Al-Shahid Al-Awwal; Faqih Al-Sarbidaran

Al-Shahid Al-Awwal; Faqih Al-Sarbidaran Author:
Translator: Hasan M. Najafi
Publisher: Ansariyan Publications – Qum
Category: Ulama and Scholars

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Al-Shahid Al-Awwal; Faqih Al-Sarbidaran

Al-Shahid Al-Awwal; Faqih Al-Sarbidaran

Author:
Publisher: Ansariyan Publications – Qum
English

Chapter 2: Founding the School

On Al-Shahid Al-Awwal's reaching his middle age, he became a matchless scholastic dignitary, attracting toward him lovers of knowledge, guiding the hearts of the astray, being a lightening torch and an illuminative beacon leading toward the straight hard path. He turned to be a great Faqih, Mutakallim, a knowledgeable Muhaddith (traditionist), and an eminent literary man, being so influential and magnanimous whose fame was widely known.

His most apparent cultural service, after returning from migration land of Iraq, specifically from Hillah, was establishing a jurisprudential (Fiqhi) school at his brith-place inJizzin, that excelled all other schools in Jabal Amil.

The emergence of this great school constituted a turning point through the history of Jabal Amil, which produced a large number of Ulama, intellectuals and professors spreading all over the cities of the Islamic world.

The disintegration of the Abbasid State, emergence of the Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq and Iran, beside the coming to power of the Hamdanis in Halab and Fatimids in Egypt, have all prompted the activation of the cultural and political pace by the Shi'ah, who suffered various forms of persecution and repression, throughout a long era.

The greatest share and contribution in all this belonged to Jabal Amil, owing to the fact that Jizzinschool was at the vanguard of the cultural movement at that period of time.

The People's Support

It is infeasible to specify the period spent by Al-Shahid in Jizzin after his return, as after founding the school he made several trips to Palestine and Damascus. But it can be said that he spent many years of his life at Jizzin, embarking on compiling books, educating his disciples, and taking care of people, endeavouring to solve their problems.

Thus he became the centre of attraction of people from far and near, with his house turning to be shelter for all, particularly the Shi'ah who believed him to be their saviour, when being inflicted with tribulations of life, therefore he was called with the epithet the Shi'ah Shelter.

Educating the Disciples

Al-Shahid's professorship character has come to light so early, when he started to teach Al-Allamah Al Hilli's Al­Qawaid, with Al-Tahdhib, and Ilal Al-Sharai, beside other books on Fiqh, Usul and Hadith.

Al-Shahid's lessons were not restricted within Hillah or Jizzin at his private school, but his numerous and long travels he made from time to time, constituted a mobile school moving between Egypt, Hijaz, Syria, Palestine and beside other Islamic countries.

“Throughout that period Al-Shahid could produce a large number of scholars, who finished their learning under him. We can refer to some of his disciples, at the head of whom are: Al­ Sayyid Abu Talib Ahmad Ibn Qasim Ibn Zuhrah Al-Husayni, Al­Shaykh Jamal Al-Din Ahmad Ibn Al-Najjar the author of Hashiyah Ala Qawaid Al-Allamah Al-Hilli; Al-Shaykh Jamal Al-Din Abu Mansur Hasan his son, that Al-Shahid certificated with his two brothers;1 Al-Shaykh Radi Al-Din Abu Al-Qasim Ali Ibn Al-Shahid (Al-Awsat); and Al-Shaykh Radi Al-Din Abu Talib Mubammad, who was his eldest son, and was certificated by Al-Shahid twice.2

He has also cared for educating his daughter Fatimah, who was known later with the title “Sitt Al­Mashayikh”. She was an ideal educated believing girl, turning to be a centre of public veneration, and on her death, seventy mujtahids took part at her funeral procession.

Among his disciples also is Al-Shaykh Sharaf Al-Din Abu Abd Allah Miqdad Ibn Abd Allah who died in 826 H. He was counted among the great Fuqaha, having several Fiqhi compilations. We can refer also to Al-Sayyid Badr Al-Din Hasan Ibn Ayyub, who was called Ibn Najm Al-Din Al-Araji Al­Husayni.

He was considered the most eminent and honourable disciple of Al-Shahid; and Al-Shaykh Shams Muhammad Ibn Al­ Ali Al-Karaki. His high status can be explicitly realized through the kind reception and good hospitality rendered to him by Al-Shahid on his returning from performing pilgrimage to Allah's Sanctuary, with tender poetry.

Among Al-Shahid's disciples also in Al-Shaykh Zayn Al-Din Abu Al-Hasan Ali, known with the name “Ibn Al-Khazin”,3 who deserved Al-Shahid's applause while getting the license (Ijazah) from him.

In this order the names of Al-Shahid's disciples, among the reputed Ulama and dignitaries, go on to include thirty-two great scholars, as reported by Al-Muhaqqiq Rida Shams Al-Din4 in his book.

His Works and Compilations

“Look at Al-Shahid's travels as they are

A succour for every teacher and Instructor.5

In spite of his relatively short life, Al-Shahid Al-Awwal has left behind numerous valuable works on different knowledge fields, as Fiqh, Usul and Kalam beside other fields, till his name was yoked with the Ja'fari school, that wherever one of them is mentioned the other is remembered.

He occupied the first rank in Shi'aFiqh, that could attain its resurgence under his hand. Beside these fields of knowledge, he had full command over other sciences like philosophy, logic, arithmetic, geometry, ethics, history, beside literature and poetry.

The style in which he was presenting his thoughts and opinions was so elegant and fascinating, indicating his good command of styles of Kalam. And, after passage of long centuries, his books are still taught as curricula in the theological schools. His works are extant nowadays in the form of manuscripts, with some others being lost.

But those books and works available today can alone form a huge library, and a voluminous encydopedia replete with miscellaneous fields of knowledge.

His Works on Kalam

Ilm Al-Kalam constitutes a broad foundation at the theological schools, due to its firm connection with the Islamic doctrines, like Tawhid (monotheism), “Adl (Justice), Nubuwwah (prophethood), Imamah (Imamate), and Ma'ad (resurrection), which altogether constitute a basis for a solid cornerstone for building the Islamic character.

Hence it is incumbent upon every Muslim to believe in these doctrines, out of mental and instinctive evidences, the sensitive circle within which all forms of blind imitation and pursuance be inundated.

In the past the Ulama used to combine between Kalam and philosophy under the framework of one science, despite their wide and extensive scope. But at present some kind of specialization commenced to exist, under whose umbrella profound and various branches and fields of knowledge were formed.

Al-Shahid Al-Awwal was among those personages attaining the climax of specialization in the fields of Kalam and philosophy. He was regarded a first-class professor, owing to the fact that he has learned philosophy and Kalam under a competent professor, that is Qutb Al-Din Al-Razi.

It is noteworthy to tell here that Al-Razi has learnt this science under Al-Allamah Al-Hilli, who in turn was the disciple of Al­Muhaqqiq Al-Tusi, the great scholar of Fiqh and Kalam. Hence it can be said that Al-Shahid Al-Awwal was the meeting-point of the philosophical and Kalami thoughts once more, through the aforementioned two mediums.

Among his works on kaliim are the following:

1. Al-Maqalah Al-taklifiyyah: A treatise on Aqa'id (doctrines) and Kalam. He completed its compiling onSaturday, the eleventh of Jumada Al-Ula 769 H. Al-Shaykh Zayn Al-Din Yunus Al-Bayyadi has exposed it, calling it Al-Risalah Al­Yunusiyyah Fi Sharh Al-Taklifiyyah Al-Shahidiyyah.

2. Al-Masail Al- Arbainiyyah: It contains forty researches about doctrines and Kalam, that were not published in a separate book but included within another book called: “Mukhtasar Tarikh Al-Shi'ah Fi Lebanon” by Al-Shaykh Ahmad Arif Al­Din. There is a manuscript for the book with the handwriting of the late Al-Samawi, calling it: “Jadhwat Al-Salam Fi Masail Al­ Kalam.”

3. Al- Aqidah: An abridged treatise on the Islamic doctrines.

His Works on Hadith

Hadith is counted a rich source for all Islamic fields of knowledge, and a hard course for which hearts and mindsare desiring . This immense bulk of narrationsis considered a cultural treasure for whoever needing it, and a shelter for the astray who has lost the straight path leading toward bliss and salvation.

Through the traditions of the Prophet (p.b.u.h) and Ahl Al-Bayt Imams (a.s), the Ulama can quench themselves from the Qur'an's fountains that are effusing science and knowledge.

The Shi'a Fiqh is but a quintessence of the Infallibles' traditions reaching us throughout centuries, conveying with them the echo of those sweet words reiterated by the scholars and knowledge-seekers. The phrases “Al-Sadiq said” and “Al-Baqir said” are still resounding throughout years and days implying in within that great thought, rich sciences and huge treasures.

Al-Shahid Al-Awwal is considered one of the greatest Shi'ah traditionists, embarking on propagating and reporting the traditions of the Masumun (a.s), the fact that was testified by the licenses he got, and those he granted to the others.

He used to report his narrations from Al-Imam Ja'far Al­Sadiq (a.s) through a hundred chains, all related to his teacher Fakhr Al-Muhaqqiqin.6

Among his works on Hadith are the following:

1. Arba’una Hadithan: which contains forty traditions ascribed to the holy Prophet (p.b.u.h), most of which being on rituals (Ibadat). Al-Shahid completed its compilation on the 18th Dhu Al-Hijjah 782 H., and it was published in Iran with the book Glaybat Al-Nu'mani in 1318 H. Sh.7

The Ulama have attached great importance to the compilation of books dealing with the Prophet's traditions, transmitted from Al-Imam Al-Rida, through his fathers, from the Prophet (p.b.u.h), that he said: “From among my followers, one who shall preserve and protect my forty Hadith, so that my people may be benefited from them, God Almighty will treat him on the Day of Resurrection with great men of wisdom and learning (Jurisprudence).”8

2. Arba’una Hadithan: It is another book unlike the previous one, or it may be the 2nd volume of that book. It contains only one Hadith with forty investigations about it. It was published in Iran in 1314 H.Sh.

3. Ikhtisar Al-Ja'fariyyat Al-Ash'athiyyat and Al-Ja'fariyyat of the old books, which are ascribed to Muhammad Ibn Al­Ash'ath and Ja'far Ibn Muhammad Al-Sadiq (a.s), so they were called with their names. They contain one thousand traditions, abbreviated into three hundred ones only by Al-Shahid. A copy of the book is found in Tehran at Al-Shaykh Diya Al-Din Al­ Nuri9 Library.

4. Mazar Al-Shahid: It is called also Muntakhab Al-Ziyarat, the manuscript of which is at Al-Sayyid Al-Tustari Library in Najaf. It was translated into Persian under the title: Murad Al­Murid Li Mazar Al-Shahid, which was translated by Al-Shaykh Ali Al-Karbala'i.10

5. Al-Durar Al-bahirah Min Al-Asdaf Al-Tahirah:Which contains aphorisms reported from the Prophet (p.b.u.h), through his Household (a.s). A copy of it is at Al-Tabatabai Library in Tehran.11

6. Majmuat Al-Ijazat: in which Al-Shahid collected the licenses he got from the earlier Ulama.

7. Majmuat Al-Shahid: It is in three big volumes, about which Aqa Buzurg Al-Tehrani said in Musaffa Al-Maqal: “Al­Shahid Al-Awwal has authored three collections of numerous benefits.”

In Al-Dhariah he said: “They are three collections from which he reports in the first volume of Al-Bihar, treatises of various Ulama. He completed its compilation at Hillah in 776 H. The second volume is an abridgement of Al-Ja’farjyyat12

His Poetical Works

Literature constituted a remarkable aspect at the character of Al-Shahid Al-Awwal, who was a writer, a poet and a litterateur. His writings are distinguished with meaningfulness, simplicity and explicitness, devoid of the crookedness of complexity and vagueness, the fact making his words simple and his expressions impressive, free from all forms of rhyming and affectation which were common at that time.

Despite his being unprolific in the field of poetry, but his poems were so tender, illustrative and expressive.

In one of his soliloquys he said:

The misfortune ofYour poor bondman is so great

In being unable to afford for dowry of houris,

(God's) friends enjoyed Yourcompany in darkness,

Through sleeplessness, humbleness and yearning,

You banished me alone from knockingYour door;

Have they preceded me due to greatness of my sins?

Haven't they sinned to deserveYour mercy?

Or they sinned but being pardoned other than me?

If my Lord, no place nearYou is there,

For the sinners, where is my good faith then?

He also said:

Sufism being not only confined in staff and rosary,

Nay, not even poverty is dreaming of that honour,

Even if by going and coming in a patched dress,

Under which hide offences of insolence and luxury,

Or by showing abstinence in the world while you are,

Indulged in it like the dog's indulgence in the carrions.

These are samples of his poems that explicitly indicate Al­Shahid's good command of poetry, and his ability in subduing the words and vocabulary into elevated expressions and impressive illustrations.

He has a collection of poems (Diwan) containing twenty poems, under the heading: Shi'r Al-Shahid Al- Awwl.13

In this respect, he has written Sharh Qasidat Al-Shahfini on the praise of Amir Al-Mu'minin Ali Ibn Abi Talib (a.s), for which Al-Shahfini showed his admiration and praised him.

Al-Shahid and Usul Al-Fiqh

The principles (Al-Usul) occupy a broad and important position in the theological schools, due to their vital role in establishing jurisprudence (Fiqh) upon a solid foundation, as deriving the legal ruling from its source is regarded a sensitive essential job. Al-Shahid was one of the lofty vertexes in Ilm Al­ Usul, whose works indicating his deep-rooted profundity in this field.

There is a book authored by him in this respect called: Jami Al-Bayn Min Fawaid Al-Sharhayn, the expositins which were compiled by his two teachers, the brothers Al-Sayyid Imad Al-Din and Al-Sayyid Diya Al-Din. Each one of them has written a sharh on the book Tahdhib Furuq Al-wusull Ila Ilm Al-Usul, by their maternal uncle Al-Allamah Al-Hilli. Beside Fawa id Al-Sharhayn, Al-Shahid has added more advantages to them.

His Works on Fiqh

Fiqh comes at the foremost of religious sciences because of the significant and essential role it plays in the life of the individual and society. Through it one can recognize and distinguish Halal (lawful) from Haram (unlawful), recommendable (Mustahabb) and reprehensible (Makruh), and the permissible deeds, the fact leading to determine the culture of the Muslim society, specifying its behaviourism and way of life.

Fiqh organizes all man's affairs from birth till death, administering all political, economic, social and ethical aspects of life. Its importance lies in its being a representative for the Divine precepts attaining Allah's pleasure.

Hence, the inferential Fiqh was set up through great efforts exerted by specialist Ulama, whose works have produced their fruits in the form of practical treatises, exposing for the Muslim individual and society, all the limits of Halal and Haram beside the permissible acts.

Al-Shahid Al-Awwal is counted the greatest of the Fuqaha of the Imamischool , and even he was in himself an advanced Fiqhi school, that managed to push forward the Shia Fiqh by wide steps. Thus he became a true inheritor of Ale Muhammad sciences and knowledge.

The following are some of his works in this field:

1. Al-Alfiyyah: It is a Fiqhi treatise consisting of a thousand obligations in the Salat (prayers), the reason why it was called Al-Alfiyyah. It consists of an introduction, three chapters and a conclusion, with many expositions (Shuruh) written about it. In his book Al-Dhari'ah,14 Al-Shaykh Aqa Buzurg Al-Tehrani has cited thirty-one sharhs, among which we can refer to that of Al­ Shahid Al-Thani under the title Al-Maqasid Al-Aliyyah. It was composed in verses by Al-Shaykh Hasan Ibn Rashid Al-Hilli in 653 lines, and also by Al-Shaykh Ali Ibn Abel Al-Samad Al­Harithi, the uncle of Al-Shaykh Al-Bahai, and others.

2. Al-Nafliyyah: It is a treatise authored by Al-Shahid Al-Awwal, after Al-Alfiyyah, containing three thousand supererogatory prayers. Many expositions were written about it, among which is the one written by Al-Shahid Al-Thani under the title: Al-Fawaid Al-Malakiyyah.15

3. Al-Qawa'id Al-Kulliyyah Al-UsulliyyahWa Al-Fariyyah: It contains three hundred Flqhi principles from which legal rulings are derived, beside highly important researches. Several Shuruh about it were written by a number of Ulama and Fuqaha.16

4. Dhikra Al-Shi'ah Fi Ahkam Al-Shariah: It contains researches about Taharrah (purity) and Salat (prayer). Its compilation was completed on the 21st of Safar 784 H. The first volume of the book was published in Iran one century ago,17 whereas its other volumes are still found in the form of manuscripts. Many commentaries and margines (Hawashi) were written about the book.

5. Al-Durus Al-Shar'iyyah Fi Fiqh Al-Imamiyyah: It is an extremely significant book, containing a large number of the Babs of Fiqh, ranging from Taharah up to rahn (mortgage). Al­Shahid ended its first volume on the eighteenth of Rabi Al­Awwal 784 H., being martyred then before compiling the rest of volumes. Many commentaries about the book were written by the Ulama.18

6. Ghayat Al-Murad Fi Sharh Nukat Al-Irshad: It is actually a commentary, and the text is compiled by Al-Allamah Al-Hilli, covering the subjects of purity up to faith (Iman). It was completed by Al-Shahid on the 15th of Dhu Al-Hijjah 757 H. It might have been the first book authored by Al-Shahid.19

7. Al-Bayan: It includes researches about Taharah, Salat (prayer), zakat (alms-due) and Khums (one-fifth), beside the first of the four Arkan (elements) of Sawm (fasting), regarding those things which are to be abstained from.

8. Khulasat Al-Itibar Fi Al-HajjAa Al-Itimar. It is a short treatise about rituals of Hajj (pilgrimage), reported by Al­ Allarnah Al-Amini in Madain Al-Jawahir.20

9. Al-Baqiyat Al-Salihat: It is an abridged exposition about the four Hymns (Tasabih) in prayer.21

10. Hashiyah Ala Al-Dhikra: He authored first the book Al­Dhikra,then he wrote a Hashiyah on it. It is considered by Muhammad Rida Shams Al-Din as one of Al-Shahid's lost books.22

11. Abkam Al- Amwat It is a treatise about the dead, from will (Wasjyyah) up to 'visiting the graves.

12. Jawaz Ibda Al-Safar Fi Shahr Ramardan: It is a treatise containing an investigation about the issue of travelling during the Month of Ramadan, which he initiated with the following statement: “Its permission is apparent, when reviewing the beliefs of all the Ulama throughout all eras and countries, despite our unanimous belief in its reprehension. But we have twenty ways for this, the first which is the main one being adherence to the Almighty's saying:

''...and (for) him who is sick among you ...,,” 23

13. Masa'il Ibn Makki, which is arranged according to the sections of Fiqh. He finished its compilation in the same year he passed away, i.e. 786 H., and it may be his last work.24

Al-Lum’ah Al-Dimashqiyyah, His Best Work

Al-Lum'ah Al-Dhimashqiyyah is the most famous work ever compiled by Al-Shahid, being a complete course on the Imamiyyah Fiqh, in which he has abridged its rulings and questions.

It was written by Al-Shahid in reply to a letter sent to him by the Governor of Khurasan, Ali Ibn Mu'ayyad,25 asking Al­Shahid to come to their city to be the high religious authority (Marji) for the Shi'ah there.

But the then political circumstances would not allow Al­ Shahid any opportunity to depart Damascus. Therefore, he made an apology for him sending him, instead of his going, a Fiqhi treatise concising in it all the principles of Fiqh, to be a reference for the Shi'ah of Khurasan, to find solutions for the legal questions they were facing.

He compiled this treatise within one week, depending only upon one Fiqhi reference, being Al-Mukhtasar Al-nafi of Al ­Muhaqqiq Al-Hilli, the fact indicating the extent of his full knowledge of the issues of Fiqh. Then he handed it over to Al­Shaykh Shams Al-Din Muhammad Al-Awi,26 the vizier of Ali Ibn Mu'ayyad, urging him to urgently present it to the King of Khurasan.

Al- Awi was so concerned about the treatise that he never permitted anyone to reproduce it, except a few of the knowledge-seekers, showing his extreme reservation. He has written it during extremely sensitive circumstances, as he was under severe surveillance by the authorities, exertinghimself to finish it so urgently.

Al-Lum'ah was characterized with excellent expressions and orderliness of its Babs (sections), as Al-Shahid was never sufficed with Fiqhi expressions common at his time, due to his being an eminent litterateur and elegant poet. That is why Al- Lum'ah came to be so smooth in language and fluent in words, being free from all kinds of feigning in expression or simulating rhetoric euphemisms.

Further, we can find in this book an explicit development in utilizing and identifying the Fiqhi idioms, in an unparalleled way that was never followed by any of the earlier Ulama, at the level of Muhaqqjq and Allamah.

The book is to be considered a pride not only for the Shi'a and Islamic thought, but also for the humane thought and whatever the humanity accomplished in this respect. Many commentaries were written about the book, themost well­known of which can be: Al-Rawdah Al-Bahjyyah Fi Sharh Al­Lum'ah Al-Dimashqjyyah, by Al-Shahid Al-Thani.27

His Other Works

Al-Shahid Al-Awwal has left for us other works on different topics, some of which were written in reply to questions put forth by his disciples, like:

1. Jawabat Al-Fadil Al-Miqdad: It consists of twenty-seven questions put forth by Al-Fadil Al-Miqdad Ibn Abd Allah Al­Siyuri, who was a disciple of Al-Shahid. Its manuscript is at the Radawi Treasury in Mashhad.28

2. Jawabat Masai’l Al- Atrawr. It contains all the answers given by Al-Shahid for the inquiries put forth by his disciple Al­Sayyid Badr Al-Din Al-Hasan Ibn Ayyub Ibn Najm Al-Din Al­ Atrawi29 Al-Amili.

When the trace leads to the owner, then Al-Shahid's valuable works on various sciences of his era, indicate the capacity of his awareness and profundity of his thinking, especially when taking into consideration his short age and far long travels.

Notes

1. Bihar Al-Anwar, vol. II, p. 34.

2. Al-Dhari'ah, vol. I, p. 284.

3. Rawdat Al-Jannat, p. 8.

4. He is one of Al-Shahid's grandsons.

5. Op. Cit.,p . 57.

6. Rawdat Al-Jannat, vol. VII, p. 6.

7. The Iranians adopt the solar date of the Prophet's Emigration (Hijrah). (Translator)

8. Al-Dhari'ah, vol. I, p. 427.

9. Op. Cit., p. 64.

10. Op. Cit., p. 65.

11. Al-Dhari'ah, vol, VIII, p. 90.

12. Op. Cit,p . 67.

13. Op. Cit,p . 65.

14. Al- Dhari'ah, vol. II,pp . 296, 297.

15. Op. Cit., p. 61.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Al- Dhari'ah, vol. VIII, p. 145.

19. Op. Cit, p. 63

20. Al-Dl1ari'ab, vol. VII, p. 214.

21. Ibid, Vol. III, p. 12.

22. Op. Cit,p . 69.

23. Al- Dhari'ah, Vol. V, p. 241.

24. Op. Cit., p. 68

25. He is the last king of the SarbidaranDynasty, that ruled over Khurasan during the period 738-783 H.

26. Belonging to the Village of Awah, which is located between Qum and Savah.

27. He is the Martyr Zayn Al-Din Al-Jub'i Al-Amili.

28. Al- Dhari'ah, vol. V, p. 212.

29. Belonging to the Village of Atra in Jabal Amil.

Chapter 3: Al-Shahid's Features

Al-Shahid Al-Awwal had a pure soul and sublime spirit, inside a thin body and vulnerable figure, but he owned a resolute will challenging the mountains in solidness and strength. This being the nature of the upright pious people, who were described by their leader Ali Ibn Abi Talib when he said: “Their speech is to the point, their dress is moderate, and their gait is humble... The greatness of the Creator is seated in their hearts, and, so, everything else appears small in their eyes...During the day they are enduring, learned, virtuous and God-fearing. Fear (of Allah) has made them thin like arrows. If any one looks at them he believes they are sick...'1

His Association with Allah

The merit distinguishing Allah's friends among the upright pious people, lies in their firm link and connection with Allah, whether bei ng in the midst of people or at the bottom of dark prisons. They all the time persevere on remembering Allah, hymning with His praise the end of night and beginning of day.

For this reason, Al-Shahid Al-Awwal was viewing the prison as a place for seclusion and worship, following the guide of his predecessors, of the prophets like Yusuf (a.s), and the Imams like Musa Al-Kazim (a.s), devoting himself to his Lord, communing with and invoking Him out of fear and avarice.

Al­Shahid's sublimity and dignity near Allah reached an extent, that once upon a night he wrote on a piece of paper: “O my Lord, I am conquered, help me (to be victorious),” putting it under his pillow and slept. On getting up, he found the following phrase written at the bottom of the paper: “If you are my bondman,be patient.” Al-Shahid responded to the call, being an example in patience, forbearance, and resistance.

His Comprehensiveness

Al-Shahid Al-Awwal's most noteworthy trail being his objectivity in thought and (religious) sciences, as he was not only aware of his time culture, but also so profound in most of their aspects. He had strong association with most of his era Ulama, with no difference between Ahl Al-Sunnah and the Shi'ah.

He was forther trying his best to make rapprochement to the Sunni Ulama, seeking to attain some objectives like:

1. Demolishing the artificial barriers between the Sunni and Shi'i fiqh, eliminating all the boundaries with working for bringing together the masses of the two parties into the crucible of unity, fraternity and agreement.

Having knowledge of the Sunnah's fiqhi opinions,beside benefiting from their experiences and theological innovations, making them in exchange acquainted with the experiences and opinions of the Shi'a school in this respect.

Al-Shahid Al-'Awwal is truly regarded the pioneer of the sincere idea, in melting the frost, mending the fences and reconciling between the brothers. The Sunnah Ulama used to venerate him highly, and common people were exalting his philanthropic spirit wanting good,and desiring for clemency and brotherhood.

Burnishing the Shi'a Fiqh, through being acquainted with the legal opinions of the other schools regarding it. Al-Shahid was the first in making comparison in between the schools ofFuqaha , paving the way before the Imami Fiqh to attain progress and success.

His Literary Adroitness

Al-Shahid was fully aware of his time culture, knowledgeable of the whole aspects of thought. He used to express his notions through a fascinating style, breaking the inanimation of the earlier and contemporary scholars in expressing their opinions regarding various fields of knowledge.

Beside his elevated literature and effusing pen, he was distinguished with poeticalness, being a delicate poet, whose poetry was known of its accurate portrayal, expressiveness and eloquence. In this field, Al-Shahid is counted among the poet Ulama, like Al-Sharif Al-Radi, Al-Sharif Al-Murtada, Al-Shahid Al-Thani, Al-Allamah Balrul-Ulum and Al-Mirza Muhammad Taqi Al-Shirazi, beside others.

Al-Shahid has employed his literature and poetry for serving religion and defending Islam.

Following is an excerpt of his poetry:

We have been needless ofwhoever not wanting us,

Though his merits and traits being abundant,

And whoever turned his back to us out of repellence,

Enoughbe for that who outstrips us we overstep him.

Keeping pace with Ibn Al-Jawzi's saying:

I swear by Allah and His favours,

With it, for him, I meet my Lord,

That Ali Ibn Abi Talib is the,

Leader of people of East and West,

Al-Shahid says:

Since he is the brother of the Prophet of guidance,

And his sharp sword in war,

He protected him against all evils,

By himself during abundance and dearth,

And the text in remembrance and in “your Guardian”

is sufficient for that who has mind.

He also said:

By love and adroitness they acquired noble dignity

Not by toddling, conceil and egotism,

Their doctrine being pure morals,

Which are followed by bodies insidesemens,

Forbearance, gratitude, sacrifice and hunger,

And souls, holding breaths through panting,

With abstinence of every unsurviving mortal,

As the benevolent’s conduct passed in predecessors,

People strove for cleansing the souls,

Surrendering, in peace of ghosts, for damage,

You can never know them through affectation,

Nor through pretension of any sort.

Alas! A precedent nation has perished,

Till it survived through many successors.

***

Haltover( Mount of) ‘Arafat dejectedly,

And circumambulate around Ka’bah of Safa Gnosticism,

Enter into the sweet notions with invention,

And return to the hymns inn with scriptures,

If the wine waiter gives you by hand,

The transfiguration cup, take it and imbibe.

Under Allah's Protection

Al-Shahid has devoted himself for Allah, endowing his life at the service of His religion. For this reason we could explicitly notice Allah's grace imparted upon him in numerous situations, especially when taking into consideration that only declaring one's Tashayyu (following Ahl Al-Bayt) was in itself a guilt entailing severe punishment, at that time.

Hence we can realize how much Al-Shahid has suffered, and the depth of his calamity at that juncture in history.

Compiling Aal-Lum'ah during those suppressmg circumstances can be regarded a favour from Allah, as Al­ Shahid was under house arrest, with severe surveillance imposed on his house,beside his house meeting being attended by Sunnah Ulama and statesmen whose reports were alarming of danger. Nevertheless, as he commenced compiling Al­ Lum'ah, he was never visited by anyone throughout seven days, the whole period he spent for compiling the book.

His Call for Unity

Throughout history, the great Ulama occupy the foremost rank among callers toward unity the unity of the Islamic Ummah, and its solidarity within one front against the powers of atheism and wickedness.

By unity, we do not mean abolishing the creeds and dissolving the schools of thought into one school and limited thought, as this indicates the blind fanaticism driving toward cancelling and eliminating the other party.

But the true meaning of the Islamic unity lies in solidarity and reaching agreement in respect of common points, constituting the infrastructure of the Islamic edifice. Because all (Muslims) read one book, believe in one Prophet, and pray toward the same direction (Qiblah), with the only disagreement being about minor issues that have no effect upon the very essence of the issue, whatsoever.

Here is the Book of Allah inviting Muslims, by saying:

“O ye who believe! Obey Allah, and obey the Messenger and those of you who are in authority; and if ye have a dispute concerning any matter, refer it to Allah and the Messenger if ye are (in truth) believers in Allah and the Last Day. That is better and more seemly in the end.” (4:59)

Al-Shahid kept on being an ensign exemplifying the believing Muslim. Despite his Shi'ism and leadership of the Imami thought, he was never provoking any other rival party, abiding by dissimulation (Taqjyyah) when speaking, writing and compiling (books), with the sublime convenience of Islam being his most important concern.

Whereas the other party used to practise against him various forms of persecution and repression, beside confiscating freedom of expressing opinion, charging him with baseless accusations, and finally exterminating him in a tragic way.

Others' Viewpoints

No knowledge-seeker has ever attained the sublime position that Al-Shahid Al-Awwal occupied, despite his being so young. He has drawn the attention of all people through his extraordinary wittiness, abundant philology, persevered toiling on the way of supporting religion and truth (Haqq).

The words uttered by his teacher Fakhr Al-Muhaqqiqin in his regard, are still deserving admiration of generations, when he extolled him saying: “The greatest Imam, the best of world Ulama, the doyen of the children of Adam, our master the sun of truth and religion Muhammad Ibn Makki Ibn Hamid may Allah perpetuate his life.”2

Of course, he was not addressing a forty or fifty-year old man, but it was a disciple whose age was not more than seventeen years. Fakhr Al-Muhaqqiqin was never satisfied with this attestation, but he manifested another fact while emphasizing that the benefit he got from his disciple was more than that he rendered to him.

Al-Shaykh Mubammad Ibn Yusuf Al-Kermani Al-Qurashi Al­Shafi'i, on granting him the license (Ijazah), said in his regard: “The grand more knowledgeable master (Mawla), chief of leaders, owner of the two favours, possessor of all virtuous excellences and perfections, holder of the sciences of religion and Hereafter.”

Further, Al-Shahid Al-Thani said about him: “Our Shaykh and Imam, the proficient peerless investigator, the scrutineer having both traits of Ilm (knowledge) and felicity (Sa'adah), and the degree of labour and shahadah, the meritorious Imam. Abu Abd Allah Al-Shahid Muhammad Ibn Makki, may Allah elevate his status as He has honoured his end.”3

Al-Muhaqqiq Al-Karaki, on granting the license to Al-Shaykh Ali Ibn Abd Al-Ali , has also referred to him by these words: “Al-Imam Shaykh Al-Islam, Ahl Al-Bayt's Faqih (Jurisprudent) during his time, the king of Ulama, the erudite of Filqaha, the example for investigators and scrutineers, the best of the earlier and contemporaneous scholars.”

Al-Hurr Al-Amili, in his book Amal Al-Amil, has extolled him by saying: “He was an expert scholar, a jurisprudent narrator, a profoundly learned investigator, perfect, possessor of all rational (Aqli) and traditional (Naqli) professions, an ascetic worshipper, a creative poet and literateur, the single of era, with no rival at his time.”

In Mustadrak Al-Wasa’il, Al-Allamah Al-Nuri said in his regard: “The crown of Shari'ah, pride of the Shi'ah, sun of the cult (Millah) and religion, Abu Abd Allah Mulammad Ibn Al­ Shaykh Jamal Al-Din Makki, Afqah Al-fuqaha (more knowledgeable of jurisprudents), holder of all sorts of virtues, possessor of various kinds of excellences, and the owner of the vigorous pure soul.”

Thus, the status, greatness and sublimity attained by Al­Shahid Al-Awwal made him occupy the lofty apex throughout his era. His foes desired annihilation for him, whereas Allah has endowed him with an everlasting immortality.

Notes

1. Nahj Al-Balaghah, Khutbah (sermon) No. 193.

2. Rawdat Al-Jannat, vol. VII, p. 4.

3. Muqaddlinat Al-Rawah Al-Bahiyyah,

Section 2: Allah’s Positive Qualities

1. Allah Is Powerful and Free

38. Concerning His positive qualities(as-sifatu’th-thubutiyya) , which are eight. First, the Most High is Powerful(qadir) and Free(mukhtar) . For the world is an originated thing(muhdath) , for it is a body(jism) . And every body is inseparable from originated things, I mean motion and rest, both of which are originated things, for both require consequence(masbuqiyya) in reference to something else.

And that which is inseparable from originated things is of necessity itself an originated thing. Hence there is a mover in it, namely Allah the Most High, the Powerful and Free. For if the cause were mechanical cause(mujib) then of necessity its effect(athar) would not remain behind it. Then that would require either the priority(qidam) of the world or the origin(huduth) of Allah the Most High, both of which are false.1

39. When he finished proving the essence(dhat) he began to prove the qualities(sifat) . And he placed first the positive qualities, for they possess existence(wujud) , while the negative qualities possess non-existence(‘adamiyya) . And existence ranks above non-existence, and that which ranks highest should come first.

40. And he began with His being Powerful, because creation requires power(qudra) . And here we will make some introductory remarks which will include the consideration of the elements of this discussion.

41. We say then that the Powerful and Free is He who if He wills to do anything does it, and if He wills to leave it, leaves it; and who acts with purpose(qasd) and will(irada) . And a mechanical cause is the opposite. There are several differences between them – that is, between the free agent(mukhtar) and the mechanical cause(mujib) .

(1) First, the free agent is able to act or cease from acting, while the mechanical cause is not.

(2) Second, the act of the free agent is consequent upon knowledge and purpose and will, while the mechanical cause is not.

(3) It is possible for the act of the free agent to follow it in time, while the act of a mechanical cause cannot be separated from it, as (for example) the sun’s giving light and fire’s burning.

42. And the world(‘alam) is all that exists besides Allah the Most High. And an originated thing(muhdath) is that which is consequent upon something else or upon non-existence(‘adam) . And a prior thing(qadim) is the opposite of this. And body(jism) is that bounded thing(mutahayyiz) which receives division in three directions. Andhayyiz andmakan are one single thing, namely, an imaginary measure of space(faragh) which bodies occupy by coming into it. And motion is the coming of a body into a place after being in another place. And rest is the second coming into one place.

43. Now that this has been explained, I say, that since the world is a thing originated, there is in it a mover, namely, Allah the Most High, the Powerful and Free. And (I have made) here two claims (1) the first, that the world is an originated thing, and (2) the second, that its Creator must possess free will(ikhtiyar) . In explanation of the first claim, (I say that) by world(al-‘alam) the scholastic theologians mean the heavens and the earth and what is in them and what is between them, and that is either bodies(ajsam) or accidents(a’rad) , both of which are originated.

(a) As for bodies, they cannot be quit of motion and rest, both of which are originated things, and all that cannot be quit of an originated thing is itself an originated thing. Now a body cannot be quit of motion and rest, because everybody must necessarily have a place(makan) . And since this is true, either the body remains in the place, which is rest, or it is removed from it, which is motion – for of necessity there is no middle ground between the two.

But rest and motion are originated things, because they are consequent upon something else. And nothing prior is consequent upon something else. Then no motion or rest is prior. Hence both are originated things, for there is no middle ground between a thing prior and a thing originated. And motion and rest are both consequent upon something else, because motion means the first coming(husul) into the second place, hence of necessity it is consequent upon a first place. And rest means the second coming into the first place, hence of necessity it is consequent upon a first coming.

And all that which cannot be quit of originated things is itself an originated thing, for if it is not an originated thing then it is a prior thing. And in this case either it has with it in priority something that is originated, or it has not. If it has, then priority and origination would have to be united in one thing at the same time, and that cannot be. And if it has not, then that which has been known of necessity, namely, the impossibility of the separation of originated things from it, would have to be false, and that cannot be.

44. (b) And accidents are originated because they need bodies for their existence, and that which needs an originated thing is even more itself an originated thing.

45. (2) And in explanation of the second claim (I say that), an originated thing, when its quiddity(mahiyya) is qualified at one time by non-existence and later by existence, is possible existence. Then it needs a mover. If that (mover) be a free agent, then that was what we sought. And if it be a mechanical cause, then its effect(athar) cannot follow it in time. Hence its effect must be prior. But it had been proved that it is originated. Hence, its mover must also be originated, for they are mutually necessary – and both things are impossible.

For it has been demonstrated that if Allah the Most High be a mechanical cause, there follows of necessity either the priority of the world or the origin of Allah the Most High, both of which are untrue. Hence, it is proved that the Most High is Powerful and Free, which is what we sought.

46. And His power is connected(yata‘allaqu) with all determined things(al-maqdurat) . For the cause which makes them need His power is possibility. And the relation of His essence to all things is equal. Hence, His power is universal.

[Determined things are possible existence. The relation of His essence to all possible existence is equal. Therefore, His power extends equally to all determined things – that is, it is universal].

47. When he had proved briefly that the Most High is Powerful, he began to explain the universality of His Power. And the philosophers(hukama) have disputed about it, when they said, that He is One(wahid) and there proceeds from Him nothing but what is one. And the Thanawiyya thought that He did not have power to do evil(ash-sharr) . And an-Nazzam held that He did not have power to do what was evil(al-qabih) . And al-Balkhi denied His power over things like those which are in our power. And the Jubba‘iyya held it impossible for His power to extend to those very things which are in our power. And reality(al-haqq) is opposed to all of these.2

48. And the proof for our contention is that every hindrance in relation to His essence and in relation to what is determined(maqdur) has been removed. Hence the universal connection(ta‘alluq) of His power is necessary. (That is, neither in Allah nor in the thing determined is there any hindrance – hence His power extends to all.)

49. Now the exposition of the first statement (of the text) is that which necessitates His being Powerful in His essence. And the relationship(nisba) of His essence to all things is equal, because of its uniqueness(tajarrud) . Hence, that which is necessitated by it (namely, His Power) is also equally related, which is what we sought.

50. And the second statement is true, because that which necessitates a thing’s being determined(maqdur) is its possibility. And possibility partakes of everything (all creation is one in possessing possibility). Hence, it is sound(sihha) for determination also to become a partaker in possible existences, which is what we sought. And when all hindrance in relation to the Power and in relation to what is determined is removed, then its universal connection is necessary, which is what we sought.

[Allah is Powerful(qadir) , and His power extends to all existence provided that neither in the qadir nor in the maqdur is there any hindrance. For instance, Allah is able to create a partner, but in this case, there is a hindrance, for a partner to Allah is incapable of receiving existence.]

And know that the occurrence of everything connected with His Power is not necessary. Although He has power over everything, only some of the things over which He has power actually occur. And the Ash‘arites agree with us in the universality of the connection (of His Power), but they claim that what He has power over always occurs, as will be explained later, if Allah wills.3

2. Allah Is Knowing

51. Second, the Most High is Knowing(‘alim) . For He performs actions which are Firm(muhkam) and Perfect(mutqan) , and everyone who does that is of necessity Knowing.

52. Among the number of His positive qualities is His being Knowing. And the Knowing One is He to whom all things are clear in such a way that what is present to Him does not become absent.

53. And a firm and perfect act is that which includes matters strange and wonderful and unites many characteristics.

54. And there are two proofs that He is Knowing: (1) First, He is a free agent, and every free agent is knowing. The minor premise (that He is a free agent) was explained above. And as for the major premise, (know that) the act of a free agent follows his purpose, and to purpose a thing without having knowledge of it is impossible. (2) Second, He has performed firm and perfect acts, and everyone who does the like is knowing of necessity.

Now that He performs such acts is manifest to whoever considers His creation: the heavenly bodies, on whose movements the characteristics of the four seasons are arranged, as is explained in the sciences; and the things on the earth, in which there appears the wisdom revealed in the three kingdoms (murak-kabat – mineral, vegetable, and animal), and in the strange things which are embraced by them, and in the wonderful characteristics which they possess.

And if there were nothing else besides the forming of man, certainly the wisdom deposited in his creation and the orderliness of his formation and his senses and the benefits which depend on them would be sufficient (to demonstrate the perfection of Allah’s acts), as is indicated in the word of Allah,

“Have they not considered within themselves that Allah hath not created the Heavens and the Earth and all that is between them...?” (30:8).

And among the wonders deposited in man’s constitution is this, that every one of his members has four powers, that of attraction(jadhiba) , retention(masika) , digestion(hadima) , and excretion(dafi‘a) . As for attraction, since the body is constantly undergoing dissolution it needs the power of attraction that it may attract that which will replace what has dissolved from it. And it needs the power of retention, because the food which is taken in is slippery(lazij) , and the organ is also slippery.

Hence, it must have the power of retention that digestion may take place. And the power of digestion is needed, because it changes the food into what is fitted to become part of the body of the eater. And excretion is the throwing off of the food which was in excess of what was digested, which was prepared because of another member. And everyone who performs actions which are firm and perfect is knowing, for this is self-evident to one who understands these matters and considers them.

55. And His knowledge is connected with every known thing(ma’lum) , because of the equality of the relationship of all known things to Him. For He is living(hayy) , and it is proper that every living one should know every known thing. Hence, that is necessary for Him, because of the impossibility of His being in need of another.

56. The Most High Creator knows everything that can properly be known, whether necessary or possible, prior or originated. This is contrary to the philosophers, in that they have denied that He has knowledge of parts(al-juz’iyyat) as parts (He knows them as a whole, not as parts), because change in them would necessitate change in the knowledge which resides in His essence. We reply that what changes is the relative connection, not the essential knowledge.

And the proof of our position is that it is proper for Him to know every known thing – therefore this (knowledge) is necessary for Him. And it is proper for Him to know every known thing because He is Living, and everyone that lives can properly know (a dead thing cannot know, knowledge being a property of life). And the relationship of this propriety (for him to know all things) to all that is apart from Him is an equal relationship (that is, it is equally proper that He know all things).

Hence the relation of all known things to Him is also equal. And the proof, that whenever a thing is proper for the Most High, it is also necessary for Him is this. His qualities belong to His essence(dhatiyya) , and when a quality, which belongs to the essence is proper, it is also necessary, otherwise He would have need of something else, in that His essence was qualified by something other than He. Then the Most High Creator, as regards of His knowledge, would be in need of something else, and this is impossible. (In both man and God knowledge is proper(sahih) , but while in man it is possible(mumkin) , in God it is necessary(wajib) , for belonging to His essence it cannot be possible.)

3. Allah Is Living (Hayy)

57. Third, the Most High is Living(hayy) , because He is Powerful and Knowing – Hence of necessity He is living.

58. Among His positive qualities is His being Living. And the philosophers and Abu’l-Hassan al-Basri say His life means the propriety(sihha) of His being qualified by power and knowledge. And the Ash‘arites say that Life is a quality in excess(za’id) of His essence, as distinct from this propriety (as held by al-Basri). And the first (the opinion of al-Basri) is reality, for the root of the matter is it’s not being in excess.

And it has been proved that the Most High Creator is Powerful and Knowing, hence of necessity He is Living, which is what we sought. (That is, Life is the essence itself, and so also are Knowledge and Power.4

4. Allah Is A Willer And A Disliker

59. Fourth, the Most High is a Willer(murid) and a disliker(karih) , because the specializing(takhsis) of the performance of acts to one time and not to another requires that there be a specializer(mukhassis) , and that is will(al-irada) , and because the most high commands and prohibits, and these things require of necessity will and dislike.

60. Now, all Muslims are agreed that He has the quality Will, but they differ as to its meaning. Abu’l-Hassan al-Basri said that it meant Allah’s knowing what advantage(maslaha) is in an act, as a motive for its performance (that is, when Allah knows that a certain act is advantageous, then that knowledge is will, and becomes the motive for its performance). And al-Bukhari said that its meaning is that Allah is not overcome(maghlub) and is not forced(mukrah) . This meaning here is negative, and the speaker (al-Bukhari) has taken in place of Will that which makes Will necessary.

61. And al-Balkhi said that in Allah’s acts will means His knowledge of them, and in the acts of others it means His commanding them. Now we reply, if he means by will absolute knowledge, then that is not will, as shall appear later. And if he means knowledge which is confined to advantage (that is, the knowledge of those things which Allah sees are advantageous), then that is like what al-Basri said. And His commanding it indeed requires will, but it is not will.

62. And the Ash‘arites and Karramites and a group of Mu‘tazilites say that Will is a quality in excess of the essence, which is separate from Power and Knowledge, and belongs especially to His act. But then they disagreed among themselves – the Ash‘arites say that this being in excess is a prior idea(ma‘na) , and the Mu‘tazilites and Karramites say that it is an originated idea. And the Karramites say that it inheres(qa’im) in His essence (as accidents inhere in a substance), and the Mu‘tazilites say it is not in a locus(mahall) , (that is, it does not so inhere, for Allah’s essence is not a place in which qualities can inhere). And the fallacy of this doctrine of excess will soon appear. And what al-Basri said is reality, for two reasons5 .

63. (1) First, the specializing in the performance of acts at one time and not at another, and in one way and not in another, in spite of the equality of times and states in relation to the Doer and the recipient, necessarily requires a specifier(mukhassis) . And this specifier is either (a) the Power which resides in the essence, which is equally related to all things, and therefore cannot properly specialize – and, moreover, its function is moving(ta’thir) and performing(ijad) , not preferring(tarjih) , (b) or else it is absolute knowledge – but that is consequent upon the appointment of the possible and the decree of its issuing.

Hence, it is not the specializer, otherwise it would certainly precede, and that is not possible. And it is clear that the remaining qualities cannot properly specialize. Hence, the specializer is a special kind of knowledge (namely, knowledge of what is advantageous) which necessitates the appointment of the possible and the necessity of its issuing from Him. That is, it is knowledge that the possible contains an advantage which cannot be acquired except at that time and in that manner. And that specializer is Will.6

64. (2) Second, the Most High commanded in His word, “Establish the worship”; and He prohibited in His word, “Do not draw near to adultery”. And command of a thing requires of necessity the willing of it, and prohibition of a thing requires of necessity the dislike for it. Hence, the Most High Creator is a Willer and a Disliker, which is what we sought.

65. Now, there are here two matters of importance: (1) First, His disliking is His knowledge that an act contains a cause of corruption(mafsada) which deters Him from performing it, just as will is His knowledge that the act contains advantage which is the motive(da‘iya) for its performance. (2) Second, Will is not in excess of that which we mentioned (it is the essence itself, not in excess of the essence), otherwise it would be either a prior idea(ma‘na) , as the Ash‘arites say, in which case the plurality of prior things would be necessary; or else an originated thing.

If the latter, then either (a) it would be a quality inhering in His essence, as the Karamites say, and He would be a locus for originated things – and that is false, as shall appear later, if Allah wills, or (b) it would be a quality of something else, and then it would be necessary for His command(hukm) to be referred to someone else, and not to Him. And Will is not in a place, as the Mu‘tazilites say. For there are two errors in this. First, it necessitates an endless chain, because an originated thing is consequent upon the will of the originator. Then in that case Will would be an originated thing. Then if we move the discussion back a step it becomes a chain. Second, the impossibility of a quality’s existing outside of place.

5. Allah Is A Perceiver

66. Fifth, the Most High is a Perceiver(mudrik) , because He is Living, and it is therefore proper for Him to perceive. And the Qur’an has come in to prove it for Him, hence, it is incumbent that it be confirmed(ithbat) (by us by reason) to belong to Him.

67. By traditional proofs it has been demonstrated that the Most High has Perception(idrak) . And Perception is (something) additional to Knowledge. For we find a difference between our knowledge of black and white and terrifying sound and a pleasant one, and our perception of these things. And this addition is due to the impression(ta’thir) of the senses. However, rational proofs lead us to believe that senses and organs are impossible for the Most High, and therefore this addition is impossible for Him. Hence, in this case, His Perception is His Knowledge of objects of perception(mudrakat) .7

68. And the proof that it is proper for Him to have the quality of Perception is the same as that by which we proved that He knows all known things, (namely), by His being Living.8 .

6. Allah Is Eternal

69. Sixth, the Most High is Prior(qadim) and from Eternity(azali) and Abiding(baqi) and to Eternity(abadi) , because He is the Necessarily Existent. Hence, non-existence, both previous(sabiq) and consequent(lahiq) , is for Him impossible.

70. These four qualities are required in order that His existence be necessary(wajib) . And prior is that entity the existence of which is not derived from anything else. And from eternity is the being related to(musahib) the “ascertained ages” (the ages after creation –muhaqqaq ) and “implied ages” (the ages before creation –muqarrar ), as regards the past. And abiding is existence that continues and that is related to all ages. And to eternity is being related to all ages, either ascertained or implied, as regards the future. And Eternal(sarmadi) comprises all ages.

71. And the proof of this is that since it has been proved that He is Necessarily Existent, non-existence is impossible for Him absolutely, whether it be previous, on the supposition(taqdir) that He is not from all eternity, or consequent, on the supposition that He is not to all eternity. And since absolute non-existence is impossible for Him, it is proved that He is Prior and From Eternity and Abiding and To Eternity, which is what we sought.

7. Allah Is A Speaker

72. Seventh, the Most High is a Speaker(mutakallim) , by the agreement of all. And by speech(al-kalam) is intended letters and sounds which are audible and orderly. And the meaning of the Most High’s being a Speaker is that He brings speech into existence in some sort of body(jism) . And the explanation of the Ash’arites is contrary to reason.

73. Among the qualities of the Most High is His being a Speaker. And in that Muslims have agreed, but after that they differ in four points(maqamat) . (1) First, in the way in which they prove this quality. The Ash‘arites say it is reason(‘aql) . And the Mu‘tazilites say it is tradition(sam‘) , according to the word of the Most High,

“And discoursing did Allah discourse (takallama) with Moses” (4:164).

And this is reality (that is, the Mu‘tazilite position), because there is no rational evidence(dalil) , and the evidence which they adduce is not complete.

Now, all the prophets have agreed in this (that Allah speaks). (And if one says that the very fact that there are prophets is a rational proof that Allah speaks – for how could they speak unless He first spoke to them? – We reply) that the proof of their being prophets is not dependent on this (that is, His Speaking), because it is possible to attest (the validity of the mission of) the prophets apart from Speech, for it is rather dependent on miracles, otherwise a circle would have to follow.

(That is, the prophet says that Allah is a Speaker, but the truth of his being a prophet depends on Allah’s being a Speaker). Hence, it is incumbent to prove(ithbat) it for Him. For, it is possible to deduce(istidlal) the truth of prophecy from miracles apart from the Qur’an, or else from the Qur’an considered not as Speech but as a miracle. And undoubtedly there is a disagreement(taghayur) about miracles. Hence, it is necessary to prove (by tradition that Allah is a Speaker).

74. (2) As to the quiddity(mahiyya) of His Speech. The Ash‘arites thought it was a prior idea(ma‘na) inherent in His essence which is expressed in various terms(‘ibarat) and is distinct from Knowledge and Power. Hence, it is neither letters nor sounds nor commands nor prohibitions nor narrative nor interrogation nor any other such form of speech.

75. And the Mu‘tazilites and Karramites and Hanbalites say it is letters and sounds compounded in such a way as to express something. And this is reality, for two reasons.

(a) First, that which takes precedence(al-mutabadir) in the opinion of intelligent people is what we have mentioned (namely, that kalam is speech), because they do not attribute the quality of speech to one who does not possess that quality, such as one who is silent or dumb. (Speech means speaking, not merely having ideas in one’s mind, as the Ash‘arites say).

(b) Second, what they have said cannot be conceived(ghayru mutasawwar) . For that which they conceived is either essential power from which proceed letters and sounds, and they have said that Speech is other than that – nor can the other qualities properly be the source of what they have said. And whenever a thing cannot be conceived it cannot be properly proved, for attestation(tasdiq) is consequent upon conception(tasawwur) .

76. (3) Third, as to that in which the quality Speech inheres. The Ash‘arites, because of their doctrine that it is an idea(ma‘na) , say that it inheres in His essence. And those who say that it is letters and sounds have differed among themselves. The Hanbalites and Karramites say that it inheres in His essence, so according to them He speaks with letters and sounds. And the Mu‘tazilites and Imamites say (and this is reality) that it is inherent in something else, not in His essence – as when He made speech to exists (awjada) in the bush, and Moses heard it. And the meaning of His being a Speaker is that He makes Speech, not that He is One in whom Speech inheres. And the proof of that is that Speech is a possible thing, and God Most High has power over all possible existences9 .

77. And what we mentioned (namely, the Ash‘arite doctrine) is to be rejected, for two reasons (sanad). (a) First, if a speaker be that in which speech inheres, then the air in which letters and sounds inhere would be a speaker, and that is not true. For the lexicographers do not call anything a speaker except that which makes speech, not that in which speech inheres, and in this way voice(as-sada) is something other than a speaker. And they say that a jinni speaks through(‘ala) the tongue of an epileptic, because they believe that the maker(fa‘il) of the speech that is heard from the epileptic is the jinni.

78. (b) Second, Speech is either an idea(ma‘na) – and the fallacy of this has been proved, or it is letters and sounds – and it is not possible for them to inhere in His essence, for then He would become the possessor of senses, because the existence of letters and sounds necessarily

depends on the existence of their instruments. Then the Most High Creator would become the possessor of senses, and that is false.

79. (4) Fourth, as to the priority or origin of Speech. Now the Ash‘arites said that the idea was prior. And the Hanbalites said that the letters were prior. And the Mu‘tazilites said that Speech was an originated thing, and that is the reality, for sever reasons: (a) First, if it were prior, then a plurality of prior things would be necessary, and that is false, for the calling anything besides Allah prior is infidelity(kufr) by the agreement of all. Hence, the Christians are guilty of infidelity in affirming the priority of the Persons(al-uqnum) 10 .

(b) Second, it is compounded of letters and sounds which become non-existent when succeeded by others. And Non-existence is not possible for a prior thing. (c) Third, if it were prior then it would necessarily follow that Allah lies. But that which is necessitated is false (namely, Allah’s lying), hence, that which necessitated it (kalam’s being prior) is false also. And the proof of this necessity (of His being a liar) is that He informed us of His sending Noah from eternity (fi’l-azal), by the word of the Most High,

“We sent Noah to his people” (71:1).

And He did not send him from eternity, since there is nothing previous to eternity. (If the word of Allah was from Eternity, then Noah must have been sent before eternity!). Hence, it would be a lie.

80. (d) Fourth, if it were prior, then His word would be nonsense(‘abath) , in the word of the Most High,

“Observe prayer and pay legal impost” (22:78).

Because in eternity there was no mukallaf. Now nonsense is evil(qabih) , hence it is impossible for the Most High. (f) Fifth, the word of the Most High,

“Every fresh (muhdath) warning that cometh to them from their Lord they only hear to mock it” (21:2).

And warning(dhikr) is the Qur’an, because of the word of the Most High,

“Verily We have sent down the warning (adh-dhikr), and verily We will be its guardian (15:9).

“For truly to thee and to thy people it is admonition (dhikr)” (43:44).

And He has attributed to it the quality of origin(huduth) , hence, it is not prior. And the word of the author and the statement that the Ash‘arites are not to be accepted refer to what we have mentioned in these places.

8. Allah Is Veracious

81. Eighth, the Most High is Veracious(sadiq) . For a lie(al-kidhb) is of necessity evil(qabih) and Allah the Most High is far removed from evil, because it is impossible for Him to have any imperfection(naqs) .11

82. Among His positive qualities is His being Veracious. And veracity is a report that corresponds to reality, and a lie is a report that does not so correspond. Because if He were not Veracious He would be a liar, and that is false; for a lie is of necessity evil, and it would be necessary for the Most High Creator to be qualified by what is evil, and that is false, because of what shall later appear. And a lie is an imperfection, and the Most High Creator is far removed from imperfection.

Notes

1. The Sunnites usually list the positive qualities as follows: Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, Hearing, Seeing, Speaking (creed of al-Ghazali, Macdonald, “Development,” p. 304). The Shi‘ites agree with them as to the first fore qualities, though they place Power first. But in place of Hearing and Seeing they put Perceiving. They retain Speaking, but add two more to the list, namely, Being Eternal and Veracity.

2. An-Nazzam was a prominent Mu‘tazilite. See Macdonald, “Development,” p. 140.

3. By denying that Allah does everything that He has Power to do the Shi‘ites try to guard Him from evil without limiting His Power.

4. The Sifatians held that the divine qualities were eternally inherent in the essence of Allah. The Mu‘tazilites rejected this doctrine, because “if the qualities share in priority they would share in godhood also,” and the multiplicity of eternal existence would have to result, and this they denied. They said that the qualities were not in addition to the essence, but were the essence itself. Thus, Allah is Knowing by His essence, not by His Knowledge, and is Powerful by His essence, not by His Power. (Shahrastani, p 29, Macdonald, “Development,” p. 136, Sell, “The Faith of Islam,” third edition, pp. 194, 195).

The Ash‘arites held that the qualities were inherent in the essence, and were in addition to the essence. “He has qualities from all eternity existing in His essence.” But they guarded themselves against the objection of the Mu‘tazilites by adding, “They are not He nor are they any other than He” (creed of an-Nasafi, Macdonald, “Development,” p. 309).

The Shi‘ites adopted the Mu‘tazilite doctrine in full. They teach that the qualities are the essence itself, and that Allah is Powerful by His essence, Knowing by His essence, etc.

5. See Macdonald, “Development,” p. 170, etc.

6. The doctrine of Will’s being a form of Knowledge is also due to Mu‘tazilite influence Abu Hudhayl (d. c. 226 A.H.) “endeavoured – and in this he was followed by most of the Mu‘tazilites – to cut down the number of Allah’s attributes His Will, he said, was a form of His Knowledge, He knew that there was good in an action, and that knowledge was His will” (Macdonald, “Development,” p. 137).

7. This quality of Perception is given in place of the two qualities of Hearing and Sight which are always included in the orthodox list. The Shi‘ites inherited from the Mu‘tazilites a dislike to all expressions which seemed to suggest anthropomorphism, and they here resolve Hearing and Sight into the knowledge of things heard and seen.

8. See paragraph 56 of this book.

9. The orthodox belief is thus stated in the creed of al-Ghazzali (Macdonald, “Development,” pp. 303-304): “And we witness that He speaks, commanding, forbidding, praising, threatening, with a speech for all eternity, prior, subsisting in His essence, not resembling the speech of created things.

It is not a sound which originates through the slipping out of air, or striking of bodies; nor is it a letter which is separated off by the closing down a lip or moving a tongue… And the Qur’an is repeated by tongues, written in copies, preserved in hearts: yet it, in spite of that, is prior, subsisting in the essence of Allah, not subject to division and separation through being transferred to hearts and leaves. And Musa heard the speech of Allah without a sound and without a letter, just as the pious see the essence of Allah in the other world, without a substance or an attribute.”

10. Al-Ash‘ari had said, “We teach that the Qur’an is Allah’s Word, and that it is uncreated, and that whoever says it is created is an unbeliever (kafir)” (Macdonald, “Development,” p. 295). The Shi‘ite reply is that the calling of anything prior except the divine essence is kufr!

11. Veracity is not given as one of the divine qualities in any of the Sunnite creeds, not have I found any mention of it by the Mu‘tazilites. But its admission by the Shi‘ites to the list of the positive qualities is no doubt due to their emphasis upon Justice in Allah’s character.

Section 2: Allah’s Positive Qualities

1. Allah Is Powerful and Free

38. Concerning His positive qualities(as-sifatu’th-thubutiyya) , which are eight. First, the Most High is Powerful(qadir) and Free(mukhtar) . For the world is an originated thing(muhdath) , for it is a body(jism) . And every body is inseparable from originated things, I mean motion and rest, both of which are originated things, for both require consequence(masbuqiyya) in reference to something else.

And that which is inseparable from originated things is of necessity itself an originated thing. Hence there is a mover in it, namely Allah the Most High, the Powerful and Free. For if the cause were mechanical cause(mujib) then of necessity its effect(athar) would not remain behind it. Then that would require either the priority(qidam) of the world or the origin(huduth) of Allah the Most High, both of which are false.1

39. When he finished proving the essence(dhat) he began to prove the qualities(sifat) . And he placed first the positive qualities, for they possess existence(wujud) , while the negative qualities possess non-existence(‘adamiyya) . And existence ranks above non-existence, and that which ranks highest should come first.

40. And he began with His being Powerful, because creation requires power(qudra) . And here we will make some introductory remarks which will include the consideration of the elements of this discussion.

41. We say then that the Powerful and Free is He who if He wills to do anything does it, and if He wills to leave it, leaves it; and who acts with purpose(qasd) and will(irada) . And a mechanical cause is the opposite. There are several differences between them – that is, between the free agent(mukhtar) and the mechanical cause(mujib) .

(1) First, the free agent is able to act or cease from acting, while the mechanical cause is not.

(2) Second, the act of the free agent is consequent upon knowledge and purpose and will, while the mechanical cause is not.

(3) It is possible for the act of the free agent to follow it in time, while the act of a mechanical cause cannot be separated from it, as (for example) the sun’s giving light and fire’s burning.

42. And the world(‘alam) is all that exists besides Allah the Most High. And an originated thing(muhdath) is that which is consequent upon something else or upon non-existence(‘adam) . And a prior thing(qadim) is the opposite of this. And body(jism) is that bounded thing(mutahayyiz) which receives division in three directions. Andhayyiz andmakan are one single thing, namely, an imaginary measure of space(faragh) which bodies occupy by coming into it. And motion is the coming of a body into a place after being in another place. And rest is the second coming into one place.

43. Now that this has been explained, I say, that since the world is a thing originated, there is in it a mover, namely, Allah the Most High, the Powerful and Free. And (I have made) here two claims (1) the first, that the world is an originated thing, and (2) the second, that its Creator must possess free will(ikhtiyar) . In explanation of the first claim, (I say that) by world(al-‘alam) the scholastic theologians mean the heavens and the earth and what is in them and what is between them, and that is either bodies(ajsam) or accidents(a’rad) , both of which are originated.

(a) As for bodies, they cannot be quit of motion and rest, both of which are originated things, and all that cannot be quit of an originated thing is itself an originated thing. Now a body cannot be quit of motion and rest, because everybody must necessarily have a place(makan) . And since this is true, either the body remains in the place, which is rest, or it is removed from it, which is motion – for of necessity there is no middle ground between the two.

But rest and motion are originated things, because they are consequent upon something else. And nothing prior is consequent upon something else. Then no motion or rest is prior. Hence both are originated things, for there is no middle ground between a thing prior and a thing originated. And motion and rest are both consequent upon something else, because motion means the first coming(husul) into the second place, hence of necessity it is consequent upon a first place. And rest means the second coming into the first place, hence of necessity it is consequent upon a first coming.

And all that which cannot be quit of originated things is itself an originated thing, for if it is not an originated thing then it is a prior thing. And in this case either it has with it in priority something that is originated, or it has not. If it has, then priority and origination would have to be united in one thing at the same time, and that cannot be. And if it has not, then that which has been known of necessity, namely, the impossibility of the separation of originated things from it, would have to be false, and that cannot be.

44. (b) And accidents are originated because they need bodies for their existence, and that which needs an originated thing is even more itself an originated thing.

45. (2) And in explanation of the second claim (I say that), an originated thing, when its quiddity(mahiyya) is qualified at one time by non-existence and later by existence, is possible existence. Then it needs a mover. If that (mover) be a free agent, then that was what we sought. And if it be a mechanical cause, then its effect(athar) cannot follow it in time. Hence its effect must be prior. But it had been proved that it is originated. Hence, its mover must also be originated, for they are mutually necessary – and both things are impossible.

For it has been demonstrated that if Allah the Most High be a mechanical cause, there follows of necessity either the priority of the world or the origin of Allah the Most High, both of which are untrue. Hence, it is proved that the Most High is Powerful and Free, which is what we sought.

46. And His power is connected(yata‘allaqu) with all determined things(al-maqdurat) . For the cause which makes them need His power is possibility. And the relation of His essence to all things is equal. Hence, His power is universal.

[Determined things are possible existence. The relation of His essence to all possible existence is equal. Therefore, His power extends equally to all determined things – that is, it is universal].

47. When he had proved briefly that the Most High is Powerful, he began to explain the universality of His Power. And the philosophers(hukama) have disputed about it, when they said, that He is One(wahid) and there proceeds from Him nothing but what is one. And the Thanawiyya thought that He did not have power to do evil(ash-sharr) . And an-Nazzam held that He did not have power to do what was evil(al-qabih) . And al-Balkhi denied His power over things like those which are in our power. And the Jubba‘iyya held it impossible for His power to extend to those very things which are in our power. And reality(al-haqq) is opposed to all of these.2

48. And the proof for our contention is that every hindrance in relation to His essence and in relation to what is determined(maqdur) has been removed. Hence the universal connection(ta‘alluq) of His power is necessary. (That is, neither in Allah nor in the thing determined is there any hindrance – hence His power extends to all.)

49. Now the exposition of the first statement (of the text) is that which necessitates His being Powerful in His essence. And the relationship(nisba) of His essence to all things is equal, because of its uniqueness(tajarrud) . Hence, that which is necessitated by it (namely, His Power) is also equally related, which is what we sought.

50. And the second statement is true, because that which necessitates a thing’s being determined(maqdur) is its possibility. And possibility partakes of everything (all creation is one in possessing possibility). Hence, it is sound(sihha) for determination also to become a partaker in possible existences, which is what we sought. And when all hindrance in relation to the Power and in relation to what is determined is removed, then its universal connection is necessary, which is what we sought.

[Allah is Powerful(qadir) , and His power extends to all existence provided that neither in the qadir nor in the maqdur is there any hindrance. For instance, Allah is able to create a partner, but in this case, there is a hindrance, for a partner to Allah is incapable of receiving existence.]

And know that the occurrence of everything connected with His Power is not necessary. Although He has power over everything, only some of the things over which He has power actually occur. And the Ash‘arites agree with us in the universality of the connection (of His Power), but they claim that what He has power over always occurs, as will be explained later, if Allah wills.3

2. Allah Is Knowing

51. Second, the Most High is Knowing(‘alim) . For He performs actions which are Firm(muhkam) and Perfect(mutqan) , and everyone who does that is of necessity Knowing.

52. Among the number of His positive qualities is His being Knowing. And the Knowing One is He to whom all things are clear in such a way that what is present to Him does not become absent.

53. And a firm and perfect act is that which includes matters strange and wonderful and unites many characteristics.

54. And there are two proofs that He is Knowing: (1) First, He is a free agent, and every free agent is knowing. The minor premise (that He is a free agent) was explained above. And as for the major premise, (know that) the act of a free agent follows his purpose, and to purpose a thing without having knowledge of it is impossible. (2) Second, He has performed firm and perfect acts, and everyone who does the like is knowing of necessity.

Now that He performs such acts is manifest to whoever considers His creation: the heavenly bodies, on whose movements the characteristics of the four seasons are arranged, as is explained in the sciences; and the things on the earth, in which there appears the wisdom revealed in the three kingdoms (murak-kabat – mineral, vegetable, and animal), and in the strange things which are embraced by them, and in the wonderful characteristics which they possess.

And if there were nothing else besides the forming of man, certainly the wisdom deposited in his creation and the orderliness of his formation and his senses and the benefits which depend on them would be sufficient (to demonstrate the perfection of Allah’s acts), as is indicated in the word of Allah,

“Have they not considered within themselves that Allah hath not created the Heavens and the Earth and all that is between them...?” (30:8).

And among the wonders deposited in man’s constitution is this, that every one of his members has four powers, that of attraction(jadhiba) , retention(masika) , digestion(hadima) , and excretion(dafi‘a) . As for attraction, since the body is constantly undergoing dissolution it needs the power of attraction that it may attract that which will replace what has dissolved from it. And it needs the power of retention, because the food which is taken in is slippery(lazij) , and the organ is also slippery.

Hence, it must have the power of retention that digestion may take place. And the power of digestion is needed, because it changes the food into what is fitted to become part of the body of the eater. And excretion is the throwing off of the food which was in excess of what was digested, which was prepared because of another member. And everyone who performs actions which are firm and perfect is knowing, for this is self-evident to one who understands these matters and considers them.

55. And His knowledge is connected with every known thing(ma’lum) , because of the equality of the relationship of all known things to Him. For He is living(hayy) , and it is proper that every living one should know every known thing. Hence, that is necessary for Him, because of the impossibility of His being in need of another.

56. The Most High Creator knows everything that can properly be known, whether necessary or possible, prior or originated. This is contrary to the philosophers, in that they have denied that He has knowledge of parts(al-juz’iyyat) as parts (He knows them as a whole, not as parts), because change in them would necessitate change in the knowledge which resides in His essence. We reply that what changes is the relative connection, not the essential knowledge.

And the proof of our position is that it is proper for Him to know every known thing – therefore this (knowledge) is necessary for Him. And it is proper for Him to know every known thing because He is Living, and everyone that lives can properly know (a dead thing cannot know, knowledge being a property of life). And the relationship of this propriety (for him to know all things) to all that is apart from Him is an equal relationship (that is, it is equally proper that He know all things).

Hence the relation of all known things to Him is also equal. And the proof, that whenever a thing is proper for the Most High, it is also necessary for Him is this. His qualities belong to His essence(dhatiyya) , and when a quality, which belongs to the essence is proper, it is also necessary, otherwise He would have need of something else, in that His essence was qualified by something other than He. Then the Most High Creator, as regards of His knowledge, would be in need of something else, and this is impossible. (In both man and God knowledge is proper(sahih) , but while in man it is possible(mumkin) , in God it is necessary(wajib) , for belonging to His essence it cannot be possible.)

3. Allah Is Living (Hayy)

57. Third, the Most High is Living(hayy) , because He is Powerful and Knowing – Hence of necessity He is living.

58. Among His positive qualities is His being Living. And the philosophers and Abu’l-Hassan al-Basri say His life means the propriety(sihha) of His being qualified by power and knowledge. And the Ash‘arites say that Life is a quality in excess(za’id) of His essence, as distinct from this propriety (as held by al-Basri). And the first (the opinion of al-Basri) is reality, for the root of the matter is it’s not being in excess.

And it has been proved that the Most High Creator is Powerful and Knowing, hence of necessity He is Living, which is what we sought. (That is, Life is the essence itself, and so also are Knowledge and Power.4

4. Allah Is A Willer And A Disliker

59. Fourth, the Most High is a Willer(murid) and a disliker(karih) , because the specializing(takhsis) of the performance of acts to one time and not to another requires that there be a specializer(mukhassis) , and that is will(al-irada) , and because the most high commands and prohibits, and these things require of necessity will and dislike.

60. Now, all Muslims are agreed that He has the quality Will, but they differ as to its meaning. Abu’l-Hassan al-Basri said that it meant Allah’s knowing what advantage(maslaha) is in an act, as a motive for its performance (that is, when Allah knows that a certain act is advantageous, then that knowledge is will, and becomes the motive for its performance). And al-Bukhari said that its meaning is that Allah is not overcome(maghlub) and is not forced(mukrah) . This meaning here is negative, and the speaker (al-Bukhari) has taken in place of Will that which makes Will necessary.

61. And al-Balkhi said that in Allah’s acts will means His knowledge of them, and in the acts of others it means His commanding them. Now we reply, if he means by will absolute knowledge, then that is not will, as shall appear later. And if he means knowledge which is confined to advantage (that is, the knowledge of those things which Allah sees are advantageous), then that is like what al-Basri said. And His commanding it indeed requires will, but it is not will.

62. And the Ash‘arites and Karramites and a group of Mu‘tazilites say that Will is a quality in excess of the essence, which is separate from Power and Knowledge, and belongs especially to His act. But then they disagreed among themselves – the Ash‘arites say that this being in excess is a prior idea(ma‘na) , and the Mu‘tazilites and Karramites say that it is an originated idea. And the Karramites say that it inheres(qa’im) in His essence (as accidents inhere in a substance), and the Mu‘tazilites say it is not in a locus(mahall) , (that is, it does not so inhere, for Allah’s essence is not a place in which qualities can inhere). And the fallacy of this doctrine of excess will soon appear. And what al-Basri said is reality, for two reasons5 .

63. (1) First, the specializing in the performance of acts at one time and not at another, and in one way and not in another, in spite of the equality of times and states in relation to the Doer and the recipient, necessarily requires a specifier(mukhassis) . And this specifier is either (a) the Power which resides in the essence, which is equally related to all things, and therefore cannot properly specialize – and, moreover, its function is moving(ta’thir) and performing(ijad) , not preferring(tarjih) , (b) or else it is absolute knowledge – but that is consequent upon the appointment of the possible and the decree of its issuing.

Hence, it is not the specializer, otherwise it would certainly precede, and that is not possible. And it is clear that the remaining qualities cannot properly specialize. Hence, the specializer is a special kind of knowledge (namely, knowledge of what is advantageous) which necessitates the appointment of the possible and the necessity of its issuing from Him. That is, it is knowledge that the possible contains an advantage which cannot be acquired except at that time and in that manner. And that specializer is Will.6

64. (2) Second, the Most High commanded in His word, “Establish the worship”; and He prohibited in His word, “Do not draw near to adultery”. And command of a thing requires of necessity the willing of it, and prohibition of a thing requires of necessity the dislike for it. Hence, the Most High Creator is a Willer and a Disliker, which is what we sought.

65. Now, there are here two matters of importance: (1) First, His disliking is His knowledge that an act contains a cause of corruption(mafsada) which deters Him from performing it, just as will is His knowledge that the act contains advantage which is the motive(da‘iya) for its performance. (2) Second, Will is not in excess of that which we mentioned (it is the essence itself, not in excess of the essence), otherwise it would be either a prior idea(ma‘na) , as the Ash‘arites say, in which case the plurality of prior things would be necessary; or else an originated thing.

If the latter, then either (a) it would be a quality inhering in His essence, as the Karamites say, and He would be a locus for originated things – and that is false, as shall appear later, if Allah wills, or (b) it would be a quality of something else, and then it would be necessary for His command(hukm) to be referred to someone else, and not to Him. And Will is not in a place, as the Mu‘tazilites say. For there are two errors in this. First, it necessitates an endless chain, because an originated thing is consequent upon the will of the originator. Then in that case Will would be an originated thing. Then if we move the discussion back a step it becomes a chain. Second, the impossibility of a quality’s existing outside of place.

5. Allah Is A Perceiver

66. Fifth, the Most High is a Perceiver(mudrik) , because He is Living, and it is therefore proper for Him to perceive. And the Qur’an has come in to prove it for Him, hence, it is incumbent that it be confirmed(ithbat) (by us by reason) to belong to Him.

67. By traditional proofs it has been demonstrated that the Most High has Perception(idrak) . And Perception is (something) additional to Knowledge. For we find a difference between our knowledge of black and white and terrifying sound and a pleasant one, and our perception of these things. And this addition is due to the impression(ta’thir) of the senses. However, rational proofs lead us to believe that senses and organs are impossible for the Most High, and therefore this addition is impossible for Him. Hence, in this case, His Perception is His Knowledge of objects of perception(mudrakat) .7

68. And the proof that it is proper for Him to have the quality of Perception is the same as that by which we proved that He knows all known things, (namely), by His being Living.8 .

6. Allah Is Eternal

69. Sixth, the Most High is Prior(qadim) and from Eternity(azali) and Abiding(baqi) and to Eternity(abadi) , because He is the Necessarily Existent. Hence, non-existence, both previous(sabiq) and consequent(lahiq) , is for Him impossible.

70. These four qualities are required in order that His existence be necessary(wajib) . And prior is that entity the existence of which is not derived from anything else. And from eternity is the being related to(musahib) the “ascertained ages” (the ages after creation –muhaqqaq ) and “implied ages” (the ages before creation –muqarrar ), as regards the past. And abiding is existence that continues and that is related to all ages. And to eternity is being related to all ages, either ascertained or implied, as regards the future. And Eternal(sarmadi) comprises all ages.

71. And the proof of this is that since it has been proved that He is Necessarily Existent, non-existence is impossible for Him absolutely, whether it be previous, on the supposition(taqdir) that He is not from all eternity, or consequent, on the supposition that He is not to all eternity. And since absolute non-existence is impossible for Him, it is proved that He is Prior and From Eternity and Abiding and To Eternity, which is what we sought.

7. Allah Is A Speaker

72. Seventh, the Most High is a Speaker(mutakallim) , by the agreement of all. And by speech(al-kalam) is intended letters and sounds which are audible and orderly. And the meaning of the Most High’s being a Speaker is that He brings speech into existence in some sort of body(jism) . And the explanation of the Ash’arites is contrary to reason.

73. Among the qualities of the Most High is His being a Speaker. And in that Muslims have agreed, but after that they differ in four points(maqamat) . (1) First, in the way in which they prove this quality. The Ash‘arites say it is reason(‘aql) . And the Mu‘tazilites say it is tradition(sam‘) , according to the word of the Most High,

“And discoursing did Allah discourse (takallama) with Moses” (4:164).

And this is reality (that is, the Mu‘tazilite position), because there is no rational evidence(dalil) , and the evidence which they adduce is not complete.

Now, all the prophets have agreed in this (that Allah speaks). (And if one says that the very fact that there are prophets is a rational proof that Allah speaks – for how could they speak unless He first spoke to them? – We reply) that the proof of their being prophets is not dependent on this (that is, His Speaking), because it is possible to attest (the validity of the mission of) the prophets apart from Speech, for it is rather dependent on miracles, otherwise a circle would have to follow.

(That is, the prophet says that Allah is a Speaker, but the truth of his being a prophet depends on Allah’s being a Speaker). Hence, it is incumbent to prove(ithbat) it for Him. For, it is possible to deduce(istidlal) the truth of prophecy from miracles apart from the Qur’an, or else from the Qur’an considered not as Speech but as a miracle. And undoubtedly there is a disagreement(taghayur) about miracles. Hence, it is necessary to prove (by tradition that Allah is a Speaker).

74. (2) As to the quiddity(mahiyya) of His Speech. The Ash‘arites thought it was a prior idea(ma‘na) inherent in His essence which is expressed in various terms(‘ibarat) and is distinct from Knowledge and Power. Hence, it is neither letters nor sounds nor commands nor prohibitions nor narrative nor interrogation nor any other such form of speech.

75. And the Mu‘tazilites and Karramites and Hanbalites say it is letters and sounds compounded in such a way as to express something. And this is reality, for two reasons.

(a) First, that which takes precedence(al-mutabadir) in the opinion of intelligent people is what we have mentioned (namely, that kalam is speech), because they do not attribute the quality of speech to one who does not possess that quality, such as one who is silent or dumb. (Speech means speaking, not merely having ideas in one’s mind, as the Ash‘arites say).

(b) Second, what they have said cannot be conceived(ghayru mutasawwar) . For that which they conceived is either essential power from which proceed letters and sounds, and they have said that Speech is other than that – nor can the other qualities properly be the source of what they have said. And whenever a thing cannot be conceived it cannot be properly proved, for attestation(tasdiq) is consequent upon conception(tasawwur) .

76. (3) Third, as to that in which the quality Speech inheres. The Ash‘arites, because of their doctrine that it is an idea(ma‘na) , say that it inheres in His essence. And those who say that it is letters and sounds have differed among themselves. The Hanbalites and Karramites say that it inheres in His essence, so according to them He speaks with letters and sounds. And the Mu‘tazilites and Imamites say (and this is reality) that it is inherent in something else, not in His essence – as when He made speech to exists (awjada) in the bush, and Moses heard it. And the meaning of His being a Speaker is that He makes Speech, not that He is One in whom Speech inheres. And the proof of that is that Speech is a possible thing, and God Most High has power over all possible existences9 .

77. And what we mentioned (namely, the Ash‘arite doctrine) is to be rejected, for two reasons (sanad). (a) First, if a speaker be that in which speech inheres, then the air in which letters and sounds inhere would be a speaker, and that is not true. For the lexicographers do not call anything a speaker except that which makes speech, not that in which speech inheres, and in this way voice(as-sada) is something other than a speaker. And they say that a jinni speaks through(‘ala) the tongue of an epileptic, because they believe that the maker(fa‘il) of the speech that is heard from the epileptic is the jinni.

78. (b) Second, Speech is either an idea(ma‘na) – and the fallacy of this has been proved, or it is letters and sounds – and it is not possible for them to inhere in His essence, for then He would become the possessor of senses, because the existence of letters and sounds necessarily

depends on the existence of their instruments. Then the Most High Creator would become the possessor of senses, and that is false.

79. (4) Fourth, as to the priority or origin of Speech. Now the Ash‘arites said that the idea was prior. And the Hanbalites said that the letters were prior. And the Mu‘tazilites said that Speech was an originated thing, and that is the reality, for sever reasons: (a) First, if it were prior, then a plurality of prior things would be necessary, and that is false, for the calling anything besides Allah prior is infidelity(kufr) by the agreement of all. Hence, the Christians are guilty of infidelity in affirming the priority of the Persons(al-uqnum) 10 .

(b) Second, it is compounded of letters and sounds which become non-existent when succeeded by others. And Non-existence is not possible for a prior thing. (c) Third, if it were prior then it would necessarily follow that Allah lies. But that which is necessitated is false (namely, Allah’s lying), hence, that which necessitated it (kalam’s being prior) is false also. And the proof of this necessity (of His being a liar) is that He informed us of His sending Noah from eternity (fi’l-azal), by the word of the Most High,

“We sent Noah to his people” (71:1).

And He did not send him from eternity, since there is nothing previous to eternity. (If the word of Allah was from Eternity, then Noah must have been sent before eternity!). Hence, it would be a lie.

80. (d) Fourth, if it were prior, then His word would be nonsense(‘abath) , in the word of the Most High,

“Observe prayer and pay legal impost” (22:78).

Because in eternity there was no mukallaf. Now nonsense is evil(qabih) , hence it is impossible for the Most High. (f) Fifth, the word of the Most High,

“Every fresh (muhdath) warning that cometh to them from their Lord they only hear to mock it” (21:2).

And warning(dhikr) is the Qur’an, because of the word of the Most High,

“Verily We have sent down the warning (adh-dhikr), and verily We will be its guardian (15:9).

“For truly to thee and to thy people it is admonition (dhikr)” (43:44).

And He has attributed to it the quality of origin(huduth) , hence, it is not prior. And the word of the author and the statement that the Ash‘arites are not to be accepted refer to what we have mentioned in these places.

8. Allah Is Veracious

81. Eighth, the Most High is Veracious(sadiq) . For a lie(al-kidhb) is of necessity evil(qabih) and Allah the Most High is far removed from evil, because it is impossible for Him to have any imperfection(naqs) .11

82. Among His positive qualities is His being Veracious. And veracity is a report that corresponds to reality, and a lie is a report that does not so correspond. Because if He were not Veracious He would be a liar, and that is false; for a lie is of necessity evil, and it would be necessary for the Most High Creator to be qualified by what is evil, and that is false, because of what shall later appear. And a lie is an imperfection, and the Most High Creator is far removed from imperfection.

Notes

1. The Sunnites usually list the positive qualities as follows: Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, Hearing, Seeing, Speaking (creed of al-Ghazali, Macdonald, “Development,” p. 304). The Shi‘ites agree with them as to the first fore qualities, though they place Power first. But in place of Hearing and Seeing they put Perceiving. They retain Speaking, but add two more to the list, namely, Being Eternal and Veracity.

2. An-Nazzam was a prominent Mu‘tazilite. See Macdonald, “Development,” p. 140.

3. By denying that Allah does everything that He has Power to do the Shi‘ites try to guard Him from evil without limiting His Power.

4. The Sifatians held that the divine qualities were eternally inherent in the essence of Allah. The Mu‘tazilites rejected this doctrine, because “if the qualities share in priority they would share in godhood also,” and the multiplicity of eternal existence would have to result, and this they denied. They said that the qualities were not in addition to the essence, but were the essence itself. Thus, Allah is Knowing by His essence, not by His Knowledge, and is Powerful by His essence, not by His Power. (Shahrastani, p 29, Macdonald, “Development,” p. 136, Sell, “The Faith of Islam,” third edition, pp. 194, 195).

The Ash‘arites held that the qualities were inherent in the essence, and were in addition to the essence. “He has qualities from all eternity existing in His essence.” But they guarded themselves against the objection of the Mu‘tazilites by adding, “They are not He nor are they any other than He” (creed of an-Nasafi, Macdonald, “Development,” p. 309).

The Shi‘ites adopted the Mu‘tazilite doctrine in full. They teach that the qualities are the essence itself, and that Allah is Powerful by His essence, Knowing by His essence, etc.

5. See Macdonald, “Development,” p. 170, etc.

6. The doctrine of Will’s being a form of Knowledge is also due to Mu‘tazilite influence Abu Hudhayl (d. c. 226 A.H.) “endeavoured – and in this he was followed by most of the Mu‘tazilites – to cut down the number of Allah’s attributes His Will, he said, was a form of His Knowledge, He knew that there was good in an action, and that knowledge was His will” (Macdonald, “Development,” p. 137).

7. This quality of Perception is given in place of the two qualities of Hearing and Sight which are always included in the orthodox list. The Shi‘ites inherited from the Mu‘tazilites a dislike to all expressions which seemed to suggest anthropomorphism, and they here resolve Hearing and Sight into the knowledge of things heard and seen.

8. See paragraph 56 of this book.

9. The orthodox belief is thus stated in the creed of al-Ghazzali (Macdonald, “Development,” pp. 303-304): “And we witness that He speaks, commanding, forbidding, praising, threatening, with a speech for all eternity, prior, subsisting in His essence, not resembling the speech of created things.

It is not a sound which originates through the slipping out of air, or striking of bodies; nor is it a letter which is separated off by the closing down a lip or moving a tongue… And the Qur’an is repeated by tongues, written in copies, preserved in hearts: yet it, in spite of that, is prior, subsisting in the essence of Allah, not subject to division and separation through being transferred to hearts and leaves. And Musa heard the speech of Allah without a sound and without a letter, just as the pious see the essence of Allah in the other world, without a substance or an attribute.”

10. Al-Ash‘ari had said, “We teach that the Qur’an is Allah’s Word, and that it is uncreated, and that whoever says it is created is an unbeliever (kafir)” (Macdonald, “Development,” p. 295). The Shi‘ite reply is that the calling of anything prior except the divine essence is kufr!

11. Veracity is not given as one of the divine qualities in any of the Sunnite creeds, not have I found any mention of it by the Mu‘tazilites. But its admission by the Shi‘ites to the list of the positive qualities is no doubt due to their emphasis upon Justice in Allah’s character.