Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

www.alhassanain.org/english

For a Better Future

200 questions and answers regarding the concerns of the youth, marriage and children

Author(s): Abdul Adheem al-Muhtadi al-Bahrani

Translator(s): Abdullah al-Shahin

Publisher(s): Ansariyan Publications - Qum

www.alhassanain.org/english

Notice:

This version is published on behalf of www.alhassanain.org/english

The composing errors are not corrected.

Table of Contents

About the Author 13

Dedication 14

I Begin Here 15

Notes 18

Part 1: What The Youth Need 19

Question no. 1: What qualities a good Muslim youth should have to be successful? 19

Question no. 2: How can I make use of my age and youth? 20

Question no. 3: How do I ask forgiveness for my sins? 21

Question no. 4: How should I deal with having a friend who I care about but who has bad behavior? 21

Question no. 5: How do I get rid of the habit of lying? 22

Question no. 6: Because of my illness I get distressed very easily. How can I be happy with my life? 22

Question no. 7: How do I reform my elder brother who commits major sins? 24

Question no. 8: How can I smile when I do not feel happy or delighted inside myself? 25

Question no. 9: How do I lead an active life? 25

Question no. 10: As a young man how do I achieve success to attain happiness? 26

Question no. 11: How do I cure my nightmares? 26

Question no. 12: How do I get my students to refrain from wearing unIslamic fashion & clothing? 27

Question no. 13: What field should I specialize in at the university in order to be useful for society? 28

Question no. 14: How do I cure myself from being mean? 28

Question no. 15: How do I bear the difficulties of life? 29

Question no. 16: How do I practice patience and control my anger? 29

Question no. 17: How can I become skilled by continuing higher studies, when my father asks me to work with him? 30

Question no. 18: I am a confused young man, as I do not know my aim in life. Please help 31

Question no. 19: How can we properly address the issue of illegal and harmful drugs? 33

Question no. 20: How can I help my father to be less materialistic? 34

Question no. 21: How does one make the best use of the time during one’s youth? 35

Question no. 22: How can I deal with family gatherings that include namahram relatives not observing hijab? 37

Question no. 23: How shall I deal with low self-esteem? 38

Question no. 24: How shall I help a friend who has psychological problems and suffers absentmindedness? 39

Question no. 25: How to defeat laziness 39

Question no. 26: How can I conquer my anger and stress? 40

Question no. 27: What should we do if our parents argue often? 40

Question no. 28: How can I get over issues of an unhappy childhood that involved abuse and divorce of my parents? 41

Question no. 29: How can I help a family member to be rightly guided? 42

Question no. 30: As a young girl, how do I avoid the mistakes in marital, family, and social relations? 43

Question no. 31: How do I help someone who values secular studies but not religion? 44

Question no. 32: How do I make myself to be content? 45

Question no. 33: How do I properly deal with losing my temper so that I neither abuse others nor make myself ill from swallowing my anger? 46

Question no. 34: How may we help someone who suffered a psychological trauma that caused him to withdraw? 47

Question no. 35: How can I abandon sins that are habitual for me, mend family relationships, and guide against fanaticism? 48

Question no. 36: After many hardships in life, I suffer from psychological problems and have thought of suicide at times. How can I get help? 49

Question no. 37: How can a young person suppress lust and the sins that come from it? 51

Question no. 38: How should we begin relationships with women and satisfy needs in the process of finding a spouse? 52

Question no. 39: What Islam says about masturbation? 54

Question no. 40: What is the solution for young people wanting to get married and avoid sin today in light of pressures to finish studies, get settled in jobs and pay very high costs for dowries and weddings? 55

Question no. 41: Is it lawful for a young unmarried couple thinking of marriage to exchange feelings by phone and letters and to spend time together in public places like parks if no touching is involved? 56

Question no. 42: I want to know what I should do to begin the process for marriage properly and avoid lustful sin while yet at a young age 57

Question no. 43: I cannot afford to get married, so please advise me on what to do to avoid lustful sins in a way that is actually practical and effective 58

Question no. 44: How can a young woman trying to be modest and religious properly handle temptations to sin like those often encountered at university? 59

Question no. 45: Two young people had relations before marriage, regret their sins, yet still want to marry even though it would be against the wishes of their families if they knew the truth about their relationship 63

Question no. 46: How should we reconcile the practical realities of being unable to marry early as Islam recommends but yet facing the challenges of sexual lust while unmarried? 63

Question no. 47: What is your advice about a young man who seduces women and deceives them then abandons them after getting what he wants? 64

Question no. 48: I want to get married, but I want you to advise me. How should I move to a life that I have not known before? 65

Question no. 49: How can I make reason defeat lust and avoid opportunities and temptations for sinning? 66

Question no. 50: A brother of mine ended up in a bad marriage. This has made me afraid of marriage. How can I overcome this fear and also avoid his fate? 67

Question no. 51: How do I talk to a friend about a bad quality and still keep his friendship? 68

Question no. 52: What do you have to say about modern girls being more sexually aggressive even outside of marriage? 70

Question no. 53: How can modern young women acquire and maintain good moral traits? 71

Question no. 54: What is the solution to stop quarrels and disrespect amongst siblings? 72

Question no. 55: How can I save myself from worry, distraction, absent-mindedness, and forgetfulness? 73

Question no. 56: My father is always angry with us at home, but he is very good with others elsewhere. How do you explain this duality? 74

Question no. 57: How should we address someone who is sharply critical of everyone? 75

Question no. 58: How can we address the modern epidemic of depression? 76

Question no. 59: Can faith be spread today in spite of the inundation of temptations? 78

Question no. 60: My mother has behaviors which lead to quarrels in her marriage that affect the whole family. What can we do? 80

Question no. 61: How can religious youth protect their faith? 81

Question no. 62: Why do people suffer and die from things like cancer? How can we handle the suffering and loss of a loved one? 83

Question no. 63: How can I handle severe unhappiness and desperation? 84

Question no. 64: What should we do about people who sleep too much? 85

Notes 86

Part 2: Husbands and Wives, Sharing lives and seeking Happiness 89

Question no. 65: What is the opinion of Islam about singing and dancing in wedding ceremonies? 89

Question no. 66: Can a man wear a gold wedding ring? 90

Question no. 67: What is the opinion of Islam about the period between the engagement and the wedding? 90

Question no. 68: I have psychological issues that threaten my marriage; how can I solve my problems? 91

Question no. 69: What is the solution to the trend of excessive dowries being demanded by parents of girls? 91

Question no. 70: Is it acceptable Islamically to set a high dowry to prevent divorce or ensure that if a divorce occurs the woman will be well-off? 92

Question no. 71: What does Islam say about the ideal age difference between a husband and wife? 94

Question no. 72: What are the qualities of an ideal father and an ideal mother? 96

Question no. 73: What is the role of motherhood in society and religion? 97

Question no. 74: How do I deal with an ungrateful and frequently absent husband? 99

Question no. 75: Should I ask my imprisoned husband to divorce me so I could marry another since we cannot be together and he cannot provide for our family? 99

Question no. 76: How can the poor overcome their financial problems? 100

Question no. 77: I want to divorce my wife due to her defects which I cannot bear, but I received threats from her family. What should I do? 101

Question no. 78: Should a man go against the wishes of his sick wife and marry another to satisfy his needs and desires? 102

Question no. 79: How can we solve the problem of poor relations with in-laws? 103

Question no. 80: What is the meaning of this verse “Men are the guardians of women”? Many men take it as an excuse to impose unjust control on their women 104

Question no. 81: If a person helps to arrange a marriage, is he/she responsible for problems that happen in the marriage? 105

Question no. 82: My husband shows no interest in discussing things with me or listening to me and it makes me very unhappy; what should I do? 106

Question no. 83: I feel my wife neglects me now that we have a child 106

Question no. 84: My wife used to be religious but became materialistic, so I tried to force her to correct her behavior and instead things only got worse; what should I do? 107

Question no. 85: What is the opinion of Islam about birth control? 108

Question no. 86: My in-laws are causing marital problems for me and my wife and she struggles to balance her relationship between me and them; how can we solve this problem? 109

Question no. 87: A neighbor couple is loud and garrulous, creating disturbance in the apartments we live in; what is the Islamic view of this behavior? 109

Question no. 88: My husband claims ineptitude at matters of home and child-rearing as an excuse for not helping me in any of these matters; how can I change his thinking? 110

Question no. 89: What causes insomnia and how is it treated? 111

Question no. 90: My husband is weak and uninvolved with household affairs; how can I get him to act as a proper head of household? 112

Question no. 91: How can one know if someone suffers insanity? 113

Question no. 92: How can I control my temper? 114

Question no. 93: I worry obsessively over failing in marriage, so much so that the worry itself could affect my marriage in a bad way; how can I solve my problem? 114

Question no. 94: What are the causes of adultery and how can they be avoided? 115

Question no. 95: How can we adopt a child Islamically? 117

Question no. 96: How should a young couple prepare for parenthood? 118

Question no. 97: I feel my daughter-in-law is lazy and disrespectful of me; what should I do? 119

Question no. 98: A great number of Muslim women suffer spinsterhood; what is the solution? 122

Question no. 99: Why do we find prevalence of sexual corruptions even among married people and otherwise religious people? 124

Question no. 100: Is it better for a man to propose to a woman or for a woman to propose to a man? 126

Question no. 101: If I have divorced, can my family prevent me from choosing a second spouse by myself? 127

Question no. 102: How should wedding ceremonies be conducted? 128

Question no. 103: How can a wife advise a husband without upsetting him and harming the family structure? 129

Question no. 104: How can I handle the issue of a wife whose temperament I do not like? 130

Question no. 105: My husband does not communicate with me and I sometimes doubt his feelings for me; what can I do? 130

Question no. 106: My husband and I are very poorly matched and have almost nothing in common and I am much more educated than he is; should we get divorced? 131

Question no. 107: My husband does not appreciate or help me in the excessive work I have to do to care for our home and seven children and this has caused me physical problems; what should I do? 132

Question no. 108: I suffer from forgetfulness and it upsets my wife; what should we do? 132

Question no. 109: How can my wife and I get past our poor match and our quarrels for the sake of our children? 132

Question no. 110: My husband’s family treats me badly because of my humble origins, even in front of guests and my husband does not defend me; what can I do? 134

Question no. 111: Love has waned in my marriage over time, how can I get it back? 134

Question no. 112: How can I overcome obstacles to achieve my ambitions? 135

Question no. 113: I feel that my life is disorderly and not in control and my wife and I have no energy to solve the problem and discipline our children; what can we do? 136

Question no. 114: I want to be a successful wife. With what would you advise me to achieve my goal? 137

Question no. 115: After a reversal of fortune, my husband became a bitter and difficult man and it is harming our whole family; what can we do? 138

Question no. 116: What is the cure for sexual impotence, and what are its causes? 139

Question no. 117: Is temporary marriage lawful or unlawful? If it is lawful, then why do people dislike it? And if it is unlawful, then why is it unlawful? 140

Question no. 118: Does Islam teach its followers the practical way of practicing sexual intercourse between spouses? 144

Question no. 119: How can Islam, by permitting polygamy, want to solve problems whereas we find more problems in polygamy? 145

Question no. 120: My husband hates me because he wants male children from me, but Allah gives me females. What is my guilt in this? Why are men so severe? 147

Question no. 121: I am sterile and there is no hope for a cure for me, I find this an injustice for me and my wife 148

Question no. 122: My wife is sick. In fact, she is handicapped, and I want to get married to another wife, but I am confused as to what the consequences of doing this will be 149

Question no. 123: My husband was handicapped after a traffic accident. How can I continue living with him until the last of my life while I am still young? 150

Question no. 124: How to deal with a spouse who has moral or psychological defects and is not willing or able to reform? 150

Question no. 125: What is the right behavior to adopt if one of the spouses is polite and high-minded but not religious and pays no attention to lawful or unlawful things, purity or impurity? 150

Question no. 126: Can you advise how a young woman married to a very old man should behave to observe his rights and explain what her rights are and what she should do when her husband passes? 151

Question no. 127: Due to marriage, I live far away from my home and family and even though my spouse and children are wonderful I need to know how to get over my constant heartache and longing for home and family 152

Question no. 128: Would you please show us the verdict of Islam towards the situations of the growing numbers of women who are divorcees, widows and spinsters? 153

Question no. 129: Could you give some instructions for what remains of the life of a spinster who regrets being unjust to herself by turning down many earlier proposals? 154

Question no. 130: A woman’s husband has died; should I not allow her temporary marriage with my husband to satisfy her needs? 155

Question no. 131: What would you say about a woman who went to the West and adopted unIslamic shameful behaviors? 156

Question no. 132: My wife follows a religious authority mujtahid different from what I chose, and now she asked me to follow the mujtahid she follows or to divorce her, what should I do? 157

Question no. 133: What would you say to the wife of a heavy smoker that feels unable to quit, while the house is made to stink and the wife and children, as well as he, are at great risk for health problems and death due to the smoking? 162

Question no. 134: Is it wrong to reveal to my daughter, upon her request, the sins of her mother that led to our divorce? 164

Question no. 135: What is the Islamic view regarding belief in magic and paying attention to it? 165

Question no. 136: My husband has always openly said that he does not love me and stays with me only for our children and now I do not love him anymore and am very unhappy; what should I do? 166

Question no. 137: I would like to build my family on sound bases according to Islamic teachings. What is the guiding principle to achieve this goal? 168

Question no. 138: How can we create tranquility and quiet time in our family life? 169

Question no. 139: My wife and I love each other but we often quarrel and we do not know how to solve our problem 171

Question no. 140: My wife does not visit friends and family because she wants to take presents but they are beyond my means; what do you suggest? 172

Notes 173

Part 3: Children are Tomorrow’s Adults 176

Question no. 141: What are practical methods for raising upright children? 176

Question no. 142: What is the best way to raise children and teenagers: closely watching and managing their affairs, or trusting them and giving them freedom? 176

Question no. 143: Would you please do us a favor by showing the stages of the cultural growth of children in the light of the Islamic view? 178

Question no. 144: Please explain the Islamic philosophy of education so that I may compare it to modern theories of education 180

Question no. 145: We are exhausted in trying to raise upright children in light of all the challenges today; what should we do? 180

Question no. 146: How is the personality of a child formed? 182

Question no. 147: From where do children receive their culture? 182

Question no. 148: What is your opinion about the plays of children and with what do you advise parents to play with their children? 183

Question no. 149: I would like to know the motives for my child’s acting nervous and violent 184

Question no. 150: What should I do if I have a teenager who neglects prayers and is not interested in hijab? 184

Question no. 151: How should I deal with my children being constantly quarrelsome with each other? 185

Question no. 152: What should we do to make a child give up playing with others’ things? 185

Question no. 153: My wife and I differ in ideas of child rearing and she acts contrary to my wishes in child rearing; what can I do? 186

Question no. 154: I feel I treat my children unequally and love some more than others: What is the solution to this problem? 187

Question no. 155: How can I make my child more serious in his study? 187

Question no. 156: Why do my children not respect me? 188

Question no. 157: What is the influence of television and computer games on our children? 189

Question no. 158: How can I make my son leave bad friends? 190

Question no. 159: How do I teach my child to keep in order his toys and stuff? 190

Question no. 160: When my son became a teenager, he became disrespectful; why has this happened? 191

Question no. 161: How can we teach children not to be envious? 191

Question no. 162: What are the causes of envy among children and what are the solutions? 192

Question no. 163: My son is lazy and does not like his lessons. How should I deal with him? 193

Question no. 164: Would you please explain to me the most important bases of education? 193

Question no. 165: What do you think about beating children? 194

Question no. 166: I feel ashamed about my child’s bad behavior; what can I do? 194

Question no. 167: I need advice on how to manage my children given their own unique characteristics and ambitions 196

Question no. 168: How can I sow the love of religion in my children so that they will adhere to it up to the last moment of their lives? 197

Question no. 169: Is it lawful to kill one’s daughter that left the house and became a prostitute? 198

Question no. 170: How do we cure drug addiction and how do we deal with the many problems caused by it? 199

Question no. 171: Would you please advise me as to how to deal with my children when they make mistakes? 199

Question no. 172: Would you please guide me as to what are the most important manners I need in educating my children? 200

Question no. 173: Would you please give us a summary of the Islamic opinion about education? 200

Question no. 174: How can I make my children love reading so that books and knowledge can be an important part of their interests in life? 202

Question no. 175: How do I deal with my teenager having unIslamic behaviors and interests? 202

Question no. 176: I feel my teenaged son is argumentative; what do I do? 203

Question no. 177: I have wicked sons who cause problems for neighbors and passers-by; what can I do as their father? 204

Question no. 178: How can I solve my child’s habit of lying? 204

Question no. 179: Whenever my child commits a mistake, I beat him but this method is not working, what should I do? 205

Question no. 180: Please explain about the harms of dealing with children severely and beating them 206

Question no. 181: My son is almost an adult and I worry about him getting into sinful behaviors such as relations with girls; what should I do? 206

Question no. 182: What is the cause of children being disrespectful and disobedient? 207

Question no. 183: How should I train my toddler in eating by himself? 208

Question no. 184: Could you please give me some educational recommendations for my seven-year-old son? 209

Question no. 185: Could you please list the main point of Islamic education for the younger generations? 209

Question no. 186: What are the concerns about putting children in day care or in the care of non muslim-maids and schools in order for both parents to work? 210

Question no. 187: Why my daughter chews her nails and is often absent-minded? 212

Question no. 188: How should we address concerns about globalization of Western culture, television and Internet? 213

Question no. 189: What is the best way to teach adolescents so that they will follow good advice? 214

Question no. 190: How can we face the mutinous conduct of juveniles and prevent them from making friends with deviants outside the house? 215

Question no. 191: How should we deal with a son who was once religious but left religion? 216

Question no. 192: What are the most important education fallacies we live with due to the effects of foreign cultures? 216

Question no. 193: Would you please show me the causes of the good and bad phenomena I find in children? 218

Question no. 194: How can I come to accept the changing relationship with my daughter as she has become an adult? 218

Question no. 195: My husband makes many promises to our children that he does not fulfill; how can I deal with this problem? 220

Question no. 196: How should I deal with my toddler who asks incessant questions? 220

Question no. 197: My teenaged son keeps a very messy room, what can I do to break him of this bad habit? 221

Question no. 198: My son monopolizes the telephone and spends too much money on phone calls; what can I do? 223

Question no. 199: Is it acceptable to let our children be educated by the media, schools and streets? 223

Question no. 200: My children have bad eating habits; how can I fix this problem? 224

Notes 224

Supplication 226

His supplication for his parents 226

His supplication for his children 227

About the Author

He emigrated from Bahrain in 1974 AD to the Hawza of Holy Najaf to study the religious sciences while he was thirteen years old. He learned at the hand of the great Ulama’, the teachers of the Hawza and the famous religious authorities who gave him their legal trust, permission, and authority.

He traveled to carry out Islamic missionary tasks in Kenya, India, Syria, some Arab countries in the Gulf area, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, and England. He propagated Islam through orations, writings, and teachings. He had many Islamic activities and important experiments in this field, which he has referred to in his books that have been available in Islamic libraries since 1978 AD.

Here are some of his books:

• Haqa’iq lil-Ta’ammul; facts for meditation,

• Al-Husayn, Madrasat al-Ajyal; al-Husayn, the school of generations,

• Risalat at-Ta’aluf wel Ukhuwwa; the mission of cordiality and brotherhood,

• al-Ilm wel Ulama’’ fil Kitab wes Sunna; knowledge and the Ulama’ in the Book and the Sunna,

• Ahkamuk fil Bilad al-Ajnabiyya; your verdicts in the foreign countries,

• Ulama’’ al-Bahrain, Duroos wa Ibar; the Ulama’ of Bahrain, lessons and examples,

• Moujaz fi as-Safar wez-Ziyara; a summary on travel and visit,

• Hatta Tahya al-Muqaddasat; in order that sacreds revive

• Muthakkarat ash-Sheikh Buhlool; the memories of Sheikh Buhlool,

• Ayatullah al-Ha’iry, al-Muhajir fi Sabeelillah; Ayatullah al-Ha’iry, the emigrant for the sake of Allah,

• Arba’oon Hadithan; forty traditions,

• Ithnata Ashrata Aynan; twelve springs,

• Falah az-Za’ireen; the success of the visitors,

• Qisas wa Khawatir min Akhlaqiyyat Ulama’ ad-Deen; stories and memories from the moralities of the clergymen,

• Hiwar bayna al-Hajj wash-Shabab; a dialogue between the hajji and the youth,

• Kalimaat min Noor; words of light,

• Mi’raj as-Sa’imeen; the ascent of the fasters,

• Min Akhlaq al-imam al-Husay; from the morals of Imam Husayn,

• and this book, li Mustaqbalin Afdhal; for a better future),

besides some other books that are being published.

The author has followed in his writings the manner of inviting to the Islamic unity, avoiding disagreements and narrow-mindedness, and caring greatly for the moral education. Therefore, his writings are full of advice and sermons in a mild and moderate style.

Dedication

I present this humble effort to my father and mother, who brought me up when I was little, gave me a good name, taught me writing and religious principles, and married me as soon as I became an adult. They have completed their duties towards me; in fact, they have done to me more than I deserved.

I pray to Allah the Almighty to make me successful in achieving my duties towards them as long as I live and to gather me with them in Paradise near Prophet Muhammad (S) and his pure progeny (a.s.).

I hope with this dedication to give a reward to the soul of my dear father and to be dutiful to my dear mother (May Allah keep her safe and sound).

O Allah, accept my effort and guide my children to do better than I have done!

6. Ummah and Nation

The Islamic ideal normally distinguishes only between the Islamic and non-Islamic world, thedar a-Islam anddar al-harb. The former is the unified world of Islam; the latter is the realm of struggle to implement Islam. Classically these distinguished geographical realms under Muslim political and military control from those which were not. Such nations as existed in thedar al-Islam were regarded as units of political and administrative expediency and in theory the whole of thedar al-Islam was ruled by the Caliph. As late as the 1920's Muslims around the world looked hopefully at the prospect of Islam and its believers united under some type of political structure. The pan-Islamic movement did not achieve this goal, and the debate over how the world-wide unity of Muslim believers, theummah , should be achieved in an era of nation-states goes on. In part this debate centers on how to create an Islamic state. While some purists among Muslims argue that no modern state can realize Islamic ideals apart from the unity of theummah , there are nonetheless active political movements throughout the Muslim world to transform existing nations into Islamic states under the rule ofsharia law. At the same time dominantly Muslim states have formed organizations and alliances which attempt at some level to foster the overall unity of theummah , and intellectuals continue to theorize about how actual political unity can be attained.

7. The Realization of Islam

We cannot understand modern Muslims if we do not understand that the drive to realize the ideals sketched above is central to their understanding of human fulfillment. Paradise (see below) is the reward for a life of submission to God's will. But for Muslims the authentic fulfillment of that submission should come here on earth, not a distant afterlife. Muslims have never been taught to push their hopes for human authenticity to a future eschaton. And this human authenticity, although it has a distinctive inner dimension, is for Muslims inextricably linked with the implementation of particular personal roles, and family, community, political, and economic structures. Unless Islam changes dramatically Muslims will never be content with less thandin , an all-embracing pattern of life, ordered according to God's or law.

V. The End of Creation

Islam is a way of life. But this way of life was always a wayto eternal victory, reward, and success in the form of promisedal-Jannah , paradise, or literally "Garden". This way leads through death and the grave, and God's judgement, before reaching its end with either eternal bliss or eternal suffering.

A. Death and the Grave

The continued existence of the soul after death is central to Islamic teaching. The Arabs believed that life continued, after a fashion, in the grave. The Quran makes only indirect reference to punishment in the grave (47:27, 6:93). However, the traditions of the prophet affirm the importance of the grave ("the grave is the first stage of the journey to eternity") and address directly the fears of life in the grave. By the time Islamic theologians developed the first creeds Islam had a highly developed doctrine of punishment in the grave (adhab al-kabr ). The tradition states that two angels,Munkar andNakir , will examine each person after death regarding Muhammed (or in a more elaborate form, God, Muhammed, religion, and direction of prayer). The faithful will give a satisfactory answer, and will be left to await the Resurrection. Some traditions suggest that the graves of the faithful will be mystically in communion with theKaba' or the grave of Muhammed, and that in this way they will find comfort and even bliss as they await the resurrection. Those without a satisfactory answer will be beaten continually in the grave until the resurrection, (except on Fridays). Some traditions excuse the righteous unbelievers from this punishment. Regardless of the specific elaboration of tradition, the primary emphasis is on correct belief as the hope for avoiding immediate punishment in the grave. It is a tradition in Islam that as a person dies they whisper theShahada , or basic belief in Allah and Muhammed.

In addition to the hope of avoiding punishment, and finding some comfort in the grave, Islam holds out the possibility of avoiding both the grave and God's final judgement. The prophets are taken directly to paradise upon their death. For ordinary Muslims this privilege is obtained when death comes through martyrdom, primarily when fighting on behalf of Islam. Women who die in childbirth, and those who die in the holy land on a pilgrimage, are also martyrs who obtain the entry into paradise directly after death. This hope has motivated many Muslims to embrace death for Islamic causes, with the modern suicide bombers of Hamas providing a notable recent example. A more benign effect has been to encourage elderly Muslims to put off making their pilgrimage until they are quite feeble in the hope of dying in the holy land, where many who have the means remain illegally after the pilgrimage is over.

B. The Final Judgement

The earliest revelations in the Quran emphasize the unity and majesty of God, and the certainty of God's judgement on those who have not acknowledged God as their creator and submitted to God's will. Muhammed's earliest preaching focused on the day of judgement which would mark the end of the world, and salvation from hell was a dominant theme. Belief in a day of reckoning (qiyamah ) and a resurrection of the dead to judgement (hashr ) is found in earliest Islamic creeds, and is universally regarded as an essential doctrine. The earliest revelations to Muhammed stress the certainty of God's judgement and of punishment in hell-fire for wrong-doers and paradise for the righteous. (88, 99, 101, and many others) Later revelations and traditions greatly expanded the Islamic picture of the last judgement. The most basic elements are:

the last day when the present creation will be annihilated,

the resurrection of the dead,

their presentation before God and the reading out of the complete record of all their good and evil deeds,

the rewarding and punishing of each person strictly according to the balance off their good and evil deeds,

the intercession of Muhammed on behalf of the faithful.

the sending of the successful to Paradise, and the losers to the fire and torment of Hell.

Muslims learn of these through accounts of the final judgement which are portrayed with vivid imagery. Most accept these accounts as literal portrayals of what they will personally face. Avoiding the terrors of hell, and indeed the uncertainty of the judgement day, both motivates Muslims to obedience in God's law, and to seeking to mitigate the effects of their sins.

C. Salvation

Within the Islamic tradition the specific Arabic word for salvation,hajat, is not often used. Instead humans at the final judgement are characterized as "winners" and "losers", as those who have succeeded and those who have failed. Salvation is moving from being a loser to being a winner, and thus obtaining paradise in the end. And this salvation is accomplished by taking the concrete steps, provided by God, which insure that at the final judgement a human life will have more good deeds than bad when weighed in the balance. Islam stresses that these steps are God's provision for human failure, so that while the immediate cause of salvation may be human actions, the possibility of that actions will lead to salvation comes from God's grace and mercy.

1. Sin and its Remedies

The Quran does not present a formal theory of sin (krait's is the general quranic term), but recognizes a difference between faults (dhanb ) and intentional sins (ithm ) The Quran suggests that those who avoid intentional sins will find forgiveness in Allah (53:111), and also offers forgiveness to those who repent of such sins or infidelity. Later Muslim theologians discussed extensively both the distinction between light (sagha'dir ) and heavy (kaba'ir ) sins, which acts belonged to each category, and how they could be remedied so as to avoid eternal punishment. One of the first divisions in Islam was the withdrawal of theKharidjites, who insisted that not onlyshirk (making something or someone equal to God), but heavy sins rendered a person an infidel (kafir ) and required repentance. TheMutalizites also insisted that punishment for heavy sins on the last day could be avoided only through repentance. The controversy centered around the importance of personal deeds versus the importance of belief in both maintaining membership in the community, and in achieving paradise at the final judgement.

The orthodox view, developed by theMurdji'ies , gave priority to belief for both membership in the community and attaining paradise. They stressed that each person is responsible for his or her own sins, and that no person can pay the price for the sins of another. (4:111, 6:164) Yet they were equally forceful in asserting that God is merciful and forgiving, and that no one should despair because of their sin. (12:87, 15:56, 39:53) A system of classification of sins then provided guidelines to specific remedies for sinful acts.[13]

In the orthodox view thoughts are not sins, or are the lightest of sins, unless they are put into action. They are not taken into account on the judgement day. One tradition of the prophet states: "Allah does not take into account what the members of my community think, as long as they do not pronounce it or carry it out."[14]

Dhanb , mistakes or faults, are overcome by removing the fault which caused them through knowledge and good works. One tradition (often quoted on the television in Malaysia at the time of evening prayers) stresses that "each footstep on the way to evening worship at the mosque overcomes 10,000 sins." For the believer there was no need to seek special forgiveness for such mistakes.

Heavy sins, normally those which involved consciously breaking God's commands, could be remedied through formally asking for forgiveness (istighfar ), and through restitution if a person had been wronged. Such sins, although avoidable, were regarded as ubiquitous in humans and necessary so that humans would rely on God for mercy and forgiveness. One tradition states that Allah would eliminate his community if it didn't sin, and create another people who would commit sins, ask forgiveness, and be forgiven.[15] Another states that the prophet prayed for forgiveness several times a day, indicating that no one should think themselves above the possibility of committing heavy sins.

The ultimate sin, shirk, required repentance ( tawbah ), and the embracing of Islam through the confession of the one God, Allah, and the prophet-hood of Muhammed.

2. Intercession (shafa'a).

The concept of intercession (shafa'a ) is found in the Quran, but primarily in the denial that anyone can intercede for another on the day of judgement (2:48, 2:254). However, an elaborate tradition developed supporting the idea that Muhammed would intercede on behalf of the faithful who had committed heavy sins and been cast into hell, and would then lead them into paradise. In some traditions this power to intercede was extended to others, with some maintaining that the followers of all the genuine prophets would have their prophet to intercede for them on the day of judgement. In many parts of the Muslim world intercessory prayers are offered on behalf of the dead, although this has been a matter of great controversy between traditionalist Muslims and those seeking to restore a purer Islam based on only the original teaching of the Quran and Hadith.[16]

3. Cleanliness

Islam recognizes that religion is not merely a matter of good and bad deeds, but of a relationship with or toward God which has a psychological dimension as well. Muslims may feel distanced or alienated from God not only by sins which can lead to hell, but by unintentional acts or circumstances (such as being touched by an unclean animal, or having impure thoughts about a person of the opposite sex). These make a person unfit to worship, and thus cut off from the primary means by which they live in obedience to God. As in Judaism these actions are circumstances are associated with cleanliness, and indeed in many Islamic languages holiness and cleanliness are interchangeable terms. The Quran and Hadith make many provisions for situations of uncleanliness, primarily through special forms of ritual washing in addition to those prescribed before prayer. 

D. Conclusion

In the end Islam seeks to offer a way of life in which, by God's mercy, success at the final judgement is obtainable by all humans, and for the faithful is certain. The life which leads to success follows a way clearly revealed by God, trodden and further explained by God's prophet, and minutely analyzed by generations of Muslim scholars. For every possible misdeed along that way there is (by God's mercy) a corresponding act which will mitigate its ultimate effects. For every misstep there is a way back on track. There are Muslims who are racked with doubt and guilt, and who feel that nothing they do can overcome the burden of their sins. When no Islamic solution meets their psychological and spiritual needs many have found peace in the message of the gospel. However, the history of missions among Muslims has shown that the majority find within their own religion provisions for living toward God's end for the world which give them both confidence in their present life, and hope for the future. Finding ways to present the truth of the gospel, without denigrating the claims of Islamic teaching or offending against Muhammed, remains one of the great challenges of Christian mission.

VI. Bibliography

Shorter Encylopedia of Islam , H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961. (This work is keyed only to Arabic terms, but contains excellent accounts of the history of Islamic theological reflection.)

Salvation through Repentance , Abu Ameenah Bilil Philips, Tawheed Publications, 1990

The Islamic Impulse , ed. Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Georgetown University, Washington D.C. 1987

Islamic Futures andThe Future of Islamic Civilization , Ziauddin Sardar, Pelanduk Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1988

Concept of Islam , Mahmoud Abu-Saud, American Trust Publications, 1990

The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam , Cyril Glasse, Harper Collins, San Francisco, 1989. (This work is keyed to English as well as Arabic terms, and is thus particularly useful for students. However, its presentations do not recognize the actual diversity of Islamic teaching on certain key points, and should always be checked against other sources.)

Toward Understanding Islam, Abul A'la Mawdudi, The Islamic Foundation, London, 1980.

Religion, Law, and Society, ed Tarek Mitri, WCC, Geneva, 1995

Muslim Devotions , Constance Padwick, OneWorld, Oxford, 1997.

Islamic Spirituality, vols. 1 and 2, ed. Seyyed Hussein Nasr, Crossroads, New York, 1987, 1991.

Notes

---

[1] Islamic Spirituality I, p. 359.

[2] During the period when the author lived in Malaysia (1985-1992) it was not uncommon to hear stories about jinn being involved in human affairs. Politicians were sometimes accused of enlisting jinn to attack their opponents, cases of mass hysteria were attributed to jinn, and more girls who became pregnant, and their families, would attribute the child to a jinn, to whom the girl was said to be legitimately married.

[3] An oft told anecdote tells how one famous teacher would not eat watermelon, because although the melon itself was an allowed food, he could not determine whether Muhammed had spit or swallowed the seeds, and thus had no guidance in the matter.

[4] Islamic Spirituality, p.359

[5] See, for example, Mawdudi's account of Muhammed's life in his Towards Understanding Islam.

[6] Islamic Spirituality, Vol 1, p. 48-49.

[7] Ibid, p.49.

[8] Islamic Spirituality, Vol 1. 295.

[9] Shorter Encylopedia of Islam, H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961, p.435. Students of Islam should exercise care in taking any presentation of Islamic beliefs in this area as authoritative. The systems of al-Shastarani, al-Ghazzali, and al-Baidawi in particular are sometimes presented as representing the orthodox Muslim viewpoint, when in fact their systems, although not rejected as heretical, are not necessarily representative of all orthodox opinion. 

[10] Ziauddin Sardar's books, Islamic Futures and The Future of Islamic Civilization, (Pelanduk Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1988) present an overview of one strand of popular modern Muslim thinking on these issues. Of particular interest is a model Islamic constitution (Islamic Futures, pp. 327-345) which seeks to codify Islamic teaching in a form useful to the creation of a modern state.

[11] "Religious Ideology, Women and the Family: the Islamic Paradigm, Barbara Freyer Stowasser, in The Islamic Impulse, ed. Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Washington D.C. 1987, pp. 262-296

[12] Mahmoud Abu-Saud, Concept of Islam, American Trust Publications, 1990. pp. 121-127. Abu-Saud's presentation wouldn't necessarily find agreement with all Muslims, but represents one typical apologetic approach for Muslim views of the family.

[13] See Muslim Devotions, Constance Padwick, OneWorld, Oxford, 1997, pp. 173-208 for a full account of Muslim prayer related to seeking forgiveness for sins.

[14] Shorter Encylopedia of Islam, H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961, p.251

[15] Salvation through Repentance,  Abu Ameenah Bilil Philips, Tawheed Publications, 1990, p.4

[16] As is the case in Christian tradition, the chronological experience of the soul after death is not always clear, or agreed, in the Islamic tradition. 

6. Ummah and Nation

The Islamic ideal normally distinguishes only between the Islamic and non-Islamic world, thedar a-Islam anddar al-harb. The former is the unified world of Islam; the latter is the realm of struggle to implement Islam. Classically these distinguished geographical realms under Muslim political and military control from those which were not. Such nations as existed in thedar al-Islam were regarded as units of political and administrative expediency and in theory the whole of thedar al-Islam was ruled by the Caliph. As late as the 1920's Muslims around the world looked hopefully at the prospect of Islam and its believers united under some type of political structure. The pan-Islamic movement did not achieve this goal, and the debate over how the world-wide unity of Muslim believers, theummah , should be achieved in an era of nation-states goes on. In part this debate centers on how to create an Islamic state. While some purists among Muslims argue that no modern state can realize Islamic ideals apart from the unity of theummah , there are nonetheless active political movements throughout the Muslim world to transform existing nations into Islamic states under the rule ofsharia law. At the same time dominantly Muslim states have formed organizations and alliances which attempt at some level to foster the overall unity of theummah , and intellectuals continue to theorize about how actual political unity can be attained.

7. The Realization of Islam

We cannot understand modern Muslims if we do not understand that the drive to realize the ideals sketched above is central to their understanding of human fulfillment. Paradise (see below) is the reward for a life of submission to God's will. But for Muslims the authentic fulfillment of that submission should come here on earth, not a distant afterlife. Muslims have never been taught to push their hopes for human authenticity to a future eschaton. And this human authenticity, although it has a distinctive inner dimension, is for Muslims inextricably linked with the implementation of particular personal roles, and family, community, political, and economic structures. Unless Islam changes dramatically Muslims will never be content with less thandin , an all-embracing pattern of life, ordered according to God's or law.

V. The End of Creation

Islam is a way of life. But this way of life was always a wayto eternal victory, reward, and success in the form of promisedal-Jannah , paradise, or literally "Garden". This way leads through death and the grave, and God's judgement, before reaching its end with either eternal bliss or eternal suffering.

A. Death and the Grave

The continued existence of the soul after death is central to Islamic teaching. The Arabs believed that life continued, after a fashion, in the grave. The Quran makes only indirect reference to punishment in the grave (47:27, 6:93). However, the traditions of the prophet affirm the importance of the grave ("the grave is the first stage of the journey to eternity") and address directly the fears of life in the grave. By the time Islamic theologians developed the first creeds Islam had a highly developed doctrine of punishment in the grave (adhab al-kabr ). The tradition states that two angels,Munkar andNakir , will examine each person after death regarding Muhammed (or in a more elaborate form, God, Muhammed, religion, and direction of prayer). The faithful will give a satisfactory answer, and will be left to await the Resurrection. Some traditions suggest that the graves of the faithful will be mystically in communion with theKaba' or the grave of Muhammed, and that in this way they will find comfort and even bliss as they await the resurrection. Those without a satisfactory answer will be beaten continually in the grave until the resurrection, (except on Fridays). Some traditions excuse the righteous unbelievers from this punishment. Regardless of the specific elaboration of tradition, the primary emphasis is on correct belief as the hope for avoiding immediate punishment in the grave. It is a tradition in Islam that as a person dies they whisper theShahada , or basic belief in Allah and Muhammed.

In addition to the hope of avoiding punishment, and finding some comfort in the grave, Islam holds out the possibility of avoiding both the grave and God's final judgement. The prophets are taken directly to paradise upon their death. For ordinary Muslims this privilege is obtained when death comes through martyrdom, primarily when fighting on behalf of Islam. Women who die in childbirth, and those who die in the holy land on a pilgrimage, are also martyrs who obtain the entry into paradise directly after death. This hope has motivated many Muslims to embrace death for Islamic causes, with the modern suicide bombers of Hamas providing a notable recent example. A more benign effect has been to encourage elderly Muslims to put off making their pilgrimage until they are quite feeble in the hope of dying in the holy land, where many who have the means remain illegally after the pilgrimage is over.

B. The Final Judgement

The earliest revelations in the Quran emphasize the unity and majesty of God, and the certainty of God's judgement on those who have not acknowledged God as their creator and submitted to God's will. Muhammed's earliest preaching focused on the day of judgement which would mark the end of the world, and salvation from hell was a dominant theme. Belief in a day of reckoning (qiyamah ) and a resurrection of the dead to judgement (hashr ) is found in earliest Islamic creeds, and is universally regarded as an essential doctrine. The earliest revelations to Muhammed stress the certainty of God's judgement and of punishment in hell-fire for wrong-doers and paradise for the righteous. (88, 99, 101, and many others) Later revelations and traditions greatly expanded the Islamic picture of the last judgement. The most basic elements are:

the last day when the present creation will be annihilated,

the resurrection of the dead,

their presentation before God and the reading out of the complete record of all their good and evil deeds,

the rewarding and punishing of each person strictly according to the balance off their good and evil deeds,

the intercession of Muhammed on behalf of the faithful.

the sending of the successful to Paradise, and the losers to the fire and torment of Hell.

Muslims learn of these through accounts of the final judgement which are portrayed with vivid imagery. Most accept these accounts as literal portrayals of what they will personally face. Avoiding the terrors of hell, and indeed the uncertainty of the judgement day, both motivates Muslims to obedience in God's law, and to seeking to mitigate the effects of their sins.

C. Salvation

Within the Islamic tradition the specific Arabic word for salvation,hajat, is not often used. Instead humans at the final judgement are characterized as "winners" and "losers", as those who have succeeded and those who have failed. Salvation is moving from being a loser to being a winner, and thus obtaining paradise in the end. And this salvation is accomplished by taking the concrete steps, provided by God, which insure that at the final judgement a human life will have more good deeds than bad when weighed in the balance. Islam stresses that these steps are God's provision for human failure, so that while the immediate cause of salvation may be human actions, the possibility of that actions will lead to salvation comes from God's grace and mercy.

1. Sin and its Remedies

The Quran does not present a formal theory of sin (krait's is the general quranic term), but recognizes a difference between faults (dhanb ) and intentional sins (ithm ) The Quran suggests that those who avoid intentional sins will find forgiveness in Allah (53:111), and also offers forgiveness to those who repent of such sins or infidelity. Later Muslim theologians discussed extensively both the distinction between light (sagha'dir ) and heavy (kaba'ir ) sins, which acts belonged to each category, and how they could be remedied so as to avoid eternal punishment. One of the first divisions in Islam was the withdrawal of theKharidjites, who insisted that not onlyshirk (making something or someone equal to God), but heavy sins rendered a person an infidel (kafir ) and required repentance. TheMutalizites also insisted that punishment for heavy sins on the last day could be avoided only through repentance. The controversy centered around the importance of personal deeds versus the importance of belief in both maintaining membership in the community, and in achieving paradise at the final judgement.

The orthodox view, developed by theMurdji'ies , gave priority to belief for both membership in the community and attaining paradise. They stressed that each person is responsible for his or her own sins, and that no person can pay the price for the sins of another. (4:111, 6:164) Yet they were equally forceful in asserting that God is merciful and forgiving, and that no one should despair because of their sin. (12:87, 15:56, 39:53) A system of classification of sins then provided guidelines to specific remedies for sinful acts.[13]

In the orthodox view thoughts are not sins, or are the lightest of sins, unless they are put into action. They are not taken into account on the judgement day. One tradition of the prophet states: "Allah does not take into account what the members of my community think, as long as they do not pronounce it or carry it out."[14]

Dhanb , mistakes or faults, are overcome by removing the fault which caused them through knowledge and good works. One tradition (often quoted on the television in Malaysia at the time of evening prayers) stresses that "each footstep on the way to evening worship at the mosque overcomes 10,000 sins." For the believer there was no need to seek special forgiveness for such mistakes.

Heavy sins, normally those which involved consciously breaking God's commands, could be remedied through formally asking for forgiveness (istighfar ), and through restitution if a person had been wronged. Such sins, although avoidable, were regarded as ubiquitous in humans and necessary so that humans would rely on God for mercy and forgiveness. One tradition states that Allah would eliminate his community if it didn't sin, and create another people who would commit sins, ask forgiveness, and be forgiven.[15] Another states that the prophet prayed for forgiveness several times a day, indicating that no one should think themselves above the possibility of committing heavy sins.

The ultimate sin, shirk, required repentance ( tawbah ), and the embracing of Islam through the confession of the one God, Allah, and the prophet-hood of Muhammed.

2. Intercession (shafa'a).

The concept of intercession (shafa'a ) is found in the Quran, but primarily in the denial that anyone can intercede for another on the day of judgement (2:48, 2:254). However, an elaborate tradition developed supporting the idea that Muhammed would intercede on behalf of the faithful who had committed heavy sins and been cast into hell, and would then lead them into paradise. In some traditions this power to intercede was extended to others, with some maintaining that the followers of all the genuine prophets would have their prophet to intercede for them on the day of judgement. In many parts of the Muslim world intercessory prayers are offered on behalf of the dead, although this has been a matter of great controversy between traditionalist Muslims and those seeking to restore a purer Islam based on only the original teaching of the Quran and Hadith.[16]

3. Cleanliness

Islam recognizes that religion is not merely a matter of good and bad deeds, but of a relationship with or toward God which has a psychological dimension as well. Muslims may feel distanced or alienated from God not only by sins which can lead to hell, but by unintentional acts or circumstances (such as being touched by an unclean animal, or having impure thoughts about a person of the opposite sex). These make a person unfit to worship, and thus cut off from the primary means by which they live in obedience to God. As in Judaism these actions are circumstances are associated with cleanliness, and indeed in many Islamic languages holiness and cleanliness are interchangeable terms. The Quran and Hadith make many provisions for situations of uncleanliness, primarily through special forms of ritual washing in addition to those prescribed before prayer. 

D. Conclusion

In the end Islam seeks to offer a way of life in which, by God's mercy, success at the final judgement is obtainable by all humans, and for the faithful is certain. The life which leads to success follows a way clearly revealed by God, trodden and further explained by God's prophet, and minutely analyzed by generations of Muslim scholars. For every possible misdeed along that way there is (by God's mercy) a corresponding act which will mitigate its ultimate effects. For every misstep there is a way back on track. There are Muslims who are racked with doubt and guilt, and who feel that nothing they do can overcome the burden of their sins. When no Islamic solution meets their psychological and spiritual needs many have found peace in the message of the gospel. However, the history of missions among Muslims has shown that the majority find within their own religion provisions for living toward God's end for the world which give them both confidence in their present life, and hope for the future. Finding ways to present the truth of the gospel, without denigrating the claims of Islamic teaching or offending against Muhammed, remains one of the great challenges of Christian mission.

VI. Bibliography

Shorter Encylopedia of Islam , H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961. (This work is keyed only to Arabic terms, but contains excellent accounts of the history of Islamic theological reflection.)

Salvation through Repentance , Abu Ameenah Bilil Philips, Tawheed Publications, 1990

The Islamic Impulse , ed. Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Georgetown University, Washington D.C. 1987

Islamic Futures andThe Future of Islamic Civilization , Ziauddin Sardar, Pelanduk Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1988

Concept of Islam , Mahmoud Abu-Saud, American Trust Publications, 1990

The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam , Cyril Glasse, Harper Collins, San Francisco, 1989. (This work is keyed to English as well as Arabic terms, and is thus particularly useful for students. However, its presentations do not recognize the actual diversity of Islamic teaching on certain key points, and should always be checked against other sources.)

Toward Understanding Islam, Abul A'la Mawdudi, The Islamic Foundation, London, 1980.

Religion, Law, and Society, ed Tarek Mitri, WCC, Geneva, 1995

Muslim Devotions , Constance Padwick, OneWorld, Oxford, 1997.

Islamic Spirituality, vols. 1 and 2, ed. Seyyed Hussein Nasr, Crossroads, New York, 1987, 1991.

Notes

---

[1] Islamic Spirituality I, p. 359.

[2] During the period when the author lived in Malaysia (1985-1992) it was not uncommon to hear stories about jinn being involved in human affairs. Politicians were sometimes accused of enlisting jinn to attack their opponents, cases of mass hysteria were attributed to jinn, and more girls who became pregnant, and their families, would attribute the child to a jinn, to whom the girl was said to be legitimately married.

[3] An oft told anecdote tells how one famous teacher would not eat watermelon, because although the melon itself was an allowed food, he could not determine whether Muhammed had spit or swallowed the seeds, and thus had no guidance in the matter.

[4] Islamic Spirituality, p.359

[5] See, for example, Mawdudi's account of Muhammed's life in his Towards Understanding Islam.

[6] Islamic Spirituality, Vol 1, p. 48-49.

[7] Ibid, p.49.

[8] Islamic Spirituality, Vol 1. 295.

[9] Shorter Encylopedia of Islam, H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961, p.435. Students of Islam should exercise care in taking any presentation of Islamic beliefs in this area as authoritative. The systems of al-Shastarani, al-Ghazzali, and al-Baidawi in particular are sometimes presented as representing the orthodox Muslim viewpoint, when in fact their systems, although not rejected as heretical, are not necessarily representative of all orthodox opinion. 

[10] Ziauddin Sardar's books, Islamic Futures and The Future of Islamic Civilization, (Pelanduk Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1988) present an overview of one strand of popular modern Muslim thinking on these issues. Of particular interest is a model Islamic constitution (Islamic Futures, pp. 327-345) which seeks to codify Islamic teaching in a form useful to the creation of a modern state.

[11] "Religious Ideology, Women and the Family: the Islamic Paradigm, Barbara Freyer Stowasser, in The Islamic Impulse, ed. Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Washington D.C. 1987, pp. 262-296

[12] Mahmoud Abu-Saud, Concept of Islam, American Trust Publications, 1990. pp. 121-127. Abu-Saud's presentation wouldn't necessarily find agreement with all Muslims, but represents one typical apologetic approach for Muslim views of the family.

[13] See Muslim Devotions, Constance Padwick, OneWorld, Oxford, 1997, pp. 173-208 for a full account of Muslim prayer related to seeking forgiveness for sins.

[14] Shorter Encylopedia of Islam, H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961, p.251

[15] Salvation through Repentance,  Abu Ameenah Bilil Philips, Tawheed Publications, 1990, p.4

[16] As is the case in Christian tradition, the chronological experience of the soul after death is not always clear, or agreed, in the Islamic tradition.