804. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'No animal, including a bird or any other kind, is killed unjustly except that it will raise a complaint against him [the killer] on the Day of Resurrection.'15

1805. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : مَن قَتلَ عُصْفوراً عَبَثاً عَجَّ إلى‏ اللَّهِ يَومَ القِيامَةِ مِنهُ ، يقولُ : يا رَبِّ ، إنّ فُلاناً قَتلَني عَبَثاً ولَم يَقتُلْني لِمَنفَعَةٍ16

1805. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Whoever kills a sparrow in vain, it will cry out to Allah against him on the Day of Resurrection saying, 'O my Lord, so and so killed me in vain and did not kill me for any useful purpose.'17

1806. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : لَو غُفِرَ لَكُم ما تَأتونَ إلى‏ البَهائِم لَغُفِرَ لَكُم كَثيراً18

1806. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'If the oppression that you have committed towards animals is forgiven for you, then [realise that] you have been forgiven a lot [of your sins].'19

1807. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : ألَا تَتَّقي اللَّهَ في هذهِ البَهيمَةِ الّتي مَلّكَكَ اللَّهُ تعالى‏ إيّاها ؟! فإنّهُ شَكا إلَيّ أنّكَ تُجيعُهُ وتُدْئبُهُ20

1807. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Are you not Godwary with respect to this animal that Allah has allowed you to possess?! Because verily it has complained to me that you keep it hungry and tire it out.'2 1

1808. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : لَعنَ اللَّهُ مَن مَثَّلَ بالحَيوانِ22

1808. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'May the curse of Allah be on the one who treats an animal harshly.'23

1809. كنز العمّال : نَهى‏ [رسول اللَّه صلى اللَّه عليه وآله ] عن قَتلِ كُلِّ ذي رُوحٍ إلّا أنْ يُؤذي24

1809. It is narrated in Kanz al-Ummal, from Ibn Abbas who said, 'The Prophet (SAWA) forbade the killing of any living thing unless it causes harm.'25

1810. الإمامُ الصّادقُ عليه السلام : إنّ امرأة عُذِّبَتْ في هِرّةٍ رَبَطتْها حتّى‏ ماتَتْ عَطَشاً26

1810. Imam al-Sadiq (AS) said, 'Verily a woman was chastised for the fact that she tied up a cat and left it till it died of thirst.'27

Notes

1. بحار الأنوار : 7 / 276 / 50 .

2. Bihar al-Anwar, v. 7 , p. 276 , no. 50

3. الكافي : 2 / 120 / 12 .

4. al-Kafi, v. 2 , p. 120 , no. 12

5. كنز العمّال : 24957 .

6. Kanz al-Ummal, no. 24957

7. في المصدر : «يطيق»، والتصويب من مستدرك الوسائل .

8. الجعفريّات : 85 ، مستدرك الوسائل : 8 / 258 / 9393 .

9. al-Jafariyyat, p. 85 and Mustadrak al-Wasa'il, v. 8 , p. 258 , no. 9393

10. الكافي : 6 / 538 / 4 ، الخصال : 618 / 10 .

11. al-Kafi, v. 6 , p. 538 , no. 4 and al-Khisal, p. 618 no. 10

12. كنز العمّال : 43116 .

13. Kanz al-Ummal, no. 43116

14. كنز العمّال : 39968 .

15. Ibid. no. 39968

16. كنز العمّال : 39971 .

17. Ibid. no. 39971

18. كنز العمّال : 24973 .

19. Ibid. no. 24973

20. كنز العمّال : 24982 .

21. Ibid. no. 24982

22. كنز العمّال : 24971 .

23. Ibid. no. 24971

24. كنز العمّال : 39981 .

25. Ibid. no. 39981

26. مكارم الأخلاق : 1 / 280 / 864 .

27. Makarim al-Akhlaq, v. 1 , p. 280 , no. 864

121 - الحياء

121 MODESTY

599 - فَضلُ الحَياءِ

599 THE VIRTUE OF MODESTY

1811. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : الحياءُ سَبَبٌ إلى‏ كُلِّ جَميلٍ.1

1811. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'Modesty is the means to all beauty.'2

1812. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : الحياءُ مِفْتاحُ كُلِّ الخَيرِ3

1812. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'Modesty is the key to all goodness.'4

1813. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : أعقَلُ النّاسِ أحْياهُم5

1813. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'The most intelligent person is the most modest one.'6

1814. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : الحياءُ يَصُدُّ عنْ فِعْلِ القَبيحِ.7

1814. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'Modesty prevents ugly actions.'8

1815. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : سَبَبُ العِفَّةِ الحياءُ9

1815. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'The means to chastity is modesty.'10

Notes

1. بحار الأنوار : 77 / 211 / 1 .

2. Bihar al-Anwar, v. 77 , p. 211 , no. 1

3. غرر الحكم : 340 .

4. Ghurar al-Hikam, no. 340

5. غرر الحكم : 2900 .

6. Ibid. no. 2900

7. غرر الحكم : 1393 .

8. Ibid. no. 1393

9. غرر الحكم : 5527 .

10. Ibid. no. 5527

600 - الحَياءُ وَالإيمانُ‏

600 MODESTY AND FAITH

1816. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : إنّ لِكُلِّ دِينٍ خُلُقاً ، وإنّ خُلُقَ الإسلامِ الحياءُ1

1816. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Verily every religion has a natural disposition and the natural disposition of Islam is modesty.'2

1817. الإمامُ الصّادقُ عليه السلام : لا إيمانَ لِمَن لا حياءَ لَهُ3

1817. Imam al-Sadiq (AS) said, 'There is no faith for the one who has no modesty.'4

Notes

1. كنز العمّال : 5757 .

2. Kanz al-Ummal, no. 5757

3. الكافي : 2 / 106 / 5 .

4. al-Kafi, v. 2 , p. 106 , no. 5

601 - الحَياءُ المَذمومُ‏

601 REPREHENSIBLE MODESTY

1818. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : الحياءُ حياءانِ : حياءُ عَقْلٍ وحياءُ حُمْقٍ ، فحَياءُ العَقلِ العِلْمُ ، وحَياءُ الحُمْقِ الجَهْلُ1

1818. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'There are two types of modesty, modesty springing from the intellect, and a sense of shame arising from foolishness. As for the modesty of the intellect, it is knowledge, and as for the shame from foolishness, it is ignorance.'2

1819. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام: قُرِنَ الحياءُ بالحِرْمانِ.3

1819. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'Shame has been associated with deprivation.'4

1820. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : الحياءُ يَمْنَعُ الرِّزْقَ5

1820. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'Shame prevents sustenance.'6

1821. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : مَنِ اسْتَحيى‏ مِن قَولِ الحَقِّ فهُو أحمَقُ7

1821. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'One who is ashamed of speaking the truth is a fool.'8

Notes

1. بحار الأنوار : 77 / 149 / 75 .

2. Bihar al-Anwar, v. 77 , p. 149 , no. 75

3. غرر الحكم : 6714 .

4. Ghurar al-Hikam, no. 6714

5. غرر الحكم : 274 .

6. Ibid. no. 274

7. غرر الحكم : 8650 .

8. Ibid. no. 8650

602 - ما يَتَرَتَّبُ عَلى‏ عَدَمِ الحَياءِ

602 THE CONSEQUENCES OF LACK OF MODESTY

1822. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : لم يَبْقَ مِن أمْثالِ الأنْبياءِ عليهم السلام إلّا قَولُ النّاسِ : إذا لَم تَسْتَحيِ فاصْنَعْ ما شِئْتَ1

1822. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'From the proverbs of the prophets (AS) only the following saying of the people has remained,“If you do not have modesty then do as you wish” .'2

1823. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : مَن لَم يَسْتَحيِ مِن النّاسِ لَم يَسْتَحيِ مِن اللَّهِ سبحانَهُ3

1823. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'One who is not ashamed in front of people is not ashamed in front of Allah, Glory be to Him.4

Notes

1. عيون أخبار الرِّضا : 2 / 56 / 207 .

2. Uyun Akhbar al-Rida (AS), v. 2 , p. 56 , no. 207

3. غرر الحكم : 9081 .

4. Ghurar al-Hikam, no. 9081

603 - الاستِحياءُ مِنَ اللَّهِ‏

603 HAVING MODESTY WITH ALLAH

1824. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : اسْتَحْيِ مِن اللَّهِ اسْتِحياءَكَ مِن صالِحي جِيرانِكَ ؛ فإنّ فيها زِيادَةَ اليَقينِ1

1824. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Be modest in front of Allah just like your modesty with your righteous neighbours, for verily modesty with Allah increases one's conviction.'2

1825. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : لِيَسْتَحيِ أحَدُكُم مِن مَلَكَيهِ اللَّذَينِ معَهُ ، كما يَسْتَحْيِي مِن رجُلَينِ صالِحَينِ مِن جِيرانِهِ، وهُما مَعهُ باللّيلِ والنّهارِ3

1825. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Every one of you should be modest in front of his two angels that are with him, just as you would be modest with two righteous neighbours that are with you day and night.'4

1826. الإمامُ الكاظمُ عليه السلام : اسْتَحْيوا مِن اللَّهِ في سَرائرِكُم كما تَسْتَحْيونَ مِن النّاسِ في عَلانِيَتِكُم5

1826. Imam al-Kazim (AS) said, 'Be modest with Allah when in private just as you are modest with people in public.'6

Notes

1. بحار الأنوار : 78 / 200 / 28 .

2. Bihar al-Anwar, v. 78 , p. 200 , no. 28

3. كنز العمّال : 5751 .

4. Kanz al-Ummal, no. 5751

5. تحف العقول : 394 .

6. Tuhaf al-Uqul, no. 394

604 - غايَةُ الحَياءِ

604 THE PEAK OF MODESTY

1827. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : غايَةُ الحياءِ أنْ يَسْتَحييَ المَرءُ مِن نَفْسِهِ1

1827. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'The peak of modesty is for a man to be modest in the presence of his own self.'2

Notes

1. غرر الحكم : 6369 .

2. Ghurar al-Hikam, no. 6369

122 - الخاتمة

122 THE END

605 - خَطَرُ الخاتِمَةِ

605 THE DANGER OF A BAD END

1828. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : لا يَزالُ المؤمنُ خائفاً من سُوءِ العاقِبَةِ، لايَتَيقّنُ الوُصولَ إلى‏ رِضْوانِ اللَّهِ حتّى‏ يكونَ وَقتُ نَزْعِ رُوحِهِ وظُهورِ مَلَكِ المَوتِ لَهُ1

1828. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'The believer is continuously fearful of a bad end [to his life] and remains uncertain of attaining the pleasure of Allah until the angel of death appears and takes his soul.'2

1829. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : إنَّ الرّجُلَ لَيعْمَلُ الزَّمَنَ الطّويلَ بعَمَلِ أهْلِ الجَنّةِ ، ثُمّ يُخْتَمُ لَهُ بعَمَلِ أهْلِ النّارِ3

1829. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Verily a man may carry out the actions of the people of Paradise for a long period of time, but end his life with the actions of the people of the Hellfire.'4

1830. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : لا علَيكُم أنْ تُعْجَبوا بأحَدٍ حتّى‏ تَنْظُروا بما يُخْتَمُ لَهُ ، فإنَّ العامِلَ يَعْمَلُ زَماناً مِن عُمرِهِ أو بُرْهَةً مِن دَهْرِهِ بعَمَلٍ صالحٍ لو ماتَ علَيهِ دَخَلَ الجَنّةَ، ثُمَّ يَتَحَوّلُ فيَعْمَلُ عَمَلاً سَيّئاً5

1830. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Do not be amazed by [the good actions of] anyone until you see his end, for verily one may perform good actions for a period of his life that if he were to die during that time he would enter Paradise, but he subsequently changes and then commits evil actions.'6

(اُنظر) السعادة : باب 948

(See also: PROSPERITY: section 948)

Notes

1. بحار الأنوار : 71 / 366 / 13 .

2. Bihar al-Anwar, v. 71 , p. 366 , no. 13

3. كنز العمّال : 545 .

4. Kanz al-Ummal, no. 545

5. كنز العمّال : 589 .

6. Ibid. no. 589

606 - موجِباتُ حُسنِ العاقِبَةِ

606 WHAT BRINGS ABOUT A GOOD FINAL OUTCOME

1831. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : إنْ أرَدْتَ أنْ يُؤْمِنَكَ اللَّهُ سُوءَ العاقِبَةِ فاعْلَمْ أنَّ ما تَأْتيهِ مِن خَيرٍ فبفَضْلِ اللَّهِ وتَوفيقِهِ ، وما تَأْتيهِ مِن سُوءٍ فبِإمْهالِ اللَّهِ و إنْظارِهِ ، إيّاكَ وحِلْمَهُ وعَفْوَهُ عَنكَ1

1831. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'If you want Allah to protect you from an evil final outcome [to your life], then know that whatever good that comes is from Allah's grace and divine succour, and whatever bad that comes, know that Allah has delayed it for you and you have already been given respite for it, so be aware of Allah's clemency and pardon for you.'2

1832. الإمامُ الصّادقُ عليه السلام - لبعضِ النّاسِ - : إنْ أرَدْتَ أنْ يُخْتَمَ بخَيرٍ عَمَلُكُ حتّى‏ تُقْبَضَ وأنتَ في أفْضَلِ الأعْمالِ فعَظِّمْ للَّهِ حَقَّهُ أن تَبْذُلَ نَعْماءَهُ في مَعاصيهِ ، وأنْ تَغْتَرَّ بحِلْمِهِ عَنكَ ، وأكْرِمْ كُلَّ مَن وَجَدْتَهُ يُذْكَرُ مِنّا أو يَنْتَحِلُ مَوَدّتَنا3

1832. Imam al-Sadiq (AS) said to some people, 'If you want a good final outcome to your actions and for your soul to be taken while you are in the best of actions then observe the rights of Allah, do not use His bounties to disobey Him, do not allow the fact that Allah is clement with you to delude you [into negligence], and respect and honour everyone who praises us or those who embrace our love.'4

Notes

1. بحار الأنوار : 70 / 392 / 60 .

2. Bihar al-Anwar, v. 70 , p. 392 , no. 60

3. عيون أخبار الرِّضا : 2 / 4 / 8 .

4. Uyun Akhbar al-Rida (AS), v. 2 , p. 4 , no. 8

123 - الخدمة

123 SERVICE

607 - فَضلُ خِدمَةِ المُسلِمينَ‏

607 THE VIRTUE OF SERVING MUSLIMS

1833. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : أيُّما مُسلمٍ خَدَمَ قَوماً مِن المُسلمينَ إلّا أعْطاهُ اللَّهُ مِثْلَ عَدَدِهِم خُدّاماً في الجَنّةِ1

1833. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'No sooner does a Muslim serve a group of Muslims than Allah will give him servants equal in number [to the group] in Paradise.'2

1834. رسولُ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله : خِدْمَةُ المؤمنِ لأخيهِ المؤمنِ دَرَجةٌ لا يُدْرَكُ فَضْلُها إلّا بمِثْلِها3

1834. The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'The service of a believer to his fellow believing brother is [worthy of] a station of which the reward and grandeur can only be perceived by returning the same service.'4

1835. الكافي عن جميل - قال الإمام الصّادقُ عليه السلام - : المؤمِنونَ خَدَمٌ بَعْضُهُم لبَعْضٍ - [قالَ جميلٌ : ]قلتُ : وكيفَ يَكونونَ خَدَماً بَعْضُهم لبَعْضٍ ؟ قالَ - : يُفيدُ بَعْضُهُم بَعْضاً5

1835. Imam al-Sadiq (AS) said, 'The believers are servants of each other'. (Jamil narrates), 'I asked, 'How are they servants of each other?' The Imam replied, 'By being of benefit to each other.'6

1836. الإمامُ الصّادقُ عليه السلام : إخْدِمْ أخاكَ ، فإنِ اسْتَخْدَمَكَ فلا ولا كَرامَةَ7

1836. Imam al-Sadiq (AS) said, 'Serve your brother, but if he makes you toil then do not serve him.'8

(اُنظر) العلم : باب 1353 ؛ عنوان 2 « الإجارة»

(See also: KNOWLEDGE: SECTION 1353 ; EMPLOYMENT (2))

Notes

1. الكافي : 2 / 207 / 1 .

2. al-Kafi, v. 2 , p. 307 , no. 1

3. مستدرك الوسائل : 12 / 429 / 14524 .

4. Mustadrak al-Wasa'il, v. 12 , p. 429 , no. 14524

5. الكافي : 2 / 167 / 9 .

6. al-Kafi, v. 2 , p. 167 , no. 9

7. الاختصاص : 243 .

8. al-Ikhtisas, no. 243

124 - الخوارج‏

124 THE KHARIJITES

608 - المارِقونَ‏

1

608 THE APOSTATES

2

(قُلْ هَلْ نُنَبِّئُكُمْ بِالْأَخْسَرِينَ أَعْمَالاً * الَّذِينَ ضَلَّ سَعْيُهُمْ فِي الْحَيَاةِ الدُّنْيَا وَهُمْ يَحْسَبُونَ أَنَّهُمْ يُحْسِنُونَ صُنْعاً)3

“Say, 'Shall we inform you about the biggest losers in regard to works? Those whose endeavour goes awry in the life of the world, while they suppose they are doing good.” 4

1837. كنز العمّال عن عبد اللَّه بن عمرو : إنّ رجُلاً أتى‏ النَّبيَّ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله يَومَ حُنينٍ وهُو يَقْسِمُ تِبْراً فقالَ : يا محمّدُ، اعْدِلْ ! فقالَ : وَيْحَكَ ! مَن يَعْدِلُ إذا لَم أعْدِلْ ؟! - أو عِندَ مَن يُلْتَمَسُ العَدلُ بَعدي ؟ ! - ثُمّ قالَ : يُوشِكُ أنْ يأتيَ قَومٌ مِثلُ هذا يَسألونَ كِتابَ‏اللَّهِ وهُم أعْداؤهُ، يَقْرَؤونَ كِتابَ‏اللَّه ولايَحُلُّ حَناجِرَهُم، مُحَلَّقَةً رؤوسُهُم ، فإذا خَرَجوا فاضْرِبوا رِقابَهُم5

1837. It is narrated in Kanz al-Ummal that while the Prophet (SAWA) was handing out gold bullion on the day of [the battle of] Hunayn, a man came to him and said, 'O Muhammad, act fairly!', The Prophet (SAWA) said, 'Woe to you, if I am not fair then who is fair?' or he said, 'With whom will you find fairness besides me?' after which he said, 'Soon there will come a people like this who will seek the Book of Allah while being its enemy, they will read the Book of Allah but the words will not go higher than their throat. They will have shaved heads, so when they arise [to revolt] slay their necks.'6

1838. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام - وقد تَلا رجُلٌ هذهِ الآيةَ بحَضْرَتِهِ - : أهلُ حَرُوراءَ مِنهُم7

1838. Once a man, in the presence of Imam Ali (AS), recited the above-mentioned Qur'anic verse after which the Imam said, 'The Harura' [i.e. the Kharijites] are from them.'8

1839. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : سَمِعْتُ رسولَ اللَّهِ صلى اللَّه عليه وآله يقولُ : يَخْرُجُ في آخرِ الزّمانِ قَومٌ أحْداثُ الأسْنانِ ، سُفَهاءُ الأحْلامِ ، قَوْلُهُم مِن خَيرِ أقْوالِ أهْلِ البَرِيَّةِ ، صَلاتُهُم أكْثَرُ مِن صَلاتِكُم ، وقِراءتُهُم أكْثَرُ مِن قِراءتِكُم ، لا يُجاوِزُ إيمانُهُم تَراقِيَهُم - أو قالَ حَناجِرَهُم - يَمْرُقونَ مِن الدِّينِ كمايَمْرُقُ السَّهمُ مِن الرَّمِيَّةِ ، فاقْتُلوهُم9

1839. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'I heard the Prophet (SAWA) saying, 'There will come a people during the last days who will be young and rash-minded, their words will be the best words of the righteous, their prayers will be more than your prayers, their recitation [of the Qur'an] will be more than your recitation, however their faith will not transcend their collarbones - or he said 'throats' -, they will leave the true faith as swiftly as an arrow flies from the bow; therefore kill them.'10

Notes

1. المارقون ، الخوارج والحرورية ثلاثة إلقاب لمسمّىً واحد ؛ وهم جماعة كانوا في جيش الإمام أمير المؤمنين عليه السلام في صفّين ، ثمّ انفصلوا عنه بعد قضيّة التحكيم وانتفضوا عليه .

2. The Khawarij, the Mariqun and the Haruriah are all the names for one group of people, and they were a group from the Army of Imam Ali (AS) who separated from him and revolted against him.

3. الكهف : 103 ، 104 .

4. Qur'an 18 :103-104

5. كنز العمّال : 31610 .

6. Kanz al-Ummal, no. 31610

7. شرح نهج البلاغة : 2 / 278 .

8. Sharh Nahj al-Balagha li Ibn Abi al-Hadid, v. 2 , p. 278

9. شرح نهج البلاغة : 2 / 267 .

10. Ibid. v. 2 , p. 267

609 - الإمام عليّ عليه السلام بَعدَ مَقتَلِ الخَوارجِ‏

609 Imam Ali (AS) AFTER THE KILLING OF THE KHARIJITES

1840. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام - وقَد مَرَّ بقَتْلى‏ الخَوارجِ - : بُؤْساً لَكُم ! لَقد ضَرَّكُم مَن غَرَّكُم فقيلَ لَهُ : مَن غَرَّهُم يا أميرَ المؤمنينَ ؟ فقالَ : الشَّيطانُ المُضِلُّ ، والأنْفُسُ الأمّارَةُ بالسُّوءِ ، غَرَّتْهُم‏بالأمانيِّ ، وفَسَحَتْ لَهُم ، بِالمَعاصي، ووَعَدَتْهُم الإظْهارَ ، فاقْتَحَمَتْ بهِم النّارَ1

1840. When walking past the slayed bodies of the Kharijites, Imam Ali (AS) said, 'How wretched you are! The one who misled you has brought harm to you', someone then asked, 'Who has misled them O Commander of the Faithful?' he said, 'The deceptive Satan and the carnal soul which commands towards evil have misled them by giving them a false sense of security, giving them a wide opening for disobedience and promising them victory, but through them they have plunged into the Fire.'2

1841. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام - لَمّا قُتلَ الخوارِجُ فقيلَ لَهُ : يا أميرَ المؤمنينَ، هَلكَ القَومُ بأجْمَعِهِم - : كَلّا واللَّهِ، إنَّهُم نُطَفٌ في أصْلابِ الرِّجالِ وقَراراتِ النّساءِ ، كُلَّما نَجَمَ مِنهُم قَرْنٌ قُطِعَ ، حتّى‏ يكونَ آخِرُهُم لُصوصاً سَلّابِينَ3

1841. When the Kharijites had been killed it was said to Imam Ali (AS), 'O Commander of the Faithful, these people have been destroyed in their entirety', to which the Imam (AS) responded, 'Not at all! By Allah they still exist in the loins of men and the wombs of women. Whenever a chief appears from among them he will be cut down till the last of them will be thieves and robbers.'4

1842. الإمامُ عليٌّ عليه السلام : أيُّها النّاسُ ، فإنّي فَقَأْتُ عَينَ الفِتنَةِ ، ولَم يَكُن لِيَجْتَرِئَ علَيها أحَدٌ غَيري بَعدَ أنْ ماجَ غَيْهَبُها (ظُلْمَتُها) ، واشْتَدَّ كَلَبُها5

1842. Imam Ali (AS) said, 'O people, I am the one who gouged out the eye of trouble [revolt]. There was no one except me who dared to advance towards it when its gloom was swelling and its madness was intense [when the uprising was at its peak].'6

Notes

1. نهج البلاغة : الحكمة 323 .

2. Nahj al-Balagha, Saying 323

3. نهج البلاغة : الخطبة 60 .

4. Ibid. Sermon 60

5. نهج البلاغة : الخطبة 93 .

6. Ibid. Sermon 93

CHAPTER V ON THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE PROPHET

Toward the Goal : General Guidance

A grain of wheat that is placed within the bosom of the earth under appropriate conditions begins to grow and enters upon a path of development in which at every moment it takes on a new form and state. Following a particular order and sequence it treads this path until it becomes a grown plant with spikes of wheat ; if once again one of the seeds were to fall upon the ground it would begin the previous cycle all over again until it reached the final goal. Likewise if the seed is that of a fruit placed within the bosom of the soil it begins its transformation, breaking its shell, from which a green stem shoots out. It follows an orderly and distinct path of transformation until finally it becomes a fully grown tree, green and full of fruit. Or if it is the sperm of an animal it begins to develop within the egg or in the womb of the mother, following the line of development peculiar to that animal until it becomes a perfected individual of that animal species.

This distinct path and orderly development is to be development is to be observed in each species of creatures in this world and is determined by the in ner nature of that species. The green wheat plant which has sprung up from the grain will never bear oats or become a sheep, a goat, or an elephant, and an animal that has become pregnant from its male will never bear spikes of wheat or a plane tree. Even if an imperfection were to occur in the organs or the natural functions of the newly born, or if a lamp were to be born without an eye, or a wheat plant develop without spikes of wheat, we would have no doubt that such an occurrence was due to some pest or to unnatural causes. Continuous order and regularity in the development and generation of things, and the belonging of each species of creatures in its generation and development to a particular order and rule, is an undeniable fact.

From this evident thesis two conclusions can be drawn. (1) Between the various stages that each species of creatures traverses from the beginning to the end of its existence there is continuity and interconnection, as if that species in each stage of its development were pushed from behind and attracted by what is to come. (2) Due to the above-mentioned continuity and interconnection, the last stage in the development of each species is from the beginning of its generation the goal and point of "existential attention" of that species. For example, the "attention" of the walnut that sends out a green shoot from below the earth is centered from that very moment on a fully grown walnut tree. And a sperm in the egg or the womb is from the moment of its generation moving toward the state of the perfected animal.

The Holy Quran, which teaches that the creation and the preservation of things belong absolutely to God, considers this movement and attraction, which each species in creation possesses in trading its path of development, to be derived from Divine guidance. As He says, "Our Lord is He Who gave unto everything its nature, then guided it aright" (Quran, XX, 50).[1] And also, "Who createth, then disposeth ; who measureth then guideth" (Quran, LXXXVII, 2-3). And He refers to the result of these sayings in these words: "And each one hath a goal toward which he turneth" (Quran, II, 148).[2] And also: "And We created not the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them in play. We created them not save with truth, but most of them know not" (Quran, XLIV, 38-39).[3]

Special Guidance

Obviously the human species is not an exception to this general rule. The same guidance which rules over all species of creature governs man as well. In the same way that each species through its particular nature follows its path of perfection and is guided to it, so must man with the help of this guidance be guided toward that which is his real perfection.

Although man shares many elements with other species of animals and with plants, the one special characteristic which distinguishes him is intellect.[4] It is with the help of his intellect and reason that man is able to think and to make use of every means possible for his own benefit, to fly into the endless spaces of the sky or swim in the depth of the sea, or to bring under his service and command all kinds of created things, whether they be minerals, plants or animals on the surface of the earth, and to benefit even from members of his own species to the greatest extent possible.

Owing to his primordial nature, man sees his happiness and perfection in gaining complete freedom. Yet, he must of necessity sacrifice some of his freedom because he is created as a social being and has endless demands which by himself he can never satisfy, and also because he is in cooperation and social intercourse with other members of his species who themselves have the same instinct of self-centeredness and love of freedom that he has. For the sake of the benefit he gains from others he must in turn be of benefit to them. Equivalent to what he reaps from the toil of others he must give of his own work. Or, in summary, he must of necessity accept a society based upon mutual cooperation.

This point is clear in the case of newborn babies and children. At the beginning, when desiring anything, they make use of no other means but force and crying and refuse to accept any constraint or discipline. But gradually, as a result of mental development, they realize that one cannot succeed in the problems of life only through rebellion and force ; therefore, slowly they approach the condition of social beings. Finally they reach the age when they become social individuals with developed mental powers and are ready to obey the social regulations of their environment.

When man comes to accept the necessity for mutual cooperation among members of society he also recognizes the necessity for laws which rule over society, clarifying the duty of each individual and specifying the punishment for each offender. He accepts laws through whose application each individual can realize real happiness and find felicity in proportion to the social value of his efforts. These laws are the same universal and applicable laws which man, from the first day of his existence until today, has been continuously seeking and to which he has always been attracted as the foremost among all his desires. If the attainment of such a thing were not possible and were not written upon the tablet of human destiny, it would not have been the perennial yearning of man.[5]

God, the Exalted, has referred to this reality of human society, saying, "We have apportioned among their livelihood in the life of the world, and raised some of them above others in rank that some of them may take labor from others" (Quran, LXIII, 32).[6] Concerning man's selfishness and desire to monopolize things to himself He says, "Lo! man was created anxious, fretful when evil befalleth him, and, when good befalleth him, grudging" (Quran, LXX, 19-21).[7]

Reason and Law

If we delve into the matter carefully we will discover that man seeks continuously those laws which can bring happiness in the world ; that people as individuals and in groups recognize, in accordance with their God-given nature, the necessity for laws which provide felicity for them without discrimination or exception, laws which establish a general norm of perfection among mankind. Obviously, up to now, during the different periods of human history, there have not come into being any such laws which are devised by human reason. If the laws of existence had placed the burden of creating such human laws upon the shoulders of human reason, then during the long period of history such laws would have been established. In that case, each individual who possesses the power of reasoning would comprehend this human law in detail in the same way that everyone realizes the necessity for such laws in society.

In other words, if it had been in the very nature of things that it be the duty of human reason to create a perfect common law which must provide happiness for human society, and that man should be guided to that perfect law through the process of creation and the generation of the world itself, then such laws would have been apprehended by each human being through his reason in the same way that man knows what is of benefit or detriment to him throughout the determined course of daily life. There is, however, as yet no sign of the presence of such laws. Laws which have come about by themselves, or have been devised by a single ruler, or individuals, or nations, and have become prevalent in different societies are considered by some as certain, and by others as doubtful. Some are aware of these laws and others are ignorant of them. Never has it come to pass that all people, who in their basic structure are the same in that they are endowed by God with reason, should have a common awareness of the details of the laws which can bring about happiness in the world of man.

That Mysterious Wisdom and Consciousness Called Revelation

Thus, in the light of the discussion above, it becomes clear that the laws which can guarantee the happiness of human society cannot be perceived by reason. Since according to the thesis of general guidance running throughout creation the existence of an awareness of these laws in the human species is necessary, there must be another power of apprehension within the human species which enables man to understand the real duties of life and which places this knowledge within the reach of everyone. This consciousness and power of perception, which is other than reason and sense, is called the prophetic consciousness, or the consciousness of revelation.

Of course the presence of such a power in mankind does not mean that it should necessarily appear in all individuals, in the same way that although the power of procreation has been placed in all human beings, the awareness of the enjoyment of marriage and being prepared for this enjoyment is possible only for those who have reached the age of puberty. In the same way that the consciousness of revelation is a mysterious and unknown form of consciousness for those who do not possess it, the apprehension of the joy of sexual union is a mysterious and unknown feeling for those who have not reached the age of puberty.

God, the Exalted, makes reference in His Word to the revelation of His Divine Law(Shari'ah) and the inability of human reason to comprehend this matter in the verses: "Lo! We inspire thee as We inspired Noah and the prophets after him, as We inspired Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and Jesus and Job and Jonah and Aaron and Solomon, and We imparted unto David the Psalms; and messengers We have mentioned unto thee before and messengers We have not mentioned unto thee ; and Allah spoke directly unto Moses ; Messengers of good cheer and of warning, in order that mankind might have no argument against Allah after the messengers" (Quran, IV, 163-165).[8]

The Prophets - Inerrancy of Prophecy

The appearance of prophets affirms that conception of revelation outlined above. The prophets of God were men who propagated the call of revelation and prophecy and brought definitive proofs for their call. They propagated among people the elements of the religion of God (which is the same divine law that guarantees happiness) and made it available to all men.

Since in all periods of history the number of people endowed with the power of prophecy and revelation has been limited to a few individuals, God - the Most Exalted - has completed and perfected the guidance of the rest of mankind by placing the mission of the propagation of religion upon the shoulders of His prophets. That is why a prophet of God must possess the quality of inerrancy('ismah) . In receiving the revelation from God, in guarding it and in making possible its reaching the people, he must be free from error. He must not commit sin(ma'siyah) . The reception of revelation, its preservation and its propagation are three principles of ontological guidance ; and error in existence itself is meaningless. Furthermore, sin and opposition to the claims of the religious call and its propagation are impossible in a prophet for they would be a call against the original religious mission ; they would destroy the confidence of the people, their reliance upon the truth and the validity of the call. As a result they would destroy the purpose of the religious call itself.

God, the Exalted, refers in His word to the inerrancy of the prophets, saying, "And We chose them and guided them unto a straight path" (Quran, VI, 88).[9] And also, "(He is) the Knower of the Unseen, and He revealeth unto none His secret, save unto every messenger whom He hath chosen, and then He maketh a guard to go before him and a guard behind him, that He may know that they have indeed conveyed the messages of their Lord" (Quran, LXXII, 26-28).[10]

The Prophets and Revealed Religion

What the prophets of God receive through revelation and as a message from God and conveyed to mankind was religion(din) ,[11] that is, a way of life and human duties which guarantee the real happiness of man.

Revealed religion in general consists of two parts : doctrine and practice or method. The doctrinal part of revealed religion consists of a series of fundamental principles and views concerning the real nature of things upon which man must establish the foundations of his life. It is comprised of the three universal principles of unity(tawhid) , prophecy(nubuwwat) , and eschatology(ma'ad) . If there is any confusion or disorder in one of these principles the religion will not be able to gain any following.

The practical part of revealed religion consists of a series of moral and practical injunctions covering the duties man has before God and human society. That is why the secondary duties which have been ordered for man in different Divine laws are of two kinds : morals(akhlaq) , and actions(a'mal) . The morals and actions related to the Divine are of two kinds, such as: first, the quality of faith, sincerity, surrender to God, contentment and humility ; and second, the daily prayers, fasting, and sacrifice (called acts of worship and symbolizing the humility and servitude of man before the Divine Throne). The morals and actions related to human society are also of two kinds, such as: first, the quality of love for other men, wishing well for others, justice and generosity ; and second, the duty to carry out social intercourse, trade and exchange, etc. (called transactions).

Another point that must be considered is that since the human species is directed toward the gradual attainment of perfection, and human society through the passage of time becomes more complete, the appearance of a parallel development must also be seen in revealed laws.[12] The Holy Quran affirms this gradual development, which reason has also discovered. It can be concluded from its verses that each Divine Law(Shari'ah) is in reality more complete than the Shari'ah before ; for instance, in this verse where He says, "And unto thee have We revealed the Scripture with the truth, confirming whatever Scripture was before it, and a watcher over it." (Quran, V, 48)[13]

Of course, as scientific knowledge also confirms and the Quran states, the life of human society in this world is not eternal and the development of man is not endless. As a result, the general principles governing the duties of man from the point of view of doctrine and practice must of necessity stop at a particular stage. Therefore, prophecy and the Shari'ah will also one day come to an end when in the perfection of doctrine and expansion of practical regulations they have reached the final stage of their development. That is why the Holy Quran, in order to make clear that Islam (the religion of Muhammad) is the last and most complete of the revealed religions, introduces itself as a sacred book that cannot be abrogated(naskh) , calls the Prophet the "Seal of the Prophets"(khatam al-anbiya') , and sees the Islamic religion as embracing all religious duties. As He says, "And lo! it is an unassailable Scripture. Falsehood cannot come at it from before it or behind it" (Quran, XLI, 41-42).[14] And also, "Muhammad is not the father of any man among you but he is the messenger of Allah and the Seal of the prophets" (Quran, XXXIII, 40).[15] And, "We reveal the scripture unto thee as an exposition of all things" (Quran, XVI, 89).[16]

The Prophets and Proof of Revelation and Prophecy

Many modern scholars who have investigated the problem of revelation and prophecy have tried to explain revelation, prophecy and questions connected with them by using the principles of social psychology. They say that the prophets of God were men of a pure nature and strong will who had great love for humanity. In order to enable mankind to advance spiritually and materially and in order to reform decadent societies, they devised laws and regulations and invited mankind to accept them. Since people in those days would not accept the logic of human reason, in order to make them obey their teachings the prophets, according to such modern scholars, claimed that they and their thoughts came from the transcendent world. Each prophet called his own pure soul the Holy Spirit ; the teachings which he claimed came from the transcendent world were called "revelation and prophecy" ; the duties which resulted from the teachings were called "revealed Shari'ah" ; and the written record of these teachings and duties were called a "revealed book."

Anyone who views with depth and impartiality the revealed books and especially the Holy Quran, and also the lives of the prophets, will have no doubt that this view is not correct. The prophets of God were not political men. Rather they were "men of God," full of truthfulness and purity. What they perceived they proclaimed without addition or diminution. And what they uttered they acted upon. What they claimed to possess was a mysterious consciousness which the invisible world had bestowed upon them. In this way they came to know from God Himself what welfare of men was in this world and the next, and propagated this knowledge among mankind.

It is quite clear that in order to confirm and ascertain the call of prophecy there is need of proof and demonstration. The sole fact that the Shari'ah brought by a prophet conforms to reason is not sufficient in determining the truthfulness of the prophetic call. A man who claims to be a prophet, in addition to the claim of the truth of his Shari'ah, claims a connection through revelation and prophecy with the transcendent world, and therefore claims he has been given by God the mission to propagate the faith. This claim in itself is in need of proof. That is why (as the Holy Quran informs us) the common people with their simple mentality always sought miracles from the prophets of God in order that the truthfulness of their call might be confirmed.

The meaning of this simple and correct logic is that the revelation which the prophet claims is his cannot be found among others who are human beings like him. It is of necessity an invisible power which God miraculously bestows upon His prophets, through which they hear His word and are given the mission to convey this word to mankind. If this be true, then the prophet should ask God for another miracle so that people would believe the truth of his prophetic call. It is thus clear that the request for miracles from prophets is according to correct logic and it is incumbent upon the prophet of God to provide miracle at the beginning of his call, or according to the demand of the people, in order to prove his prophecy. The Holy Quran has affirmed this logic, relating miracles about many prophets at the beginning of their mission or after their followers requested them.

Of course many modern investigators and scientists have denied miracles, but their opinions are not based upon any satisfactory reasons. There is no reason to believe that the causes which until now have been discovered for events through investigation and experiment are permanent and unchanging, or that no event ever occurs for reasons other than those which usually bring it about. The miracles related about the prophets of God are not impossible or against reason (as is, for example, the claim that the number three is even). Rather they are a "break in what is habitual"(kharq-i 'adat) ,[17] an occurrence which, incidentally, has often been observed in a lower degree among people following ascetic practices.

The Number of the Prophets of God

It is known through tradition that in the past many prophets appeared, and the Holy Quran affirms their multitude. It has mentioned some of them by name or by their characteristics, but has not given their exact number. Through definitive traditions also it has not been possible to determine their number except in the well known saying which Abu Dharr Ghifari has recited from the Holy Prophet, according to which their number has been set at 124,000.

The Prophets Who are Bringers of Divine Law

From what can be deduced from the Quran, it can be concluded that all the prophets of God did not bring a Shari'ah. Rather, five of them - Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the Prophet Muhammad - are "possessors of determination"(ulu'l-'azim) , those who have brought a Shari'ah. Other prophets follow the Shari'ah of those who "possess determination." God has said in the Quran, "He hath ordained for you that religion which He commended unto Noah, and that which We inspire in thee (Muhammad), and that which We commended unto Abraham and Moses and Jesus" (Quran, XLII, 13).[18] He has also said, "And when We exacted a covenant from the Prophets, and from thee (O Muhammad) and from Noah and Abraham and Moses and Jesus son of Mary, We took from them a solemn covenant" (Quran, XXXIII,7 ).[19]

The Prophecy of Muhammad

The last prophet of God is Hadrat-i Muhammad[20] - upon whom be blessings and peace - who possesses a book and a Shari'ah and in whom Muslims have placed their faith. The Prophet was born fifty three years before the beginning if the hegira calendar[21] in Mecca in the Hijaz amidst the family of Bany Hashim of the Tribe of Quraysh, who were considered the most honored of the Arab families.

His father was called 'Abdallah and his mother, Aminah. He lost both parents at the beginning of childhood and was placed under the care of his paternal grandfather, 'Abd al-Muttalib, who also soon passed away. At this time the Prophet's uncle, Abu Talib, took charge of him and became his guardian, taking him into his own house. The Prophet grew up in his uncle's house and even before reaching the age of adolescence used to accompany his uncle on journeys by caravan.

The Prophet had not received any schooling and therefore did not know how to read and write. Yet, after reaching the age of maturity he became famous for his wisdom, courtesy, and trustworthiness. As a result of his sagacity and trustworthiness, one of the women of the tribe of Quraysh, well-known for her wealth, appointed him as the custodian of her possessions and left in his hands the task of conducting her commercial affairs.

The Prophet once journeyed to Damascus with her merchandise and as a result of the ability he displayed was able to make an outstanding profit. Before long she asked to become his wife and the Prophet accepted her proposal. After the marriage, which occurred when he was twenty-five years old, the Prophet began the life of a manager of his wife's fortunes, until the age of forty, gaining meanwhile a widespread reputation for wisdom and trustworthiness. He refused, however, to worship idols, as was the common religious practice of the Arabs of the Hijaz. And occasionally he would make spiritual retreats(khalwah) in which he prayed and discoursed secretly with God.

At the age of forty, in the cave of Hira', in the mountains of the Tihamah region near Mecca, when he was in spiritual retreat, he was chosen by God to become a prophet and was given the mission of propagating the new religion. At that moment the first chapter of the Quran ("The Blood-Clot" [Surah-i 'alaq] ) was revealed to him. That very day he returned to his house and on the way met his cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib, who after hearing the account of what had occurred declared his acceptance of the faith. After the Prophet entered the house and told his wife of the revelation, she likewise accepted Islam.

The first time the Prophet invited people to accept his message he was faced with a distressing and painful reaction. Of necessity he was forced henceforth to propagate his message in secret for some time until he was ordered again by God to invite his very close relatives to accept his message. But this call was also fruitless and no one heeded it except Ali ibn Abi Talib, who in any case had already accepted the faith. (But in accordance with documents transmitted from the Household of the Prophet and extant poems composed by Abu Talib, Shi'ites believe that Abu Talib had also embraced Islam ; however, because he was the sole protector of the Prophet, he hid his faith from the people in order to preserve the outward power he had with the Quraysh.)

After this period, according to Divine instruction, the Prophet began to propagate his mission openly. With the beginning of open propagation the people of Mecca reacted most severely and inflicted the most painful afflictions and tortures upon the Prophet and the people who had become newly converted to Islam. The severe treatment dealt out by the Quraysh reached such a degree that a group of Muslims left their homes and belongings and migrated to Abyssinia. The Prophet and his uncle, Abu Talib, along with their relatives from the Banu Hashim, took refuge for three years in the "mountain pass of Abu Talib," a fort in one of the valleys of Mecca. No one had any dealings or transactions with them and they did not dare to leave their place of refuge.

The idol-worshippers of Mecca, although at the beginning they considered inflicting all kinds of pressures and tortures such as striking and beating, insult, ridicule and defamation on the Prophet, occasionally would also show kindness and courtesy toward him in order to have him turn away from his mission. They would promise him great sums of money or leadership and the rule of the tribe. But for the Prophet their promises and their threats only resulted in the intensification of his will and determination to carry out his mission. Once, when they came to the Prophet promising him wealth and power, the Prophet told them, using metaphorical language, that if they were to put the sun in the palm of his right hand and the moon in the palm of his left hand he would not turn away from obeying the unique God or refrain from performing his mission.

About the tenth year of his prophecy, when the Prophet left the "mountain pass of Abu Talib," his uncle Abu Talib, who was also his sole protector, died as did also his devoted wife. Henceforth there was no protection for his life nor any place of refuge. Finally the idol-worshippers of Mecca devised a secret plan to kill him. At night they surrounded his house from all sides with the aim of forcing themselves in at the end of the night and cutting him to pieces while he was in bed. But God, the Exalted, informed him of the plan and commanded him to leave for Yathrib. The Prophet placed Ali in place of himself in his bed and at night left the house under the Divine protection, passing amidst his enemies, and taking refuge in a cave near Mecca. After three days when his enemies, having looked everywhere, gave up hope of capturing him and returned to Mecca, he left the cave and set out for Yathrib.

The people of Yathrib, whose leaders had already accepted the message of the Prophet and sworn allegiance to him, accepted him with open arms and placed their lives and property at his disposal. In Yathrib for the first time the Prophet formed a small Islamic community and signed treaties with the Jewish tribes in and around the city as well as with the powerful Arab tribes of the region. He undertook the task of propagating the Islamic message and Yathrib became famous as "Madinat al-rasul" (the city of the Prophet).

Islam began to grow and expand from day to day. The Muslims, who in Mecca were caught in the mesh of the injustice and inequity of the Quraysh, gradually left their homes and property and migrated to Medina, revolving around the Prophet like moths around a candle. This group became known as the "immigrants"(muhajirun) in the same way that those who aided the Prophet in Yathrib gained the name of "helpers"(ansar) .

Islam was advancing rapidly but at the same time the idol-worshippers of Quraysh, as well as the Jewish tribes of the Hejaz, were unrestrained in their harassment of the Muslims. With the help of the "hypocrites"(munafiqun) of Medina who were amidst the community of Muslims and who were not known for their holding any particular positions, they created new misfortunes for the Muslims every day until finally the matter led to war.

Many battles took place between the Muslims and the Arab polytheists and Jews, in most of which the Muslims were victorious. There were altogether over eighty major and minor battles. In all the major conflicts such as the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khaybar, Hunayn, etc., the Prophet was personally present on the battle scene. Also in all the major battles and many minor ones, victory was gained especially through the efforts of Ali. He was the only person who never turned away from any of these battles. In all the wars that occurred during the ten years after the migration from Mecca to Medina less than two hundred Muslims and less than a thousand infidels were killed.

As a result of the activity of the Prophet and the selfless effort of the muhajirun and ansar during this ten-year period, Islam spread through the Arabian peninsula. There were also letters written to kings of other countries such as Persia, Byzantinum and Abyssinia inviting them to accept Islam. During this time the Prophet lived in poverty and was proud of it.[22] He never spent a moment of his time in vain. Rather, his time was divided into three parts: one spent for God, in worshipping and remembering Him ; a part of himself and his household and domestic needs ; and a part for the people. During this part of his time he was engaged in spreading and teaching Islam and its sciences, administrating to the needs of Islamic society and removing whatever evils existed, providing for the needs of the Muslims, strengthening domestic and foreign bonds, and similar matters.

After ten years of stay in Medina the Prophet fell ill and died after a few days of illness. According to existing traditions the last words on his lips were advice concerning slaves and women.

The Prophet and the Quran

It was demanded of the Prophet,as it had been of other prophets, that he produce a miracle. The Prophet himself also confirmed the power of prophets to produce miracles as has been asserted clearly by the Quran. Many miracles by the Prophet have been recounted, the transmission of some of which is certain and can be accepted with confidence. But the enduring miracle of the Prophet, which is still alive, is the sacred book of Islam, the Holy Quran. The Holy Quran is a sacred text consisting of six thousand and several hundred verses(ayah) divided into one hundred and fourteen large and small chapters(surah) . The verses of the Holy Quran were revealed gradually during the twenty-three year period of prophecy and mission of the Prophet. From less than one verse to a whole and complete chapter were revealed under different circumstances, both at day and night, on journeys or at home, in war or peace, during days of hardship or moments of rest.

The Holy Quran in many of its verses introduces itself in unambiguous language as a miracle. It invited the Arabs of that day to rivalry and competition in composing writings of comparable truth and beauty. The Arabs, according to the testimony of history, had reached the highest stages of eloquence and elegance of language, and in the sweetness of language and flow of speech they ranked foremost among all people. The Holy Quran claims that if it be thought of as human speech, created by the Prophet himself or learned through instruction from someone else, then the Arabs should be able to produce its like[23] or ten chapters like it, or[24] a single one of its verses,[25] making use of whatever means were at their disposal to achieve this end. The celebrated Aram men of eloquence claimed that in answer to this request that the Quran was magic and it was thus impossible for them to produce its like.[26]

Not only does the Quran challenge and invite people to compete with its eloquence and elegant language, but also it occasionally invites rivalry from the point of view of its meaning and thus challenges all the mental powers of men and jinn,[27] for the Quran is a book containing the total program for human life.[28] If we investigate the matter carefully we will discover that God has made this vast and extensive program which embraces every aspect of the countless beliefs, ethical forms and actions of mankind and takes into account all of their details and particularities to by the "Truth"(haqq) and to be called the religion of the truth(din-i haqq) . Islam is a religion whose injunctions are based on the truth and the real welfare of mankind, not the desires and inclina- tions of the majority of men or the whims of a single, powerful ruler.

At the foundation of this vast program is placed the most cherished word of God which is belief in His Unity. All the principles of the sciences are deduced from the principle of Unity(tawhid) . After that, the most praiseworthy human ethical and moral virtues are deduced from the principles of the religious sciences and included in the program. Then, the countless principles and details of human action and individual and social conditions of man are investigated, and the duties pertaining to them which originate from the worship of the One are elaborated and organized. In Islam the relation and continuity between the principles(usul) and their applications(furu') are such that each particular application in whatever subject it may be, if it is brought back to its source, returns to the principle of Unity or tawhid, and Unity if applied and analyzed becomes the basis for the particular injunction and rule in question.

Of course, the final elaboration of such an extensive religion with such unity and interconnection, or even the preparation of an elementary index for it, is beyond the normal powers of the best authorities on law in the world. But here we speak of a man who in a short span of time was placed amidst a thousand difficulties concerning life and property, caught in bloody battles and faced with internal and external obstacles and furthermore placed alone before the whole world. Moreover, the Prophet had never received instruction nor learned how to read and write.[29] He had spent two-thirds of his life before becoming a prophet among a people who possessed no learning and had had no taste of civilization. He passed his life in a land without water or vegetation and with burning air, among a people who lived in the lowest social conditions and were dominated by neighboring political powers.

Besides the above, the Holy Quran challenges men in another way.[30] This book was revealed gradually, during a period of twenty-three years, under totally different conditions in periods of difficulty or comfort, war or peace, power or weakness, and the like. If it had not come from God but had been composed and expounded by man, many contradictions and contrasts would be observed in it. Its ending would of necessity be more perfect than its beginning, as is necessary in the gradual perfection of the human individual. Instead, the first Meccan verses are of the same quality as the Medinan verses and there is no difference between the beginning and the end of the Quran. The Quran is a book whose parts resemble each other and whose awe-inspiring power of expression is of the same style and quality throughout.

NOTES

1. By this is meant guidance toward the goal of life and of creation.

2. For each person there exists a goal which he pursues.

3. Creation with truth means that there is a goal and purpose to creation.

4. Editor's note: The author uses the Persian word khirad, which like 'aqlmeans both intellect and reason depending on how it is used. But it certainly does not mean just reason or the modern understanding of intellect as being synonymous with reason. The traditional meaning ofintellect as a faculty of immediate percep tion transcending reason, yet not irrational, is inherent in it.

5. Even the simplest and most thoughtless ofmen wish by their nature as human beings that human society should be such that all can live in comfort, peace, and tranquillity. From the philosophical point of view, want, love, attraction, appetite and the like are relative qualities connecting two sides, such as that which wishes with that which is wished, or the lover and the beloved. It is clear that ifthere were to be no one to love, love would have no meaning. Ultimately all this returns to the understanding of the meaning of imperfection. If there were to be no perfection, imperfection would have no meaning.

6. This means that each individual is responsible for a part of life and receives an appointed portion oflivelihood. Men are ofdifferent ranks in the sense that the manager dominates over the worker, the director over his subordinates, the owner over the tenant or the buyer over the seller.

7. The anxiety mentioned here is related to man's being covetous.

8. This verse clarifies the insufficiency of human reason without prophecy and revelation. If reason were sufficient to provide argument for the existence of God, there would be no need of prophets.

9. To have guided the prophets unto a straight path means that they are directed wholly toward God and obey only Him.

10. A guard before and a guard behind refers to conditions before and after the revelation or the event of the life of the prophet himself.

11. Editor's note: As we have already indicated, din is a most universal term in Arabic and Persian and should be translated as religion only if we understand the latter term in the widest sense possible, not as one thing among others, but as a total way of life based upon transcendent principles, or a tradition in the true sense of the word.

12. Editor's note: Islam bases its argument upon the gradual development of man and therefore "perfection" of successive revelations although from another point of view it considers all prophets as equal. In any case this argument should not be confused with modern evolutionism and belief in indefinite historical pro gress which are the very antithesis of the Islamic conception of time and history.

13. The Scripture at the beginning of the verse refers to the Holy Quran, while the second Scripture refers to such sacred books as the Torah and the Gospels.

14. The "Unassailable Scripture" is the Holy Quran.

15. The idea of the finality ofthe Quran as a sacred book which cannot be abro gated and the aspect of the Prophet as the "seal of prophecy" are essentially aspects of the same truth.

16. The Quran, according to the Islamic view, contains the principle of all knowledge, and through it every domain can be clarified and elucidated.

17. Editor's note: Miracle in Persian as in Arabic is in fact called khariq aI-'adah, that is, that which breaks the habitual relation between causes and effects in this world which because ofits recurrencc and persistence appears to us as a closed and unbreakable net of causality. The miracle represents the intrusion into this habitual world of a cause from another world or state of being with naturally different effects from what we have become accustomed to in our everyday expe rience. It is therefore the "break of habit" or of what has become habitual.

18. This verse is in the form of an obligation. It is clear that in this case if there were prophets other than the five mentioned in this verse who had brought a new Shari'ah, they would have been mentioned.

19. There is again reference to the same prophets who brought new Shari'ahs into the world.

20. Editor's note: In Persian and other Muslim languages the name of the Proph et is usually preceded by the honorific title Hadrat and followed by the formula, "Upon whom be blessings and peace" (sall Allahu 'alaihi wa sallam). Hadrat is also used for other prophets, for Shi'ite Imams and even for some very eminent religious authorities.

21. Editor's note: The Islamic calendar begins with the migration of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina and is'thus called the hegira calendar, from the Arabic word hijrah, meaning emigration.

22. In a famous hadith the Prophet has said, "Poverty(faqr) is my glory." con cerning the material of this section see the Sirah oflbn Hishim, Cairo, 1355-56; the Sirah of Halabi, Cairo, 1320; Bihar an-anwar, vol. VI, and other traditional sources on the life of the Holy Prophet.

23. As He says, "Then let them produce speech the like thereof, if they are truthful" (Quran, LII, 34).

24. As He says, "Or they say: He [Muhammad] has invented it. Say: Then bring ten surabs, the like thereof, invented, and call on everyone ye can beside Allah, if ye are truthful" (Quran, XI, 13).

25. As He says, "Or they say: He hath invented it? Say: then bring a surah like unto it ..." (Quran, X, 39).

26. As He recounts from the saying of one of the Arab men of letters, "And said: This is naught else than magic from of old; This is naught else than speech of mortal man" (Quran. LXXIV, 24-25).

27. Editor's note.' The jinn referred to in the Quran are interpreted traditionally as conscious, psychic forces that inhabited this worid before the Fall of Adam and who still exist on the subtle plane. The terms jinn and ins (mankind) are thus often used together in Islamic sources to refer to the totality of conscious beings pos essing mental faculties in this world. See Appendix IV.

28. As He says, "Say: Verily, though mankind and the Jinn should assemble to produce the like of this Quran, they could not produce the like thereof though they were helpers one of another' (Quran, XVII, 88).

29. As He recounts from the tongue of the Holy Prophet, "I dwelt among you a whole lifetime before it (came to me). Have ye then no sense?" (Quran, X, 17). And He says, "And thou (o Muhammad) wast not a reader of any scripture before it, nor didst thou write it with thy right hand,.." (Quran, XXIX, 48). He also says, "And if ye are in doubt concerning that which We reveal unto Our slave (Muhammad), then produce a surah of the like thereof, and call your witnesses besides Allah if ye are truthful" (Quran, II, 23).

30. As He says, "Will they not then ponder on the Quran? If it had been from other than Allah they would have found herein much incongruity" (Quran, IV, 82).

CHAPTER V ON THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE PROPHET

Toward the Goal : General Guidance

A grain of wheat that is placed within the bosom of the earth under appropriate conditions begins to grow and enters upon a path of development in which at every moment it takes on a new form and state. Following a particular order and sequence it treads this path until it becomes a grown plant with spikes of wheat ; if once again one of the seeds were to fall upon the ground it would begin the previous cycle all over again until it reached the final goal. Likewise if the seed is that of a fruit placed within the bosom of the soil it begins its transformation, breaking its shell, from which a green stem shoots out. It follows an orderly and distinct path of transformation until finally it becomes a fully grown tree, green and full of fruit. Or if it is the sperm of an animal it begins to develop within the egg or in the womb of the mother, following the line of development peculiar to that animal until it becomes a perfected individual of that animal species.

This distinct path and orderly development is to be development is to be observed in each species of creatures in this world and is determined by the in ner nature of that species. The green wheat plant which has sprung up from the grain will never bear oats or become a sheep, a goat, or an elephant, and an animal that has become pregnant from its male will never bear spikes of wheat or a plane tree. Even if an imperfection were to occur in the organs or the natural functions of the newly born, or if a lamp were to be born without an eye, or a wheat plant develop without spikes of wheat, we would have no doubt that such an occurrence was due to some pest or to unnatural causes. Continuous order and regularity in the development and generation of things, and the belonging of each species of creatures in its generation and development to a particular order and rule, is an undeniable fact.

From this evident thesis two conclusions can be drawn. (1) Between the various stages that each species of creatures traverses from the beginning to the end of its existence there is continuity and interconnection, as if that species in each stage of its development were pushed from behind and attracted by what is to come. (2) Due to the above-mentioned continuity and interconnection, the last stage in the development of each species is from the beginning of its generation the goal and point of "existential attention" of that species. For example, the "attention" of the walnut that sends out a green shoot from below the earth is centered from that very moment on a fully grown walnut tree. And a sperm in the egg or the womb is from the moment of its generation moving toward the state of the perfected animal.

The Holy Quran, which teaches that the creation and the preservation of things belong absolutely to God, considers this movement and attraction, which each species in creation possesses in trading its path of development, to be derived from Divine guidance. As He says, "Our Lord is He Who gave unto everything its nature, then guided it aright" (Quran, XX, 50).[1] And also, "Who createth, then disposeth ; who measureth then guideth" (Quran, LXXXVII, 2-3). And He refers to the result of these sayings in these words: "And each one hath a goal toward which he turneth" (Quran, II, 148).[2] And also: "And We created not the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them in play. We created them not save with truth, but most of them know not" (Quran, XLIV, 38-39).[3]

Special Guidance

Obviously the human species is not an exception to this general rule. The same guidance which rules over all species of creature governs man as well. In the same way that each species through its particular nature follows its path of perfection and is guided to it, so must man with the help of this guidance be guided toward that which is his real perfection.

Although man shares many elements with other species of animals and with plants, the one special characteristic which distinguishes him is intellect.[4] It is with the help of his intellect and reason that man is able to think and to make use of every means possible for his own benefit, to fly into the endless spaces of the sky or swim in the depth of the sea, or to bring under his service and command all kinds of created things, whether they be minerals, plants or animals on the surface of the earth, and to benefit even from members of his own species to the greatest extent possible.

Owing to his primordial nature, man sees his happiness and perfection in gaining complete freedom. Yet, he must of necessity sacrifice some of his freedom because he is created as a social being and has endless demands which by himself he can never satisfy, and also because he is in cooperation and social intercourse with other members of his species who themselves have the same instinct of self-centeredness and love of freedom that he has. For the sake of the benefit he gains from others he must in turn be of benefit to them. Equivalent to what he reaps from the toil of others he must give of his own work. Or, in summary, he must of necessity accept a society based upon mutual cooperation.

This point is clear in the case of newborn babies and children. At the beginning, when desiring anything, they make use of no other means but force and crying and refuse to accept any constraint or discipline. But gradually, as a result of mental development, they realize that one cannot succeed in the problems of life only through rebellion and force ; therefore, slowly they approach the condition of social beings. Finally they reach the age when they become social individuals with developed mental powers and are ready to obey the social regulations of their environment.

When man comes to accept the necessity for mutual cooperation among members of society he also recognizes the necessity for laws which rule over society, clarifying the duty of each individual and specifying the punishment for each offender. He accepts laws through whose application each individual can realize real happiness and find felicity in proportion to the social value of his efforts. These laws are the same universal and applicable laws which man, from the first day of his existence until today, has been continuously seeking and to which he has always been attracted as the foremost among all his desires. If the attainment of such a thing were not possible and were not written upon the tablet of human destiny, it would not have been the perennial yearning of man.[5]

God, the Exalted, has referred to this reality of human society, saying, "We have apportioned among their livelihood in the life of the world, and raised some of them above others in rank that some of them may take labor from others" (Quran, LXIII, 32).[6] Concerning man's selfishness and desire to monopolize things to himself He says, "Lo! man was created anxious, fretful when evil befalleth him, and, when good befalleth him, grudging" (Quran, LXX, 19-21).[7]

Reason and Law

If we delve into the matter carefully we will discover that man seeks continuously those laws which can bring happiness in the world ; that people as individuals and in groups recognize, in accordance with their God-given nature, the necessity for laws which provide felicity for them without discrimination or exception, laws which establish a general norm of perfection among mankind. Obviously, up to now, during the different periods of human history, there have not come into being any such laws which are devised by human reason. If the laws of existence had placed the burden of creating such human laws upon the shoulders of human reason, then during the long period of history such laws would have been established. In that case, each individual who possesses the power of reasoning would comprehend this human law in detail in the same way that everyone realizes the necessity for such laws in society.

In other words, if it had been in the very nature of things that it be the duty of human reason to create a perfect common law which must provide happiness for human society, and that man should be guided to that perfect law through the process of creation and the generation of the world itself, then such laws would have been apprehended by each human being through his reason in the same way that man knows what is of benefit or detriment to him throughout the determined course of daily life. There is, however, as yet no sign of the presence of such laws. Laws which have come about by themselves, or have been devised by a single ruler, or individuals, or nations, and have become prevalent in different societies are considered by some as certain, and by others as doubtful. Some are aware of these laws and others are ignorant of them. Never has it come to pass that all people, who in their basic structure are the same in that they are endowed by God with reason, should have a common awareness of the details of the laws which can bring about happiness in the world of man.

That Mysterious Wisdom and Consciousness Called Revelation

Thus, in the light of the discussion above, it becomes clear that the laws which can guarantee the happiness of human society cannot be perceived by reason. Since according to the thesis of general guidance running throughout creation the existence of an awareness of these laws in the human species is necessary, there must be another power of apprehension within the human species which enables man to understand the real duties of life and which places this knowledge within the reach of everyone. This consciousness and power of perception, which is other than reason and sense, is called the prophetic consciousness, or the consciousness of revelation.

Of course the presence of such a power in mankind does not mean that it should necessarily appear in all individuals, in the same way that although the power of procreation has been placed in all human beings, the awareness of the enjoyment of marriage and being prepared for this enjoyment is possible only for those who have reached the age of puberty. In the same way that the consciousness of revelation is a mysterious and unknown form of consciousness for those who do not possess it, the apprehension of the joy of sexual union is a mysterious and unknown feeling for those who have not reached the age of puberty.

God, the Exalted, makes reference in His Word to the revelation of His Divine Law(Shari'ah) and the inability of human reason to comprehend this matter in the verses: "Lo! We inspire thee as We inspired Noah and the prophets after him, as We inspired Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and Jesus and Job and Jonah and Aaron and Solomon, and We imparted unto David the Psalms; and messengers We have mentioned unto thee before and messengers We have not mentioned unto thee ; and Allah spoke directly unto Moses ; Messengers of good cheer and of warning, in order that mankind might have no argument against Allah after the messengers" (Quran, IV, 163-165).[8]

The Prophets - Inerrancy of Prophecy

The appearance of prophets affirms that conception of revelation outlined above. The prophets of God were men who propagated the call of revelation and prophecy and brought definitive proofs for their call. They propagated among people the elements of the religion of God (which is the same divine law that guarantees happiness) and made it available to all men.

Since in all periods of history the number of people endowed with the power of prophecy and revelation has been limited to a few individuals, God - the Most Exalted - has completed and perfected the guidance of the rest of mankind by placing the mission of the propagation of religion upon the shoulders of His prophets. That is why a prophet of God must possess the quality of inerrancy('ismah) . In receiving the revelation from God, in guarding it and in making possible its reaching the people, he must be free from error. He must not commit sin(ma'siyah) . The reception of revelation, its preservation and its propagation are three principles of ontological guidance ; and error in existence itself is meaningless. Furthermore, sin and opposition to the claims of the religious call and its propagation are impossible in a prophet for they would be a call against the original religious mission ; they would destroy the confidence of the people, their reliance upon the truth and the validity of the call. As a result they would destroy the purpose of the religious call itself.

God, the Exalted, refers in His word to the inerrancy of the prophets, saying, "And We chose them and guided them unto a straight path" (Quran, VI, 88).[9] And also, "(He is) the Knower of the Unseen, and He revealeth unto none His secret, save unto every messenger whom He hath chosen, and then He maketh a guard to go before him and a guard behind him, that He may know that they have indeed conveyed the messages of their Lord" (Quran, LXXII, 26-28).[10]

The Prophets and Revealed Religion

What the prophets of God receive through revelation and as a message from God and conveyed to mankind was religion(din) ,[11] that is, a way of life and human duties which guarantee the real happiness of man.

Revealed religion in general consists of two parts : doctrine and practice or method. The doctrinal part of revealed religion consists of a series of fundamental principles and views concerning the real nature of things upon which man must establish the foundations of his life. It is comprised of the three universal principles of unity(tawhid) , prophecy(nubuwwat) , and eschatology(ma'ad) . If there is any confusion or disorder in one of these principles the religion will not be able to gain any following.

The practical part of revealed religion consists of a series of moral and practical injunctions covering the duties man has before God and human society. That is why the secondary duties which have been ordered for man in different Divine laws are of two kinds : morals(akhlaq) , and actions(a'mal) . The morals and actions related to the Divine are of two kinds, such as: first, the quality of faith, sincerity, surrender to God, contentment and humility ; and second, the daily prayers, fasting, and sacrifice (called acts of worship and symbolizing the humility and servitude of man before the Divine Throne). The morals and actions related to human society are also of two kinds, such as: first, the quality of love for other men, wishing well for others, justice and generosity ; and second, the duty to carry out social intercourse, trade and exchange, etc. (called transactions).

Another point that must be considered is that since the human species is directed toward the gradual attainment of perfection, and human society through the passage of time becomes more complete, the appearance of a parallel development must also be seen in revealed laws.[12] The Holy Quran affirms this gradual development, which reason has also discovered. It can be concluded from its verses that each Divine Law(Shari'ah) is in reality more complete than the Shari'ah before ; for instance, in this verse where He says, "And unto thee have We revealed the Scripture with the truth, confirming whatever Scripture was before it, and a watcher over it." (Quran, V, 48)[13]

Of course, as scientific knowledge also confirms and the Quran states, the life of human society in this world is not eternal and the development of man is not endless. As a result, the general principles governing the duties of man from the point of view of doctrine and practice must of necessity stop at a particular stage. Therefore, prophecy and the Shari'ah will also one day come to an end when in the perfection of doctrine and expansion of practical regulations they have reached the final stage of their development. That is why the Holy Quran, in order to make clear that Islam (the religion of Muhammad) is the last and most complete of the revealed religions, introduces itself as a sacred book that cannot be abrogated(naskh) , calls the Prophet the "Seal of the Prophets"(khatam al-anbiya') , and sees the Islamic religion as embracing all religious duties. As He says, "And lo! it is an unassailable Scripture. Falsehood cannot come at it from before it or behind it" (Quran, XLI, 41-42).[14] And also, "Muhammad is not the father of any man among you but he is the messenger of Allah and the Seal of the prophets" (Quran, XXXIII, 40).[15] And, "We reveal the scripture unto thee as an exposition of all things" (Quran, XVI, 89).[16]

The Prophets and Proof of Revelation and Prophecy

Many modern scholars who have investigated the problem of revelation and prophecy have tried to explain revelation, prophecy and questions connected with them by using the principles of social psychology. They say that the prophets of God were men of a pure nature and strong will who had great love for humanity. In order to enable mankind to advance spiritually and materially and in order to reform decadent societies, they devised laws and regulations and invited mankind to accept them. Since people in those days would not accept the logic of human reason, in order to make them obey their teachings the prophets, according to such modern scholars, claimed that they and their thoughts came from the transcendent world. Each prophet called his own pure soul the Holy Spirit ; the teachings which he claimed came from the transcendent world were called "revelation and prophecy" ; the duties which resulted from the teachings were called "revealed Shari'ah" ; and the written record of these teachings and duties were called a "revealed book."

Anyone who views with depth and impartiality the revealed books and especially the Holy Quran, and also the lives of the prophets, will have no doubt that this view is not correct. The prophets of God were not political men. Rather they were "men of God," full of truthfulness and purity. What they perceived they proclaimed without addition or diminution. And what they uttered they acted upon. What they claimed to possess was a mysterious consciousness which the invisible world had bestowed upon them. In this way they came to know from God Himself what welfare of men was in this world and the next, and propagated this knowledge among mankind.

It is quite clear that in order to confirm and ascertain the call of prophecy there is need of proof and demonstration. The sole fact that the Shari'ah brought by a prophet conforms to reason is not sufficient in determining the truthfulness of the prophetic call. A man who claims to be a prophet, in addition to the claim of the truth of his Shari'ah, claims a connection through revelation and prophecy with the transcendent world, and therefore claims he has been given by God the mission to propagate the faith. This claim in itself is in need of proof. That is why (as the Holy Quran informs us) the common people with their simple mentality always sought miracles from the prophets of God in order that the truthfulness of their call might be confirmed.

The meaning of this simple and correct logic is that the revelation which the prophet claims is his cannot be found among others who are human beings like him. It is of necessity an invisible power which God miraculously bestows upon His prophets, through which they hear His word and are given the mission to convey this word to mankind. If this be true, then the prophet should ask God for another miracle so that people would believe the truth of his prophetic call. It is thus clear that the request for miracles from prophets is according to correct logic and it is incumbent upon the prophet of God to provide miracle at the beginning of his call, or according to the demand of the people, in order to prove his prophecy. The Holy Quran has affirmed this logic, relating miracles about many prophets at the beginning of their mission or after their followers requested them.

Of course many modern investigators and scientists have denied miracles, but their opinions are not based upon any satisfactory reasons. There is no reason to believe that the causes which until now have been discovered for events through investigation and experiment are permanent and unchanging, or that no event ever occurs for reasons other than those which usually bring it about. The miracles related about the prophets of God are not impossible or against reason (as is, for example, the claim that the number three is even). Rather they are a "break in what is habitual"(kharq-i 'adat) ,[17] an occurrence which, incidentally, has often been observed in a lower degree among people following ascetic practices.

The Number of the Prophets of God

It is known through tradition that in the past many prophets appeared, and the Holy Quran affirms their multitude. It has mentioned some of them by name or by their characteristics, but has not given their exact number. Through definitive traditions also it has not been possible to determine their number except in the well known saying which Abu Dharr Ghifari has recited from the Holy Prophet, according to which their number has been set at 124,000.

The Prophets Who are Bringers of Divine Law

From what can be deduced from the Quran, it can be concluded that all the prophets of God did not bring a Shari'ah. Rather, five of them - Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and the Prophet Muhammad - are "possessors of determination"(ulu'l-'azim) , those who have brought a Shari'ah. Other prophets follow the Shari'ah of those who "possess determination." God has said in the Quran, "He hath ordained for you that religion which He commended unto Noah, and that which We inspire in thee (Muhammad), and that which We commended unto Abraham and Moses and Jesus" (Quran, XLII, 13).[18] He has also said, "And when We exacted a covenant from the Prophets, and from thee (O Muhammad) and from Noah and Abraham and Moses and Jesus son of Mary, We took from them a solemn covenant" (Quran, XXXIII,7 ).[19]

The Prophecy of Muhammad

The last prophet of God is Hadrat-i Muhammad[20] - upon whom be blessings and peace - who possesses a book and a Shari'ah and in whom Muslims have placed their faith. The Prophet was born fifty three years before the beginning if the hegira calendar[21] in Mecca in the Hijaz amidst the family of Bany Hashim of the Tribe of Quraysh, who were considered the most honored of the Arab families.

His father was called 'Abdallah and his mother, Aminah. He lost both parents at the beginning of childhood and was placed under the care of his paternal grandfather, 'Abd al-Muttalib, who also soon passed away. At this time the Prophet's uncle, Abu Talib, took charge of him and became his guardian, taking him into his own house. The Prophet grew up in his uncle's house and even before reaching the age of adolescence used to accompany his uncle on journeys by caravan.

The Prophet had not received any schooling and therefore did not know how to read and write. Yet, after reaching the age of maturity he became famous for his wisdom, courtesy, and trustworthiness. As a result of his sagacity and trustworthiness, one of the women of the tribe of Quraysh, well-known for her wealth, appointed him as the custodian of her possessions and left in his hands the task of conducting her commercial affairs.

The Prophet once journeyed to Damascus with her merchandise and as a result of the ability he displayed was able to make an outstanding profit. Before long she asked to become his wife and the Prophet accepted her proposal. After the marriage, which occurred when he was twenty-five years old, the Prophet began the life of a manager of his wife's fortunes, until the age of forty, gaining meanwhile a widespread reputation for wisdom and trustworthiness. He refused, however, to worship idols, as was the common religious practice of the Arabs of the Hijaz. And occasionally he would make spiritual retreats(khalwah) in which he prayed and discoursed secretly with God.

At the age of forty, in the cave of Hira', in the mountains of the Tihamah region near Mecca, when he was in spiritual retreat, he was chosen by God to become a prophet and was given the mission of propagating the new religion. At that moment the first chapter of the Quran ("The Blood-Clot" [Surah-i 'alaq] ) was revealed to him. That very day he returned to his house and on the way met his cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib, who after hearing the account of what had occurred declared his acceptance of the faith. After the Prophet entered the house and told his wife of the revelation, she likewise accepted Islam.

The first time the Prophet invited people to accept his message he was faced with a distressing and painful reaction. Of necessity he was forced henceforth to propagate his message in secret for some time until he was ordered again by God to invite his very close relatives to accept his message. But this call was also fruitless and no one heeded it except Ali ibn Abi Talib, who in any case had already accepted the faith. (But in accordance with documents transmitted from the Household of the Prophet and extant poems composed by Abu Talib, Shi'ites believe that Abu Talib had also embraced Islam ; however, because he was the sole protector of the Prophet, he hid his faith from the people in order to preserve the outward power he had with the Quraysh.)

After this period, according to Divine instruction, the Prophet began to propagate his mission openly. With the beginning of open propagation the people of Mecca reacted most severely and inflicted the most painful afflictions and tortures upon the Prophet and the people who had become newly converted to Islam. The severe treatment dealt out by the Quraysh reached such a degree that a group of Muslims left their homes and belongings and migrated to Abyssinia. The Prophet and his uncle, Abu Talib, along with their relatives from the Banu Hashim, took refuge for three years in the "mountain pass of Abu Talib," a fort in one of the valleys of Mecca. No one had any dealings or transactions with them and they did not dare to leave their place of refuge.

The idol-worshippers of Mecca, although at the beginning they considered inflicting all kinds of pressures and tortures such as striking and beating, insult, ridicule and defamation on the Prophet, occasionally would also show kindness and courtesy toward him in order to have him turn away from his mission. They would promise him great sums of money or leadership and the rule of the tribe. But for the Prophet their promises and their threats only resulted in the intensification of his will and determination to carry out his mission. Once, when they came to the Prophet promising him wealth and power, the Prophet told them, using metaphorical language, that if they were to put the sun in the palm of his right hand and the moon in the palm of his left hand he would not turn away from obeying the unique God or refrain from performing his mission.

About the tenth year of his prophecy, when the Prophet left the "mountain pass of Abu Talib," his uncle Abu Talib, who was also his sole protector, died as did also his devoted wife. Henceforth there was no protection for his life nor any place of refuge. Finally the idol-worshippers of Mecca devised a secret plan to kill him. At night they surrounded his house from all sides with the aim of forcing themselves in at the end of the night and cutting him to pieces while he was in bed. But God, the Exalted, informed him of the plan and commanded him to leave for Yathrib. The Prophet placed Ali in place of himself in his bed and at night left the house under the Divine protection, passing amidst his enemies, and taking refuge in a cave near Mecca. After three days when his enemies, having looked everywhere, gave up hope of capturing him and returned to Mecca, he left the cave and set out for Yathrib.

The people of Yathrib, whose leaders had already accepted the message of the Prophet and sworn allegiance to him, accepted him with open arms and placed their lives and property at his disposal. In Yathrib for the first time the Prophet formed a small Islamic community and signed treaties with the Jewish tribes in and around the city as well as with the powerful Arab tribes of the region. He undertook the task of propagating the Islamic message and Yathrib became famous as "Madinat al-rasul" (the city of the Prophet).

Islam began to grow and expand from day to day. The Muslims, who in Mecca were caught in the mesh of the injustice and inequity of the Quraysh, gradually left their homes and property and migrated to Medina, revolving around the Prophet like moths around a candle. This group became known as the "immigrants"(muhajirun) in the same way that those who aided the Prophet in Yathrib gained the name of "helpers"(ansar) .

Islam was advancing rapidly but at the same time the idol-worshippers of Quraysh, as well as the Jewish tribes of the Hejaz, were unrestrained in their harassment of the Muslims. With the help of the "hypocrites"(munafiqun) of Medina who were amidst the community of Muslims and who were not known for their holding any particular positions, they created new misfortunes for the Muslims every day until finally the matter led to war.

Many battles took place between the Muslims and the Arab polytheists and Jews, in most of which the Muslims were victorious. There were altogether over eighty major and minor battles. In all the major conflicts such as the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khaybar, Hunayn, etc., the Prophet was personally present on the battle scene. Also in all the major battles and many minor ones, victory was gained especially through the efforts of Ali. He was the only person who never turned away from any of these battles. In all the wars that occurred during the ten years after the migration from Mecca to Medina less than two hundred Muslims and less than a thousand infidels were killed.

As a result of the activity of the Prophet and the selfless effort of the muhajirun and ansar during this ten-year period, Islam spread through the Arabian peninsula. There were also letters written to kings of other countries such as Persia, Byzantinum and Abyssinia inviting them to accept Islam. During this time the Prophet lived in poverty and was proud of it.[22] He never spent a moment of his time in vain. Rather, his time was divided into three parts: one spent for God, in worshipping and remembering Him ; a part of himself and his household and domestic needs ; and a part for the people. During this part of his time he was engaged in spreading and teaching Islam and its sciences, administrating to the needs of Islamic society and removing whatever evils existed, providing for the needs of the Muslims, strengthening domestic and foreign bonds, and similar matters.

After ten years of stay in Medina the Prophet fell ill and died after a few days of illness. According to existing traditions the last words on his lips were advice concerning slaves and women.

The Prophet and the Quran

It was demanded of the Prophet,as it had been of other prophets, that he produce a miracle. The Prophet himself also confirmed the power of prophets to produce miracles as has been asserted clearly by the Quran. Many miracles by the Prophet have been recounted, the transmission of some of which is certain and can be accepted with confidence. But the enduring miracle of the Prophet, which is still alive, is the sacred book of Islam, the Holy Quran. The Holy Quran is a sacred text consisting of six thousand and several hundred verses(ayah) divided into one hundred and fourteen large and small chapters(surah) . The verses of the Holy Quran were revealed gradually during the twenty-three year period of prophecy and mission of the Prophet. From less than one verse to a whole and complete chapter were revealed under different circumstances, both at day and night, on journeys or at home, in war or peace, during days of hardship or moments of rest.

The Holy Quran in many of its verses introduces itself in unambiguous language as a miracle. It invited the Arabs of that day to rivalry and competition in composing writings of comparable truth and beauty. The Arabs, according to the testimony of history, had reached the highest stages of eloquence and elegance of language, and in the sweetness of language and flow of speech they ranked foremost among all people. The Holy Quran claims that if it be thought of as human speech, created by the Prophet himself or learned through instruction from someone else, then the Arabs should be able to produce its like[23] or ten chapters like it, or[24] a single one of its verses,[25] making use of whatever means were at their disposal to achieve this end. The celebrated Aram men of eloquence claimed that in answer to this request that the Quran was magic and it was thus impossible for them to produce its like.[26]

Not only does the Quran challenge and invite people to compete with its eloquence and elegant language, but also it occasionally invites rivalry from the point of view of its meaning and thus challenges all the mental powers of men and jinn,[27] for the Quran is a book containing the total program for human life.[28] If we investigate the matter carefully we will discover that God has made this vast and extensive program which embraces every aspect of the countless beliefs, ethical forms and actions of mankind and takes into account all of their details and particularities to by the "Truth"(haqq) and to be called the religion of the truth(din-i haqq) . Islam is a religion whose injunctions are based on the truth and the real welfare of mankind, not the desires and inclina- tions of the majority of men or the whims of a single, powerful ruler.

At the foundation of this vast program is placed the most cherished word of God which is belief in His Unity. All the principles of the sciences are deduced from the principle of Unity(tawhid) . After that, the most praiseworthy human ethical and moral virtues are deduced from the principles of the religious sciences and included in the program. Then, the countless principles and details of human action and individual and social conditions of man are investigated, and the duties pertaining to them which originate from the worship of the One are elaborated and organized. In Islam the relation and continuity between the principles(usul) and their applications(furu') are such that each particular application in whatever subject it may be, if it is brought back to its source, returns to the principle of Unity or tawhid, and Unity if applied and analyzed becomes the basis for the particular injunction and rule in question.

Of course, the final elaboration of such an extensive religion with such unity and interconnection, or even the preparation of an elementary index for it, is beyond the normal powers of the best authorities on law in the world. But here we speak of a man who in a short span of time was placed amidst a thousand difficulties concerning life and property, caught in bloody battles and faced with internal and external obstacles and furthermore placed alone before the whole world. Moreover, the Prophet had never received instruction nor learned how to read and write.[29] He had spent two-thirds of his life before becoming a prophet among a people who possessed no learning and had had no taste of civilization. He passed his life in a land without water or vegetation and with burning air, among a people who lived in the lowest social conditions and were dominated by neighboring political powers.

Besides the above, the Holy Quran challenges men in another way.[30] This book was revealed gradually, during a period of twenty-three years, under totally different conditions in periods of difficulty or comfort, war or peace, power or weakness, and the like. If it had not come from God but had been composed and expounded by man, many contradictions and contrasts would be observed in it. Its ending would of necessity be more perfect than its beginning, as is necessary in the gradual perfection of the human individual. Instead, the first Meccan verses are of the same quality as the Medinan verses and there is no difference between the beginning and the end of the Quran. The Quran is a book whose parts resemble each other and whose awe-inspiring power of expression is of the same style and quality throughout.

NOTES

1. By this is meant guidance toward the goal of life and of creation.

2. For each person there exists a goal which he pursues.

3. Creation with truth means that there is a goal and purpose to creation.

4. Editor's note: The author uses the Persian word khirad, which like 'aqlmeans both intellect and reason depending on how it is used. But it certainly does not mean just reason or the modern understanding of intellect as being synonymous with reason. The traditional meaning ofintellect as a faculty of immediate percep tion transcending reason, yet not irrational, is inherent in it.

5. Even the simplest and most thoughtless ofmen wish by their nature as human beings that human society should be such that all can live in comfort, peace, and tranquillity. From the philosophical point of view, want, love, attraction, appetite and the like are relative qualities connecting two sides, such as that which wishes with that which is wished, or the lover and the beloved. It is clear that ifthere were to be no one to love, love would have no meaning. Ultimately all this returns to the understanding of the meaning of imperfection. If there were to be no perfection, imperfection would have no meaning.

6. This means that each individual is responsible for a part of life and receives an appointed portion oflivelihood. Men are ofdifferent ranks in the sense that the manager dominates over the worker, the director over his subordinates, the owner over the tenant or the buyer over the seller.

7. The anxiety mentioned here is related to man's being covetous.

8. This verse clarifies the insufficiency of human reason without prophecy and revelation. If reason were sufficient to provide argument for the existence of God, there would be no need of prophets.

9. To have guided the prophets unto a straight path means that they are directed wholly toward God and obey only Him.

10. A guard before and a guard behind refers to conditions before and after the revelation or the event of the life of the prophet himself.

11. Editor's note: As we have already indicated, din is a most universal term in Arabic and Persian and should be translated as religion only if we understand the latter term in the widest sense possible, not as one thing among others, but as a total way of life based upon transcendent principles, or a tradition in the true sense of the word.

12. Editor's note: Islam bases its argument upon the gradual development of man and therefore "perfection" of successive revelations although from another point of view it considers all prophets as equal. In any case this argument should not be confused with modern evolutionism and belief in indefinite historical pro gress which are the very antithesis of the Islamic conception of time and history.

13. The Scripture at the beginning of the verse refers to the Holy Quran, while the second Scripture refers to such sacred books as the Torah and the Gospels.

14. The "Unassailable Scripture" is the Holy Quran.

15. The idea of the finality ofthe Quran as a sacred book which cannot be abro gated and the aspect of the Prophet as the "seal of prophecy" are essentially aspects of the same truth.

16. The Quran, according to the Islamic view, contains the principle of all knowledge, and through it every domain can be clarified and elucidated.

17. Editor's note: Miracle in Persian as in Arabic is in fact called khariq aI-'adah, that is, that which breaks the habitual relation between causes and effects in this world which because ofits recurrencc and persistence appears to us as a closed and unbreakable net of causality. The miracle represents the intrusion into this habitual world of a cause from another world or state of being with naturally different effects from what we have become accustomed to in our everyday expe rience. It is therefore the "break of habit" or of what has become habitual.

18. This verse is in the form of an obligation. It is clear that in this case if there were prophets other than the five mentioned in this verse who had brought a new Shari'ah, they would have been mentioned.

19. There is again reference to the same prophets who brought new Shari'ahs into the world.

20. Editor's note: In Persian and other Muslim languages the name of the Proph et is usually preceded by the honorific title Hadrat and followed by the formula, "Upon whom be blessings and peace" (sall Allahu 'alaihi wa sallam). Hadrat is also used for other prophets, for Shi'ite Imams and even for some very eminent religious authorities.

21. Editor's note: The Islamic calendar begins with the migration of the Prophet from Mecca to Medina and is'thus called the hegira calendar, from the Arabic word hijrah, meaning emigration.

22. In a famous hadith the Prophet has said, "Poverty(faqr) is my glory." con cerning the material of this section see the Sirah oflbn Hishim, Cairo, 1355-56; the Sirah of Halabi, Cairo, 1320; Bihar an-anwar, vol. VI, and other traditional sources on the life of the Holy Prophet.

23. As He says, "Then let them produce speech the like thereof, if they are truthful" (Quran, LII, 34).

24. As He says, "Or they say: He [Muhammad] has invented it. Say: Then bring ten surabs, the like thereof, invented, and call on everyone ye can beside Allah, if ye are truthful" (Quran, XI, 13).

25. As He says, "Or they say: He hath invented it? Say: then bring a surah like unto it ..." (Quran, X, 39).

26. As He recounts from the saying of one of the Arab men of letters, "And said: This is naught else than magic from of old; This is naught else than speech of mortal man" (Quran. LXXIV, 24-25).

27. Editor's note.' The jinn referred to in the Quran are interpreted traditionally as conscious, psychic forces that inhabited this worid before the Fall of Adam and who still exist on the subtle plane. The terms jinn and ins (mankind) are thus often used together in Islamic sources to refer to the totality of conscious beings pos essing mental faculties in this world. See Appendix IV.

28. As He says, "Say: Verily, though mankind and the Jinn should assemble to produce the like of this Quran, they could not produce the like thereof though they were helpers one of another' (Quran, XVII, 88).

29. As He recounts from the tongue of the Holy Prophet, "I dwelt among you a whole lifetime before it (came to me). Have ye then no sense?" (Quran, X, 17). And He says, "And thou (o Muhammad) wast not a reader of any scripture before it, nor didst thou write it with thy right hand,.." (Quran, XXIX, 48). He also says, "And if ye are in doubt concerning that which We reveal unto Our slave (Muhammad), then produce a surah of the like thereof, and call your witnesses besides Allah if ye are truthful" (Quran, II, 23).

30. As He says, "Will they not then ponder on the Quran? If it had been from other than Allah they would have found herein much incongruity" (Quran, IV, 82).