Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

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AION, 71/1-4 (2011), XX-XX

The Abbasid Vizier ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn (124-182/741-798); The Man and His Role in Early Šī‘ite History

Author (S): Khalid Sindawi

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Table of Contents

Summary 5

Political and Historical Background 6

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Life4 8

His Master 9

His Companions 10

His External Appearance 11

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Writings 12

The Imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim Performs a Miracle for Hārūn in the Presence of ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn 13

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn and the Poet Abū al-‘Atāhiya 14

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Pro-Šī‘ite Leanings 15

How ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn Maintained Contact with the Imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim 17

The Imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim Manifests His Love for ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn 18

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn Supports the Šī‘ite Poor 19

Secrecy and Concealment in ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Religious Behaviour 20

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn as Vizier 21

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Complaints About His Job as Vizier of Hārūn al-Rašīd 22

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn as a Transmitter of Traditions 23

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Ḥadīṯs About His Spiritual Masters (šayḫ) 24

His Disciples and Transmitters 25

Conclusion 26

References 27

Notes 30

Summary

The present study discusses ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn, an important Šī‘ite figure of the 2nd 8th century, a student of the sixth imam Ǧa‘far al-Ṣādiq and the seventh imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim, and analyzes his role in the shaping of Šī‘ism and Šī‘ite religious jurisprudence. Ibn Yaqṭīn held the post of vizier under two Abbasid caliphs, al-Hādī and Hārūn al-Rašīd. He used his position within the Abbasid regime in two ways: he obtained information relevant to the confrontation between the Šī‘ites and their enemies and gave it to the imams, and he gave very generous financial support to needy Šī‘ites. The study also describes ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s personal characteristics, his piety, and the 186 traditions which he reported in the names of the two imams Ǧa‘far al-Ṣādiq and Mūsā al-Kāẓim, by which he enriched Šī‘ite religious law.

Keywords: Abbasid vizier, ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn, Early Šī‘ite history, Ǧa‘far al-Ṣādiq, Mūsā al-Kāẓim, Šī‘ite religious jurisprudence, Abbasid caliphs, al-Hādī, Hārūn al-Rašīd.

Political and Historical Background

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn lived in the 2nd/8th century and personally experienced the events of his age in Baghdad and al-Madīna. He was born in the reign of the tenth Umayyad caliph Hišām b. ‘Abd al-Malik, whose rule began in the year 105/723. ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn lived for about three years under Umayyad rule; however, this period was a time of great popular opposition to and revenge against this dynasty. The Abbasids then seized power. The first Abbasid ruler was Abū al-‘Abbās ‘Abdallāh al-Saffāḥ (ruled 750-754). He entered al-Kūfa as a governor in the year 132/749 and spent most of his time in power purging his state of the Umayyads and strengthening the foundations of the new regime. He did not persecute the adherents of ‘Alī, both because his regime was not yet strong enough, and because the Abbasids seized power supposedly in their name. Al-Saffāḥ died in 136/754. He was followed by his brother Abū Ǧa‘far al-Manṣūr (ruled 754-775), who did persecute ‘Alī’s followers. As a result ‘Alid rebellions against the Abbasids broke out. The first such rebellion was led by Muḥammad b. ‘Abdallāh b. al-Ḥasan (d. 762), known as He of the Pure Soul (ḏū’l-nafs al-zakiyya), who himself had aspirations on the caliphate after the Umayyad downfall, since the Hāšemites promised him their allegiance. He refused to recognize the Abbasid regime and did not swear allegianceeither to al-Saffāḥ nor to his successor al-Manṣūr. When Abbasid persecution of the ‘Alids intensified he revolted against them and seized al-Madīna in the year 145/762. Al-Manṣūr sent a large army against him, consisting of two divisions, one commanded by ‘Īsā b. Mūsā and another commanded by Ḥumayd b. Qaḥṭaba al-Ṭā’ī. The Abbasid army besieged al-Madīna, quelled the rebellion and killed its leaders. The residents of the city suffered greatly under the oppression of the Abbasid forces (al-Layṯī 1976: 138 ff.). This rebellion was followed by another in the same year (762) which broke out in al-Baṣra. This second rebellion, led by Ibrāhīm b. ‘Abdallāh al-‘Alawī, met the same fate as the first (ibid.: 147).

The Abbasids relentlessly pursued all ‘Alids and their adherents, even those who did not participate in the rebellion directly. The Abbasid authorities applied ever growing pressure on the sixth imam Ǧa‘far al-Ṣādiq, who was perceived as the moving spirit behind the people’s rebelliousness. Šī‘ite sources accuse the caliph al-Manṣūr of having ordered his governor in al-Madīna to end al-Ṣādiq’s life unobtrusively; they claim that the governor poisoned some grapes which the imam then ate and died (148/765); however, this accusation remains unsubstantiated.1 The imam al-Ṣādiq was followed by the twenty-year-old Mūsā al-Kāẓim (d. 799). He led his congregation with care and wisdom until the death of the Abbasid caliph al-Manṣūr in 158/774, after a reign which lasted for twenty-two years. He was succeeded by his son al-Mahdī (ruled 775-785), who began his reign with a general amnesty for all political prisoners. He also returned all the money which his father had confiscated to the rightful owners, including that which al-Manṣūr had seized from the imam al-Ṣādiq, which he gave to the latter’s son Mūsā al-Kāẓim.

The caliph al-Mahdī was a wanton profligate who ruled for eleven years (774-785). He once had the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim arrested because he perceived the latter’s great popularity as a threat. He had him taken from al-Madīna to his own capital Baghdad and put in prison. However, he released him after he had a vision in a dream,2 treated him with respect and returned him to al-Madīna. Al-Mahdī was followed by his son Mūsā al-Hādī (ruled 785-786), a young man of twenty-five who was quite hostile to the Šī‘ites (al-Layṯī 1976: 258 ff.). At the beginning of his reign he adopted a policy of repression against them, which provoked an ‘Alid uprising, led by al-Ḥusayn b. ‘Alī, the grandson of the imam al-Ḥasan, in the year 169/789, who was killed together with his companions in the Battle of Faḫḫ (786) near Mecca. Although the Abbasid authorities were aware of Mūsā al-Kāẓim’s pro-revolutionary sympathies, they could find no hard evidence against him. For this reason the caliph al-Mahdī immediately accused the imam the moment he heard about the uprising and threatened to have him killed. Mūsā al-Hādī died not long thereafter, in 170/786, about one year and two months after he came to power. He was followed by his brother Hārūn al-Rašīd (ruled 786-809), who pursued two different policies towards the ‘Alids and their followers, at first quite tolerant and then very repressive. He killed a number of ‘Alid leaders and members of the Prophet’s family, among them ‘Abdallāh b. al-Ḥasan Abū ‘Alī, the son of the imam Zayn al-‘Ābidīn, al-‘Abbās b. Muḥammad b. ‘Abdallāh, Idrīs b. al-Ḥasan, Yaḥyā b. ‘Abdallāh, Muḥammad b. Yaḥyā b. ‘Abdallāh, al-Ḥusayn b. ‘Abdallāh b. Ismā‘īl b. ‘Abdallāh b. Ǧa‘far b. Abī Ṭālib, and Isḥāq b. al-Ḥasan b. Zayd.

The imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim faced great tribulations in that period. He spent much of his life in prison, was threatened with death many times, and was tortured as well. He was killed in the prison of al-Sindī b. Šāhak in the year 183/799. Al-Kāẓim’s death in al-Sindī’s prison was described by Abū al-Faraǧ al-Iṣfahānī (al-Iṣfahānī 1995: 503-4), who related that al-Sindī rolled him into a carpet and ordered a servant of his to sit on his face until he died (al-Qurašī 1993: II, 86); Hārūn al-Rašīd ordered him killed in this way so that people would not accuse him of the murder (al-Iṣfahānī 1995: 417).

After the imam’s death the ‘Alids remained quiescent for the ten years which remained of Hārūn al-Rašīd’s reign (he died in 193/808). During that period they abandoned their overt activities and began to operate clandestinely, adopting a policy of what they called taqiyya3 «dissimulation» and kitmān «concealment». These were the circumstances under which ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn lived.

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Life4

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Life4

Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī b. Mūsā b. Yaqṭīn, a client of the Banū Hāšim tribe, or according to some of the Banū Asad tribe, was born in al-Kūfa in the year 124/741, towards the end of the Umayyad period. His father Yaqṭīn was a supporter of the Abbasids and a prominent Šī‘ite propagandist. The Umayyad caliph Marwān b. Muḥammad (127-132/744-750) sought to capture him and he therefore went into hiding and his wife and his two sons, ‘Alī and ‘Ubayd, fled to al-Madīna. When the Umayyads fell from power and the Abbasid state was established, Yaqṭīn came out of hiding and his wife returned with their children to al-Kūfa. Yaqṭīn joined the Abbasid caliph Abū al-‘Abbās al-Saffāḥ (750-754), and he remained also with his brother Abū Ǧa‘far al-Manṣūr (754-775). He was a Šī‘ite and a supporter of the imamate, as his son ‘Alī, who was already active in the days of the sixth imam Ǧa‘far al-Ṣādiq (d. 765) and transmitted traditions about and in the name of the imam ‘Alī b. Mūsā al-Riḍā (d. 818). ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn died in Baghdad during the imamate of al-Kāẓim in the year 182/798 at the age of nearly fifty-seven, and was buried in Baghdad. He had two children. One, al-Ḥasan (al-Ṭūsī s.d.a: 354, no. 5246-7; al-Ḥillī 1990: 39, no. 4), was a transmitter, jurist and theologian, who transmitted traditions in the name of the father of the two imams Mūsā al-Kāẓim and ‘Alī al-Riḍā (al-Ṭūsī s.d.a: 355, no. 5259-20; Ibn Dāwūd al-Ḥillī 1963: 115, nos. 440-41; al-Barqī 1963: 51; al-Ḥillī 1990: 49, no. 3). The other, al-Ḥusayn, was a companion of Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī al-Riḍā. He wrote a book entitled Masā’il Abī al-Ḥasan Mūsā ‘alayhi al-salām («Issues of Abū al-Ḥasan Mūsā peace be upon him»; al-Naǧāšī s.d.: 45, no. 91; al-Ṭūsī s.d.b: 48, no. 155). ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn had two grandsons, one from each son. Al-Ḥasan’s son, al-Qāsim b. al-Ḥasan (Ibn Dāwūd al-Ḥillī 1963: 493, no. 385; al-Ḥillī 1990: 248, no. 7), cognomen Abū Muḥammad, lived in Qumm. Al-Ḥusayn’s son was called al-Qāsim b. al-Ḥusayn (Ibn Dāwūd al-Ḥillī 1963: 540). He also had three brothers: Ya‘qūb (al-Kulaynī s.d.: III, 340, no. 14; 379, no. 4), al-Ḥusayn (ibid.: III, 518, no. 5; IV, 451, no. 1) and Ayyūb (ibid.: IV, 160, no. 2). Šī‘ite ḥadīṯ collections quote a number of traditions in their name.

His Master

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s master in faith was Abū Muḥammad Yūnus b. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān, a very prominent Šī‘ite born in the reign of the caliph Hišām b. ‘Abd al-Malik (724-743). He met the sixth imam Ǧa‘far al-Ṣādiq between al-Ṣafā and al-Marwa; no traditions have been transmitted in his name. The imam ‘Alī al-Riḍā publicly praised his knowledge and legal opinions. The imam gave him a great sum of money as a religious endowment and never reproached him. He was said to have one of four men who were the last with knowledge of prophecy, namely Salmān al-Fārisī, Ǧābir b. ‘Abd Allāh, Sayyid and Yūnus b. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān.5 When people came to the imam al-Riḍā and asked him who would instruct them in the features of their faith he would refer them to Yūnus b. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān. Šī‘ite tradition also relates that when he presented his book ‘Amal al-yawm wa’l-layla («Work of Day and Night») to the imam Abū al-Ḥasan al-‘Askarī (d. 873) the latter said that God would give the author a light for each letter on the Day of Resurrection. Yūnus b. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān composed more than thirty books, includingǦāmi‘ al -Āṯār, Kitāb al-šarā’i‘, Kitāb al-‘ilal, Iḫtilāf al-ḥadīṯ, Masā’il ‘an Abī al-Ḥasan Mūsā b. Ǧa‘far ‘alayhi al-salām and others. The traditions which he quotes in his books are considered reliable and authoritative (al-Ṭūsī s.d.b: 181, no. 789).

His Companions

Šī‘ite sources mention that ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn had a number of companions, the most prominent among whom was Naǧiyya b. al-Ḥāriṯ (al-Ḥillī 1990: 176, no. 2; al-Kaššī 1929: 452, no. 852). He also had a muezzin, whose cognomen was Abū Muḥammad (al-Kaššī 1929: 145-46, no. 231; 215, no. 384). It seems that before he became a vizier for Hārūn al-Rašīd he was a modest spice merchant (al-Ḥillī 1990: 91, no. 3; al-Kaššī 1929: 430, no. 805).

His External Appearance

We know very few details about his appearance, except that he had two locks of hair (al-Kaššī 1929: 433, no. 812). The imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim compared him to the Prophet’s companions. On one occasion the imam said to some of his companions when ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn approached «Whoever would gladly see one of the Prophet’s companions, let him look at this approaching man». One of those who were present said: «He must then be one who will go to Paradise», to which the imam replied: «Indeed I can testify that he will go to Paradise» (ibid.: 431, no. 810).

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Writings

In addition to the many traditions which he transmitted, he also left three books, which are no longer extant. Only their names are still known today (al-Ṭūsī s.d.b: 91, no. 378; al-Naǧāšī s.d.: 273, no. 715; al-Māmaqānī 1930: II, 315):

A. Masā’il ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn ‘an al-imām al-Ṣādiq min al-malāḥim. The book’s title «On Battles Reported by ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn in the Name of the Imam al-Ṣādiq» would seem to indicate that it dealt with prophecies made by al-Ṣādiq concerning future strife, in answer to questions posed to him.

B. Munāẓara li’l-šākk bi-ḥaḍrat al-imām al-Ṣādiq «Disputation of a Doubter in the Presence of the Imam al-Ṣādiq», as its name shows, apparently contained a debate between the imam and an unknown doubter.

C. Masā’il ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn ‘an Abī al-Ḥasan Mūsā b. Ǧa‘far. The title of this book «Topics which ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn took from Abū al-Ḥasan Mūsā b. Ǧa‘far» indicates that it dealt with subjects that ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn had learned from the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim. The number of compositions which ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn is known to have written is quite modest in comparison with other students of the imam al-Riḍā. The reason for this may perhaps be found in his political preoccupations, which took up most of his time. Šī‘ite sources indicate that al-Šayḫ al-Mufīd (Muḥammad b. Muḥammad al-Nu‘mān al-‘Ukburī, d. 413/1022) mentioned ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s books. It is also related that the latter’s son al-Ḥusayn passed on his books to his brother al-Ḥasan, who then transmitted them to Aḥmad b. Muḥammad, who transmitted them to Aḥmad b. Idrīs, who transmitted them to Muḥammad b. Yaḥyā, to al-Ḥimyarī, to Sa‘d b. ‘Abdallāh, and to Muḥammad b. al-Ḥasan (al-Ṭūsī s.d.b: 91, no. 378).

The Imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim Performs a Miracle for Hārūn in the Presence of ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn

According to Twelver Šī‘ism the imam is a miracle worker,6 in contrast to the Sunnī creed, which believes that only prophets are capable of performing miracles. In fact, performing miracles is only one of the special powers possessed by imams according to Šī‘ite belief. Such traits are used by Šī‘ites to argue for the legitimacy of their imams and to strengthen their claims that imams are on a par with prophets. The imam Ǧa‘far al-Ṣādiq is said to have performed more miracles than any other. Al-Maǧlisī (d. 1698) in his Biḥār al-anwār quotes 227 accounts of miracles ascribed to him, a number which is exceeded only by the miracles of ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib. The imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim, for example, is mentioned as a worker of miracles in only 106 traditions.7 It is therefore not to be wondered that an imam was reported to have performed a miracle for Hārūn al-Rašīd and his companions in the presence of ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn. Šī‘ite sources relate a miracle performed by the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim that was witnessed by ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn, who also reported it, as follows: the caliph Hārūn al-Rašīd summoned his chamberlain Ḥumayd b. Mihrān, a sorcerer, in order to make light of the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim. When the table was set Ḥumayd b. Mihrān cast a spell over the bread, and when the imam al-Kāẓim’s servant tried to take a piece of bread it flew out of his hands. This occasioned much amusement and Hārūn al-Rašīd broke out in laughter. The imam al-Kāẓim then raised his head in the direction of a picture of a lion that was painted on one of the curtains and spoke to it: «O lion of God, take the enemy of God», whereupon the picture was transformed into a real lion, which leaped out of the picture and devoured the sorcerer Ḥumayd b. Mihrān. Hārūn al-Rašīd and his companions fell to the ground in a faint, in terror of what they had seen. When they recovered Hārūn al-Rašīd asked Mūsā al-Kāẓim to bring back the man whom the lion had devoured, and the imam pleaded for his return (Ibn Šahrāšūb 1959: IV, 299; Sindawi 2007). The account of this miracle shows that Šī‘ites believe that their imam has the power to turn an inanimate picture into a living animal in the presence of others, in order to prove to them that as a legitimate imam he possessed super-human powers, not only to create a living lion out of a picture, but also to command the lion to devour anyone who dared ridicule him.8 The act by which the imam turned the picture of the lion into a real animal consisted of raising his head towards the picture and addressing it as follows: «O lion of God, take the enemy of God», whereupon the lion immediately leaped out of the picture and did as he was ordered. The imam’s call was thus answered immediately and the lion did his bidding forthwith. The act of devouring is depicted as violent and fear-inspiring, perhaps as a Šī‘ite warning to its enemies not to mock its imams. It would thus seem that this type of miracle serves as a kind of compensation whereby the imams were able to take vengeance on their enemies who had deprived them of their rights and prevented them from becoming the leaders of the Muslim state. God, according to this view, compensated them by giving them spiritual powers which they were able to utilize in times of trouble.

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn and the Poet Abū al-‘Atāhiya

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn is reported to have had a close relationship with poets and poetry, perhaps as a stratagem for hiding his true interest, namely to further the Šī‘ite cause using his position as vizier. In the biography of the Abbasid poet Abū al-‘Atāhiya (Ismā‘īl b. al-Qāsim, d. 826) ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn is mentioned as a friend of the poet. Abū al-‘Atāhiya was known for his impudence and for his adherence to the Abbasid state. ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn always showed kindness to him and regard for his circumstances and every year gave him a generous gift, but one year he was late with the gift. Still, whenever Abū al-‘Atāhiya met him or came to him he showed his joy and praised him. It is related that once ‘Alī met Abū al-‘Atāhiya as the latter was about to go to the caliph’s house. He stopped him and Abū al-‘Atāhiya recited the following poem for him:

Until when, o Ibn Yaqṭīn, will I wait for something which you have not brought?

Greetings and a friendly smile in a man of your standing do not satisfy meThis is the time in which men demand from me the haughtiness of kings and the morals of the poor

Do you not know that God will compensate you and increase your grace, o Ibn Yaqṭīn?

Save me with your gift in this world, not on the Day of Judgment.

The moment Abū al-‘Atāhiya finished reciting these verses ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn said to him: «I refuse to allow either of us to leave this place until you are satisfied», and ordered that he be given what he used to send him every year. This was brought immediately, and Ibn Yaqṭīn remained standing there until he received it (al-Amīn 1960: VIII, 41, 371; Abū al-‘Atāhiyya 2003: 418, no. 528). In my opinion ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn was fully familiar with Abū al-‘Atāhiya’s reputation as an impudent poet, and yet maintained an overt friendship with him and brought him an annual gift in order to draw attention away from his political activities and hide his Šī‘ite connections.

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Pro-Šī‘ite Leanings

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn was pro-Šī‘ite. As a vizier to two caliphs, al-Hādī (ruled 785-786) and Hārūn al-Rašīd (ruled 786-809) he helped the Šī‘ites financially and spiritually. It is related that Hārūn al-Rašīd himself gave an order that ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn should personally see to the collection of taxes from the Šī‘ites and the supporters of the Prophet’s family. ‘Alī secretly asked the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim (d. 799) for advice on this matter. The imam proposed to him that he return the money to its Šī‘ite owners. And indeed, he would collect taxes from the Šī‘ites quite openly, and then return it to them clandestinely, without Hārūn al-Rašīd’s knowledge. In addition, ‘Alī provided the Šī‘ites, and especially the imam al-Kāẓim, with vital information about the regime, its strength, its ability to face up to challenges, and about its plans to purge its Šī‘ite opponents.

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn was thus of considerable importance to the Šī‘ites at the time. One example for his valuable assistance concerns the events of the Battle of Faḫḫ (786),9 an uprising in which the ‘Alid forces lost. After this defeat the Abbasid caliph Mūsā al-Hādī threatened the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim. He even planned to travel to al-Madīna and unearth the graves of four imams, al-Ḥasan. ‘Alī (d. 661), ‘Alī b. al-Ḥusayn (d. 713), Muḥammad al-Bāqir (d. 733) and Ǧa‘far al-Ṣādiq (d. 765), in the cemetery ofBaqī‘ al -Ġarqad in al-Madīna, and to exhume their mortal remains. He threatened to kill Mūsā al-Kāẓim and accused him of having been behind the uprising. ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn immediately sent this information to the imam, who took the needed precautions. He went on pilgrimage to his grandfather’s grave and there recited the call of «Ǧawšan al-Ṣaġīr»10 repeatedly, performed the supererogatory rites, and a few days later the unexpected happened, when the caliph al-Hādī was killed at the hand of his own mother (al-Maǧlisī 1984: XLVIII, 151, no. 25). ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn was concerned lest his close association with the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim would be discovered by Hārūn al-Rašīd, especially in light of the fact that the latter had sent out spies to ferret out Šī‘ite sympathizers in his government. Indeed, were it not for the imam’s advice to ‘Alī to keep his activities hidden from Hārūn al-Rašīd he would certainly have been killed.

Šī‘ite writers report two instances in which the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim advised ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn to keep his activities secret. The first incident, known as theDurrā‘a Affair (durrā‘a: a long garment open at the front): ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn was in the presence of Hārūn al-Rašīd when the latter received a present from the Byzantine emperor. Among the presents was a black durrā‘a of silk brocade with gold threads. ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn looked at the presents and the caliph gave them to him as a present. ‘Alī then sent all the garments to the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim, including the durrā‘a, and also added some money which he had prepared out of the «fifth»11 of his assets. All this came to the imam, who kept the money and the clothes, but nine months later he sent the durrā‘a back to Ibn Yaqṭīn with instructions not to let it out of his possession since he would eventually need it. When ‘Alī received the imam’s letter he was frightened, but kept the durrā‘a. A few days later ‘Ali b. Yaqṭīn dismissed one of his servants, who knew of this employer’s close relations with Mūsā al-Kāẓim and the things which Ibn Yaqṭīn sent him. He informed Hārūn al-Rašīd that Ibn Yaqṭīn recognized Mūsā al-Kāẓim as imam and sent him a fifth of his income every year, and also gave him the durrā‘a. The caliph was incensed and said that he would investigate the matter, and if he found that it was true then he would kill ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn. He immediately sent his men to bring Ibn Yaqṭīn. When the latter was brought into his presence he asked him: «What did you do with the durrā‘a with which I covered you?» Ibn Yaqṭīn answered: «O Commander of the Faithful, I keep it in a sealed and perfumed basket. I have guarded it well. I open it, look at it and kiss it, then put it back in its place, every morning and every evening». According to another version, ‘Alī said that he wore it during prayer.

Hārūn al-Rašīd asked Ibn Yaqṭīn to bring it to him immediately. The caliph called a servant and sent him to Ibn Yaqṭīn’s house. The servant brought the durrā‘a to Hārūn, who saw that it was indeed folded in a perfumed container. Hārūn’s anger subsided and he asked ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn to put the garment back in its place. He said to him: «From this day on I shall not believe any slander». He gave Ibn Yaqṭīn a prize and ordered the servant to be given a thousand lashes, but after about five-hundred he died.12 The second incident, known as the Ablution Affair: ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn had the habit of performing the ablution before prayer in the Sunnī manner,13 in accordance with the principle of taqiyya (dissimulation). He sent a request to the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim to instruct him in the Šī‘ite manner, but the imam commanded him to continue to perform the ritual as the Sunnīs do, until the proper time came, when he would teach him the Šī‘ite manner of ablution. And indeed, after a time someone slandered ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn and told Hārūn al-Rašīd that he was a Šī‘ite, an adherent of the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim who performed the ablution in the manner of the latter. Hārūn al-Rašīd then summoned ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn and asked him to perform a number of duties in his home. When the time for prayer came al-Rašīd hid behind a wall in order to observe ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn unseen. ‘Alī performed the ablution as the imam had toldhim, that is in the Sunnī manner, whereupon Hārūn al-Rašīd rose and said to ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn: «Whoever claimed that you were Rāfiḍī14 “defector” or “deserters” is a liar». After this the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim send a letter to ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn in which he told him that from then on he may perform the ablution in the Šī‘ite manner, and explained to him the way it was to be done.15

How ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn Maintained Contact with the Imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim

The two maintained contact in a number of ways, which were kept secret in order to prevent the Abbasid caliph from discovering their relationship.

Occasionally ‘Alī sent letters to the imam via messengers. According to one tradition ‘Alī once sent ‘Abd al-Raḥmān b. al-Ḥaǧǧāǧ to the imam with a request that the imam pray for him. The imam asked ‘Alī’s messenger if ‘Alī wanted him to supplicate God for this world or the next. The messenger replied that Ibn Yaqṭīn wanted his supplication for the world to come, whereupon the imam al-Kāẓim placed his hand on the messenger’s chest and said to him: «You may ensure ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn that the fire [of hell] will never touch him» (al-Kaššī 1929: 431, nos. 807-10).

The Imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim Manifests His Love for ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn

The imam loved ‘Alī dearly. He not only promised him that he would go to heaven and that he would be saved from the fires of hell (Būḫamsīn 1990:

64-67), but also expressed his love on several occasions, as in the following instances:

A. One day ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn visited the imam al-Kāẓim, who was sitting with his companions at home. When ‘Alī appeared the imam looked at him and said to his companions: «Whoever would be happy to gaze at a companion of the Prophet of God, let him gaze at this man who has just come», and pointed at ‘Alī. One of those present asked excitedly:

«Is he one who will go to Paradise?» . The imam replied: «I testify that he will».

B. Another time ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn sent a messenger to the imam al-Kāẓim, in which he asked him to pray for him. When the messenger arrived he said to the imam: «O son of God’s Messenger, Ibn Yaqṭīn sent me to you so would supplicate God for him». The imam asked him: «For the world to come?» and the messenger answered: «Yes», whereupon the imam said to him: «You may ensure ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn that the fire [of hell] will never touch him».

C. On yet another occasion Dāwūd al-Raqqī16 gave the following report: «I came into the presence of my father al-Ḥasan (the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim) on the Day of Immolation» (the 10th day of the month of Ḏū’l-Ḥiǧǧa, the first day of the Feast of Sacrifice) and he said to me: «No one took notice of my when I was at al-Mawqif (a place of pilgrimage during the ḥaǧǧ near Minā) except for ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn, who stayed with me and did not leave me».

D. In a fourth report the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim said of ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn: «It is ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s good fortune that I mentioned him at al-Mawqif» (Būḫamsīn 1990: 66).

‘Alī b. YaqṭīnSupports the Šī‘ite Poor

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn helped the Šī‘ite poor. On the imam al-Kāẓim’s directions he gave great sums and sent a fifth of his earnings to the imam. The fifth which he sent annually was a considerable amount of money, occasionally reaching hundreds of thousands of dirhams. ‘Alī also supported the imam in times of trouble and need. Whenever the imam al-Kāẓim was needy, or wanted to help someone for whom he cared, he would write to ‘Alī and ask him to buy or arrange what was needed (al-Kaššī 1929: 269, no. 484). Two of ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s companions relate that he sent them the following message: «Buy two female camels and stay off the road». He gave them money and letters and told them to bring them to the imam al-Kāẓim and to take care that no onediscover what they were doing. They reported what happened: «We came to al-Kūfa and bought two female camels, took supplies and left. We travelled off the road until we came to Baṭn al-Rimma, where we tied the camels, put feed before them and sat down to eat. As we were eating a rider came with a mule, and as he approached we saw that it was the imam al-Kāẓim. We rose and greeted him, and gave him the letters and the other things we had with us». He took some letters out of his sleeve and gave them to us. He said: «These are the replies to the letters you brought». We said: «Our supplies are low. With your permission, we would like to enter al-Madīna, visit God’s Messenger and buy some supplies». He said: «Show me your supplies». We took out our provisions and he turned them over in his hand and said: «This will be enough for you until you reach al-Kūfa, and as for God’s Messenger, you have seen him» (ibid.: 436-37, no. 821).

Among those whom ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn supported was one ‘Abdallāh b. Yaḥyā al-Kāhilī, Abū Muḥammad and his family. This he did at the request of the imam al-Kāẓim, who promised him in return that he would go to Paradise. ‘Alī fulfilled his obligation towards al-Kāhilī and his family until the latter’s death. According to the reports what he sent was enough to support al-Kāhilī’s family and his relatives as well (al-Ḥillī 1990: 108-9, no. 31; al-Kaššī 1929: 448, no. 841; al-Naǧāšī s.d.: 222, no. 580).

Secrecy and Concealment in ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Religious Behaviour

It is reported of ‘Alī that he kept his religious tendencies secret and did not perform Šī‘ite rites, out of fear that his Šī‘ite leanings would be found out. ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn prayed often, but in secret (Būḫamsīn 1990: 128; al-Qurašī 1993: II, 285). He also concealed his pilgrimage to Mecca in a variety of ways. In fact, every year he asked people to perform this duty for him. His secretary, Sulaymān b. al-Ḥusayn, states: «One year I counted one-hundred-and-fifty people who went on pilgrimage for ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn, to each of which he gave at least ten-thousand dirhams» (al-Kaššī 1929: 437, no. 824). If there is any truth in this tradition, it means that Ibn Yaqṭīn’s income must have been very large indeed. It would seem that he used the pilgrimage as a means for giving support to Šī‘ites in a way which would not arouse his enemies’ suspicions. This conjecture is supported by thefact that among the people he helped were important personages such as ‘Abd al-Raḥmān b. al-Ḥaǧǧāǧ and ‘Abdallāh b. Yaḥyā al-Kāhilī, who were companions of the imam and disliked by the authorities (al-Ṭūsī 1970: 435). One final point in this respect is the fact that ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn included not only Šī‘ite elders in his plan but others as well, for the purpose of making the Šī‘ite creed known and to dispute with the other religious sects. ‘Alī was thus able to conceal his connection with Šī‘ism and the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim. In fact, he did this so well that a senior Šī‘ite complained to the imam that he suspected ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn of being a dissimulator who only pretended to be a Šī‘ite and an adherent of the imam. The imam asked him if he had evidence for his accusation. He replied that one day he was at a gathering in the home of a prominent man in Baghdad, and ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn was also present. The host asked ‘Alī if he thought that Mūsā b. Ǧa‘far was the imam rather than the reigning caliph. ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn replied: «I do not say this. Rather, I say that Mūsā is not imam, whoever is not imam then Mūsā is not him, and I agree that this is my imamate and I reject the imamate of anyone else». The host then said: «May God give you recompense andmay He curse those who slander you». The imam then said to the man who brought him this report: «It is not as you thought. ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn is better versed in jurisprudence than you are». When he said «Mūsā is not imam» he meant that whoever is not imam, Mūsā is not like him, that is, he is imam, and he reiterated this by saying «this is my imamate» and rejected «the imamate of anyone but me». The imam then added: «O ‘Abdallāh, when will you cease from such suspicions about your brother. Do penance before God». When the man realized what the imam meant he was greatly distressed and said to him: «I do not possess money, but I havegive half of my devotions and prayers to you, family of the Prophet, and my curses to your enemies». Thereupon the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim said to him: «Now you have escaped hellfire» (al-Maǧlisī 1984: LXXII, 195, no. 7; al-Ṭabrisī 1982: 394-95; al-‘Askarī 1988: 359-60).

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn as Vizier

Our written sources do not tell us the circumstances under which ‘Alī b.

Yaqṭīn was appointed to the post of vizier by Hārūn al-Rašīd and the specific function he had. Šī‘ite sources relate that ‘Alī had a close relationship with the Abbasids, by whom he was appointed to senior posts, and that Hārūn al-Rašīd chose him to be his vizier. ‘Alī agreed to take the position after he had secretly sought the advice of the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim, al-Kāẓim who urged him to agree to the appointment. Later ‘Alī asked the imam a number of times for permission to resign, but the imam refused to accede to his request (al-Maǧlisī 1984: XLVIII, 158, no. 32), and explained that his position was important for the preservation of Šī‘ite lives, property and rights. The imam said to ‘Alī: «Safeguard me one tuft and I will safeguard you three». ‘Alī asked him: «What are they?» , and the imam replied: «The three which I will safeguard you are: that the heat of iron will never strike and kill you, that you will never know poverty, and that you will never be put in prison; and the one thing you will guarantee is that you will respect every religious leader who comes to you». ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn accepted this request, and the imam guaranteed him the three (ibid.: 136, no. 10).

The imam al-Kāẓim said to ‘Alī: «We (the Šī‘ites) have a friend in you and your brothers have strength in you. May God through you mend a fracture, and through you may He break the enmity of those who oppose His supporters» (ibidem).

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn remained true to his commitment and continued to give succour to the Šī‘ites during his entire term of office and helped them in those dire times to maintain their lives and their independence.17

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s ComplaintsAbout His Job as Vizier of Hārūn al-Rašīd

The imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim once came to Iraq and met secretly with ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn. When the latter complained about his work as vizier the imam said to him: «O ‘Alī, God has supporters with the supporters of darkness, with whom He defends his own supporters, and you are one of them» (al-Maǧlisī 1984: LXXII, 349-50, no. 56; al-Kaššī 1929: 43, no. 817). As mentioned above, ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn asked the imam a number of times for permission to resign, but the imam refused, out of concern for the lives of the Šī‘ites.

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn as a Transmitter of Traditions

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn played an important role in the life of the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim and his reports are often quoted in Šī‘ite ḥadīṯ and history collections.

In Šī‘ite traditional sources ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn is often quoted as a reliable source of information about pronouncements which he heard from Mūsā al-Kāẓim, Ǧa‘far al-Ṣādiq and others. Most of these ḥadīṯs contain answers to questions which were posed to the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim. Among other topics with which ‘Alī’s ḥadīṯs deal are issues in Šī‘ite jurisprudence, for example on funeral procedures (al-Kulaynī s.d.: III, 168, no. 1), charity (ibid.: III, 518, no. 5), the rules of the pilgrimage to Mecca (ibid.: IV, 380, no. 8), ritual ablution before prayer (ibid.: III, 18, no. 15), major ritual impurity (ibid.: III, 46, no. 3), why God spoke to Mūsā (ibid.: III, 123), pregnant woman who dies (ibid.: III, 155, no. 1), the traveler’s prayer (ibid.: III, 435, no. 8), and others. It is, however, very difficult to determine whether ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn did in fact report all the ḥadīṯs attributed to him or whether some or most of them are later fabrications.

‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn’s Ḥadīṯs About His Spiritual Masters (šayḫ)

Many of ‘Alī’s ḥadīṯs report the words of the imams, especially al-Kāẓim. In all, some 187 ḥadīṯs about the imams are ascribed to him. From the ḥadīṯs found in various Šī‘ite sources and ascribed to ‘Alī, it appears that he had nineteen spiritual masters: the imam Mūsā al-Kāẓim, who held a very important place in his life (al-Kulaynī s.d.: I, 313, no. 10; II, 13, no. 2; III, 168, no. 1; III, 435, no. 8; VI, 434, no. 24; al-Ḥillī 1990: 91, no. 3); the imam Ǧa‘far al-Ṣādiq, in whose name he related a single ḥadīṯ (al-Ḥillī 1990: 91, no. 5; al-Ṭūsī s.d.c: I, 166, no. 48); Muḥammad b. Sinān (al-Kulaynī s.d.: IV, 25, no. 3); al-Faḍl b. Kaṯīr al-Madā’inī (ibid.: II, 106, no. 5; V, 317, no. 52); ‘Īsā b. Sulaymān (al-Kaššī 1929: 396, no. 597); Yūnus, ‘Alī’s teacher (al-Kulaynī s.d.: IV, 505, no. 3); Ḥafṣ b. ‘Amr b. Muḥammad Abū Muḥammad (ibid.: IV, 541, no. 5); his muezzin, whose name was al-Ḥusayn b. Ḫālid (ibid.: V, 104, no. 5; al-Ṭūsī s.d.c: VI, 209, no. 2); ‘Amr b. Ibrāhīm (al-Kulaynī s.d.: V, 236, no. 17); ‘Āṣim b. Ḥumayd (ibid.: V, 391, no. 7); Yūnus b. Ya‘qūb (ibid.: V, 236, no. 17)18 b. Qays Abū ‘Alī al-Ǧalāb al-Baǧalī al-Dahnī; Muḥammd b. Hāšim (ibid.: VI, 31, no. 5); Ruhm al-Anṣārī;19 al-Madāyinī (al-Kaššī 1929: 398, no. 743); Hāšim b. Ḫālid (al-Kulaynī s.d.: VI, 405, no. 3); Bakr b. Muḥammad (ibid.: VI, 428, no. 1); ‘Amr b. Ibrāhīm (al-Ṭūsī s.d.c: III, 31, no. 21; III, 282, no. 157); and al-Ḥasan b. Ṣabbāḥ (ibid.: VII, 10, no. 38).

His Disciples and Transmitters

In this section we deal with those people who learned the imams’ words from ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn and transmitted them. To judge by the available sources he appears to have had eighteen disciples: his son al-Ḥasan (al-Kulaynī s.d.: I, 11, no. 7; II, 106, no. 5), al-Ḥusayn b. Mayyāḥ (ibid.: I, 58, no. 18; V, 158, no. 7; V, 305, no. 8), Ibn Abī ‘Umayr (ibid.: II, 123, no. 7; III, 192, no. 2; III, 435, no. 8; III, 155, no. 1; III, 547, no. 5; IV, 380, no. 8; al-Ṭūsī s.d.c: VII, 224, no. 73), Muḥammad b. Abī Ḥamza (al-Kulaynī s.d.: VI, 186, no. 5), Ḥarīz (ibid.: III, 518, no. 8), Ibrāhīm b. Abī Maḥmūd (ibid.: V, 110, no. 3; al-Ṭūsī s.d.c: VI, 335, no. 48), Ḥamād b. ‘Uṯmān (ibid.: II, 212, no. 24), ‘Abd al-Raḥmān b. al-Ḥaǧǧāǧ (ibid.: VII, 22, no. 92), his muezzin Ḥafṣ b. ‘Amr b. Muḥammad Abū Muḥammad (al-Kaššī 1929: 432, no. 814), Ya‘qūb b. Yazīd (al-Kulaynī s.d.: VI, 387, no. 1), Sulaym (his slave) ‘Alī b. Yaqṭīn (ibid.: VIII, 383, no. 583), Ṣafwān b. Yaḥyā (al-Ṣadūq 1993: I, 415, no. 1226), Ǧa‘far b. ‘Īsā b. ‘Ubayd (ibid.: IV, 209), Aḥmad b. Muḥammad b. ‘Īsā (al-Ṭūsī s.d.c: I, 111, no. 26), Abū Ḫālid (his slave; ibid.: V, 491, no. 410), his brother Ya‘qūb (ibid.: III, 11, no. 36; III, 12, no. 19.), his brother Ayyūb (ibid.: III, 101, no. 35.), and his scribe Sulaymān b. al-Ḥusayn (al-Kaššī 1929: 437, no. 824).

Creedal Shi`ism

Concerning the dissociation of the Shi'i sect from the Sunni community one may say that the area of divergence grew gradually and from political issues it extended to matters pertaining to religion and culture. During the early years the main problem was that of government and the conflict between the State's religious policies and attitudes and the demands of the Shi'ah led to a divergence in the realm of ideas. These differences could relate to legal and doctrinal issues as well as to political notions.

It should be noted that among the followers of Imam Ali ('a) there were different groups that were attached to him for different reasons. Among them there were those who considered him a worthy ruler but who in the course of time came to follow other Companions, including those who were associated with the ruling regime as well as others. Later we find the clear instance of Zaydi Shi`is who followed Hanafi fiqh or independent persons among the Companions and the Tabi'in living in Iraq.

In view of that which has been said, this phenomenon was a Shi'ism of the political type and a variety of Iraqi Shi'ism. Naturally, such persons did not acquire their religious knowledge solely from the Ahl al-Bayt; they could be Mu'tazilis or followers of some other tendency. Among those who were Mu'tazilis from a doctrinal point of view, and among those who were Hanafis from a ritual and legal point of view, there were not few those who had a kind of pro-Ali or Shi'i inclination. Abu Hanifah himself was one of such individuals due to his support of Zayd ibn Ali and al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah.

As against this, there existed another tendency which consisted of total obedience to the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt. The Shi'is who possessed this tendency followed the Imams in all matters of doctrine and law, and in the field of hadith they considered only the narrations of the Imams as authoritative. Although this tendency might not have been completely manifest until the last quarter of the 1st/7th century when doctrinal and legal issues became the prime issues of the day in Muslim society, yet it is evident that the movement that emerged under this name during the time of Imam Baqir and Imam Sadiq ('a) has had its historical roots and background.

This tendency may be called creedal Shi'ism (tashayyu' i'tiqadi). The roots of this tendency lie in a special conception of Imamate in which the Imam has a particular spiritual and intellectual station. The function of the Imam, apart from governing the society, consists of interpreting and expounding the religion and it derives from his special relationship with the Messenger of God (S). The followers of this tendency generally referred to the office of the Imam with such expressions as wisayah, wilayah and imamah, not with the term khilafah. Of course, in this case there were possible differences in the understanding of the Imamate and related beliefs and its deviant form is represented by the tendency called ghuluww.

An important point in this regard relates to the historical background of creedal Shi`ism and its roots. Here we will undertake a study of this issue.

Among the definitions that have been suggested for creedal Shi'ism, perhaps the best one is the one given by Aban ibn Taghlib, who said, “The Shi'ah are those who followed Ali ('a) when the people differed concerning the Messenger of Allah (S), and who followed Ja'far ibn Muhammad ('a) when people differed concerning Ali ('a)” (al-Shi'atu al-ladhina idha ikhtalafa al-nasu 'an Rasulillah, sallallahu alayhi wa alih, akhadhu bi qawli Aliyyin, 'alayhi al-salam, wa idha ikhtalfa al-nasu 'an Aliyyin akhadhu bi qawli Ja far ibn Muhammad, 'alayhi al-salam).39

A creedal Shi'i considers the office of the Imamate as a continuation of prophet hood, though without the element of new revelation, and considers the statements of the Infallible Imams ('a) as decisive in all matters and as the final judge in respect of all opinions advanced by various individuals and creeds. Such an approach differs altogether from the kind of Shi'i tendency that prefers Imam Ali to 'Uthman or even to all other caliphs. This approach had precedents among the followers of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) since the very beginning.

Among followers of Imam Ali ('a) there were many who had more than an ordinary kind of attachment for the Imam and who believed him to possess a Divine office of Imamate. Aside from the extent to which these cases delineate the character of the belief in the Imam, one may infer from them the belief that the office of Imamate derived from a designation by God and the Prophet.

After swearing allegiance to Imam Ali ('a) Khuzaymah ibn Thabit is reported to have said, “We have elected someone who was chosen for us by the Messenger of God (S).40 In reply to `Umar's remark that the reason why the Quraysh did not choose Ali ('a) for the caliphate was that they did not like prophethood and caliphate to be in one family, Ibn Abbas said to him, “They were averse to [submit to] what God had revealed.”41

Darimiyyah Hujuniyyah, while describing for Mu'awiyah the reasons for favouring Ali ('a) said: “I favour Ali for his love of the poor, his generosity towards strangers, his religious learning, his sacrificing character and for his having been designated for wilayah by the Messenger of Allah.”42

According to a report cited by Tabari, after the Battle of Siffin when Ali ('a) returned to Kufah and the Khawarij broke away from him, the Shi'ah remained steadfast on Ali's side and declared that they were bound to him by yet another oath of allegiance: to befriend his friends and to regard his enemies as their own enemies (Nahnu awliya' man walayta wa a'da'u man 'adayt).43

Iskaf says, “The common people swore allegiance to Ali ('a) on the basis of the Book and the Sunnah and the Shi'ah of 'Ali on the basis of friendship of his friends and enmity of his enemies.”44 Thestress on such an allegiance as a second allegiance in addition to the first one as well as its content indicate the Shi'i character of this group.

Abu Dharr, who died during the days of `Uthmam's rule, invited the people to follow the Ahl al-Bayt ('a) and he would refer to the Prophet's family in such words:

“O people! The Family of Muhammadare the progeny of Noah and the descendants of Abraham and the elect of the progeny of Ismail, and the guiding and pure kindred of Muhammad. [In relation to the Ummah] reckon them to be like the head in relation to the body or rather as eyes in relation to the head, for, indeed, they are for you like the elevated heaven, the firmly established mountains, the radiant sun and the olive tree whose oil gives light and whose fire is blessed.”

He would say; “Muhammad was the heir of Adam and the prophets were not superior to him, and 'Ali ibn Abi Talib is the designated successor (wasi) of Muhammad (S) and heir to his knowledge.” He would address the people saying, “You, who are a community that has remained in perplexity after the Messenger, had you given preferred one who has been preferred by God and had you set back those who have been set back by God, and had you placed the wilayah and succession in the family of your Prophet you would have enjoyed all kinds of bounties from all sides.”45

Elsewhere it has been narrated that Aba Dharr said, “O people! There will appear heresies in the future. When they visit you hold on to the Book of God and to Ali.”46 When Abu Dharr was being banished to Rabdhah, Ali ('a) and his sons came out to bid him farewell. Abu Dharr looked at the Imam and said, “When I see you and your sons, I remember what the Prophet (S) had said about you and that makes me cry”47

Salman also felt sorry that the people did not drew benefit from Ali's presence while he was alive and in their midst, and he would say, “By God, after him there will be no one who may inform you about the secrets of your Apostle.”48

Miqdad also narrated from the Prophet that he had said, “The ma'rijah of the Household of Muhammad amounts to deliverance from hellfire; the love of the Household of Muhammad amount to secure passage over the Sirat; the wilayah of the Household of Muhammad is amnesty from chastisement.”49

Ammar Yasir also narrated the Prophet's tradition, “This is my counsel to someone who has faith in God and who affirms me through the wilayah of Ali ibn Abi Talib: one who loves him loves me, and one who loves me loves God.”50

Traditions of this kind which indicate Shi'i convictions have been narrated in a large number from Abu Dharr, Salman, Ammar and Miqdad. In defining the term `Shi'ah' Abu Hatin al-Razi says, “It is the appellation of those who were attached to Ali ('a) during the lifetime of the Messenger of Allah (S), such as Salman, Abu Dharr Ghifari, Miqdad ibn al-Aswad and Ammar ibn Yasir and others. Concerning these four, the Messenger of Allah (S) had declared, `The paradise is eager for four men: Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad, and Ammar.”'51

Umm Sinan, daughter of Khaythamah ibn Kharashah, portrays Ali ('a) in these verses:

قد كنت بعد محمدٍ خلفاً لنا أوصى إليك بنا فكنت وفياً

“After Muhammad you were for us his heir, He had exhorted you concerning us, and you were faithful (to his exhortations)”52

Umm al-Khayr is reported to have made this statement while encouraging Ali's troops during the Battle of Siffin

هَلِمُوا رحمكم الله إلى الإمام العدل و التقي الوفي و الصديق الوصِي

“May God have mercy onyou. Rally to the help of the just and pious Imam, the faithful and truthful successor (wasi)”53

The fact that these persons and many others like them among the Shi'i followers of Imam Ali ('a) considered him to be wasi means that their notion of his station went- far beyond the title of khalifah acquired by him through the allegiance (bay'ah) given him by the people. There are many verses in the sources ascribed to such Shi`is as Hujr ibn Adi, Ibn Tayhan, Ibn Ajlan and others wherein this term is employed.54

While summoning the people for bay'ah with Imam Ali ('a), Maik Ashtar referred to him in these words:

هذا وصي الاوصيا و وارث علم الأنبياء

“This is the wasi of the awsiya' and the heir to the knowledge of the prophets.”55

He recited these verses during the Battle of Siffin:

من رأى عزَّةَ الوصيِّ عليِّ أنَّهُ في دجى الحنادس نور

“One who sees the dignity of 'Ali, the Wasi, has a light in the dark of night”56

Umm Araban recited this verse to mourn Ali's martyrdom:

و كنا قبل مقتله بخير نرى مولى رسول الله فينا

“We dwelt in welfare before his assassination

As we saw the mawla of the Apostle of God in our midst.” 57

There are many verses from some of the Companions of the Prophet (S) who were among supporters of Imam Ali ('a) that refer to the tradition of Ghadir and interpret it in the sense of leadership and wilayah. Among them are couplets belonging to Qays ibn Sa'd ibn `Ubadah, Hassan ibn Thabit as well as verses composed by Imam Ali (`a) himself.58 Abu al-Aswad Du'ali declares in a verse:

أحبُّ محمداً حبَّاً شَديداً و عباساً و حمزة و الوصيَّا

“I love Muhammad intensely, Abbas, too, and Hamzah, and the Wasi.”59

Qays ibnSa` d says concerning the episode of Ghadir:

عليٌّ إمامنا و إمام لسوانا أتى به التنزيل

يوم قال النبي من كنت مولاه فهذا مولاه خطب جليل

إنَّ ما قال النبي على الأمة حتمٌ ما فيه قال و قيل

“Ali is our Imam and the Imam of others as well, and this has been declared by revelation,

The day when the Prophet said in a glorious sermon: “He is the mawla of everyone whose Mawla I am.

Indeed, what the Prophet has proclaimed to the Ummah is conclusive, and there is no place in it for hearsay.”60

Hassan ibn Thabit recited these verses on the day of Ghadir:

يناديهم يوم الغدير نبيهم بخم و اَسْمِع بالرسول مناديا

فقال له قم يا علي فإنني جعلتك من بعدي إماماً و هادياً

“Their Prophet calls out to them on the day of Ghadir at Khumm, and I listen and call out with the Prophet:

He said to him, O Ali, rise, I have made you the Imam after me and the guide.”61

These citations indicate the development of an attitude which recognizes Imam Ali (`a) as an Imam and leader appointed by the Apostle of God (S). They consider the Imam's authority to derive from his wisayah or designation by the Prophet (S) and call upon others to follow him as the Prophet's veritable successor.

Hence Ibn Tayhan would declare, “Indeed our imam and wasi is the wasi of the Apostle of Allah (S),” and Ibn Ajlan asked rhetorically, “How can we disperse while our leader is the wasi?”62 Hujr ibn Adi would say, “Wilayah was in him after the Apostle of God (S) and he made him his own wasi after himself.”63 A man named Zadan Farrukh who had recently embraced Islam encountered the Khawarij on his way. Asked concerning Ali ('a), he told them, “He is the commander of the faithful, the wasi of the Apostle of God and the master of all men.”64 They killed him.

In a famous letter written to Mu'awiyah, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr referred to Ali ('a) as the “heir of the Apostle of Allah and his wasi.”65 `Ubadah ibn Samit is also reported to have recited verses-during the days of the episode of Saqifah in which he referred to the wasiyyah concerning Ali ('a). 66

The efforts of Imam Ali ('a) himself during the days of his caliphate were one of the main causes of propagation of the notion of Imamate as a Divine office. In one of the verses that he composed concerning the event and tradition of Ghadir, he interprets it as ordaining his wilayah over the people:

فأوجب لي ولايته عليكم رسول الله يوم غدير خم

“On the day of Ghadir Khumm, the Apostle of God made my wilayah incumbent upon you”.67

In an elaborate letter that the Imam wrote to Mu'awiyah, he deals with this matter iii detail. This letter reveals interesting points concerning the Imam's role in propagation of the Shi'i concept of wilayah. As this letter has an important place from the viewpoint of Imami ideas, we shall cite here its main parts:

God, the Exalted, says,

“Obey God and the Apostle and those who have authority among you” (4:59).

This verse is about us Ahl al-Bayt, not you. Then He forbade conflict and disunity and enjoined submission and unity. You are the same people who professed faith in that before God and the Apostle.

God has informed you that “Muhammad is not the father of any man among you, He is the Apostle of Allah and the Seal of the Prophets” (33:40). And He has said, “If he dies or is killed will you turn back on your heels?” (3:144). And you, Mu`awiyah, and your companions, have turned your backs and apostatized, breaking the covenant you had made with God and breaking the allegiance, although that does not harm God.

O Mu'awiyah, don't you know that the Imams are from amongst us, not from among you? God has informed you that those who possess authority should be those who derive knowledge (a reference to 4:83), and He has also informed that in all matters that there is disagreement amongst you, you should refer to God and His Apostle and to those who possess authority and possess knowledge.

Hence anyone who is loyal to his covenant will find God to be faithful to His covenant. We are the progeny of Abraham who are the envied ones and you are the jealous ones (a reference to 4:54). It was a group of Israelites who said to their prophet, “Appoint a king over us so we may fight in the way of God” (2:246). When God sent Said as king, they were jealous of him and they said, “How can he have sovereignty over us?” (2:247) and they imagined that they were more worthy of kingship than him.

All these are things that have occurred in the past and now I describe them for you and its interpretation is with us and whoever belies it will be disappointed. We see their example amongst you. You should know that we, Ahl al-Bayt, are the same progeny of Abraham who are objects of others' envy. We have been victims of jealousy like our fathers before us.

God, the Exalted, has mentioned `the family (al) of Abraham, “the family of Lut, “the family of Moses,' `the family of Aaron' and `the family of David;' and we are the Al of our Apostle, Muhammad (S). O Mu'awiyah, don't you know that God has said, “The nearest to Abraham are those who follow him and this Apostle and the believers, and God is the helper of the believers”? (3:68). We are the blood relations (ulu al-arham) mentioned in the verse: “The Apostle has a greater right over the believers than themselves, and his wives are mothers of the believers, and the blood relations have a greater right in the Book of God than the believers and the emigrants”? (33:6).

We are the Ahl al-Bayt whom God has chosen and elected, and He has placed the prophethood in our midst and to us belong the Book, wisdom and knowledge. The House of God, the hijr of Ismail and the maqam of Abraham belong to us. Hence it is we who are worthy of rule. Woe to you, O Mu'awiyah! We are worthier of Abraham. We are his al, and the al of `Imran have a greater right to `Imran, and the al of Muhammad have a greater right to Muhammad. We are the Ahl al-Bavt from whom God, the Exalted, “has removed all impurity and purified them with a thorough purification” (33:33).

Every apostle has an invitation exclusive to himself and his children and family, and every apostle made a wasiyyah in favour of his family. Don't you know that Abraham made his wasiyyah for Jacob, and when Jacob's death drew near he made wasiyyah to his sons, and Muhammad (S) made his wasiyyah to hisfamily. This was thesunnah of Abraham and other apostles, and Muhammad emulated them with the command of God.

The Book of God was revealed to us and the Apostle of Allah was raised from our midst and the scripture's verses were recited to us. We are the relatives of the Book and we are the witnesses over it; we are the callers who summon to it and we are the ones who establish it. So what saying will you believe after this? O Mu'awiyah! Do you seek a god other than Allah? A scripture other than the Book of God, or a qiblah other than the House of God, the home of Ismail and the station of our father Abraham? Are you after some creed other than the creed of Abraham? Or is it that you seek a king and a sovereign other than God? God has placed this sovereignty and kingdom amongst us.

You have made-manifest your enmity towards us and disclosed you animosity and jealousy. You have openly violated the covenant of God and you distort His signs and you alter the words of God that He said to Abraham: “God has chosen for you this creed” (2:132). Do you turn your back to the creed of Abraham, whereas God, the Exalted, has chosen him in this world and he is among the righteous in the Hereafter? Do you seek a judgment other than the judgment of God or an Imam outside our family? The Imamate belongs to Abraham and his seed, to the believers who follow them and who do not abandon his creed, and he said, “Whoever follows me is mine.” (14:36)

In reply to the Imam, Mu'awiyah is indignant at the Imam's considering himself to be the descendant of all the prophets. He writes: “Not sufficing with the kinship with Muhammad you have claimed kinship with all the prophets.” Then he adds: “You should know that Muhammad was one of the apostles who had been sent to all mankind. He delivered the message of his Lord and beyond that he did not own anything. Now tell us, where is the merit in your relationship? And what is the merit in your right? Where in the Book of God do you find your name mentioned? Where in the Qur'an is mentioned anything about your kingdom, your imamate and your superiority? Yes, we do follow the imams and caliphs who have gone before us, and you too used to follow them.” Then he refers to himself as 'Uthman' as his heir.

In his reply the Imam accuses him of enmity towards the prophets and of the love of his pagan forebears. There he adds:

You should know that we are the family of the Apostle of Allah (S). The unbeliever does not befriend us and the believer does not harbour our enmity in his heart. You have denied the Imamate of Muhammad (S) and you imagine that he is an apostle and not an Imam. This denial leads you to deny the Imamate of all the apostles. But we bear witness that he was an apostle and an Imam. As to your denial of my relationship with the Messenger of Allah and my right, indeed our share and our right is there in the Book of God, and God has mentioned us along with the Apostle in the context of the division [of the spoils of war), where He has said: “Whenever you take any spoils of war, a fifth of it belongs to the Apostle and the kinsmen.” (8:41) And in another place He says, “Give the kindred their right” (30:38). Don't you see that our share has been mentioned along with the share of God and the share of the Apostle and your share has been mentioned along with the outsiders? You deny my Imamate and my authority don’t you see that God, the Exalted, has given us merit over the entire world's people? (3:33). If you can separate us from Abraham (`a), Ismail, Muhammad and the Al of Muhammad in the Book of God, try to do so.68

This letter has been cited by Abu Ishaq al-Thaqafi, the 3rd/9th century Shi'i historian (d. 283/). The doctrine of Imamate as a Divine office is quite evident in this letter of the Imam (a), and the various aspects of the argument on which it is based are quite clear. It’s most significant part is that which asserts a relationship between prophet hood, wasiyyah, and Imamate and affirms them as deriving from an original tradition in the history of the prophets.

Mu'awiyah's denial of the Imamate of the Apostle of God (S) is also a noteworthy point in this correspondence. In any case, Imam Ali ('a) made a great effort ill many of his speeches and sermons to establish the preeminence of the Ahl al-Bayt over others and to establish their Divine right. In asserting such a right he considered it to be an inalienable element of the Imamate, and, naturally, he did not recognize such a right for the other caliphs.

The characteristics of Shi'i thinking are quite evident in many passages narrated from the Imam Ali ('a). In one of his sermons he declares concerning the Ahl al-Bayt ('a):

فَأَيْنَ تَذْهَبُونَ و أَنَّى تُؤْفَكُونَ؟ وَالأَعْلاَمُ قَائِمَةٌ، وَالآيَاتُ وَاضِحَةٌ، وَالْمَنَارُ مَنْصُوبَةٌ، فَأَيْنَ يُتَاهُ بِكُم؟ْ بَلْ كَيْفَ تَعْمَهُونَ وَبَيْنَكُمْ عِتْرَةُ نَبِيِّكُمْ؟ وَهُمْ أَزِمَّةُ الْحَقِّ وَ أَعْلاَمُ الدِّينِ وَأَلْسِنَةُ الصِّدْقِ؟ فأَنْزِلُوهُمْ بِأَحْسَنِ مَنَازِلِ القُرْآنِ، وَرِدُوهُمْ وُرُودَ الْهِيمِ الْعِطَاش

“They have been entrusted with the secret of the Apostle, and whoever takes refuge in them finds the way to the truth. They are the repository of the knowledge of the Apostle and the exponents of the laws of the Shari`ah. The Qur'an and the Sunnah are secure with them, and they, like a high mountain, are the sentinels of the faith. By their means, Islam is kept straight, steady, and stable”.69

In another place he says,

“Where are you going and where are you being led away? The waymarks are established the signs are clear, and the lighthouses stand raised. So where are you being misled and how do you go astray? The Household of your Prophet is in your midst and they are the guardians of the truth, the standards of religion, and the tongues of truthfulness. So place them in the best stations of the Qur'an and turn to them like thirty camels approaching their watering place.”70

In another passage he declares:

نَحنُ شَجَرَةُ النُبُوُّه:، وَ مَحَطَّ الرِسالَةِ، وَ مُخْتَلَفُ الْمَلاَئِكَةِ، وَ مَعادِنَ الْعِلْمِ، وَ يَنَابِيِعُ الحِكَمِ. نَاصِرُنَا وَ مُحِبُّنَا يَنْتَظِرُ الرَّحْمَةَ، وَ عَدُوُّنَا وَ مُبْغِضُنَا يَنْتَظِرُ الْسَطْوَةَ

“We are the tree of prophet hood and the place of descent of Messenger hood, the place of frequenting of angels, the mines of knowledge, and the mainspring of wisdom. Our friend and supporter are hopeful of receiving divine mercy and one who regards us with enmity and hostility awaits Divine vengeance”.71

هُمْ عَيْشُ الْعِلْمِ وَ مَوْتُ الْجَهْلِ. يُخْبِرُكُمْ حِلْمُهُمْ عَنْ عِلْمِهِمْ. وَ ظَاهِرُهُمْ عَنْ بَاطِنِهِمْ وَ صَمْتُهُمْ عَنْ حِكَمِ مَنْطِقِهِمْ. لا يُخَالِفُونَ وَ لاَ يَخْتَلِفُوُنَ فِيْهِ. هُمْ دَعَائِمُ الإِسْلامِ وَ وَلاَئِجُ الْإعْتِصامِ. بِهمْ عَادَ الحَقُّ إلُى نِصابِهِ، وِ اْنْزاحَ الْباطِلُ عَنْ مُقامِهِ، وَ انْقَطَعَ لِسَانُهُ عَنْ مَنْبَتِهِ. عَقَلُوا الدِّينَ عَقْلَ وعَايَةٍ، لا عَقْلَ سَمَاعٍ وَ رِوايَةٍ. فَإِنَّ رُواةَ الْعِلْمِ كَثِيْرٌ وَ رُعاتِهِ قَليلُ

“They (i.e. the Ahl al-Bayt) are life for knowledge and death for ignorance. Their temperance will inform you of their learning, their exterior of their interior, and their silence of the wisdom of their speech. They do not oppose the truth, nor do they disagree regarding it. They are the pillars of Islam and its sanctuaries. Through them the truth is restored to its proper place and falsehood is forced to withdraw froth its position, its tongue being cut off from the root. They have understood the religion through the spirit of understanding and observance, not through audition and narration. Indeed, the narrators of knowledge are many, but few are those who observe it”.72

ألا إنَّ أبرارَ عِتْرَتي و أَطَايِبَ أُرُومَتِي أحلمُ الناسِ صغاراً، و أعلم الناسِ كِباراً. ألا وَ إنَّا أهل بيتٍ مِنْ عِلْمُ اللّهِ عَلِمْنَا، و بِحُكْمِ اللّهِ حَكَمْنَا، و مِنْ قَوْلِ صادقٍ سَمِعْنا فإِن تَتّبِعُوا آثارَنَا تَهْتَدُوا بِبَصائِرِنَا، و إِن لَمْ تفعلوا يُهْلِكُكُمُ اللّه بأيدينا. مَعَنا راية الحقِ، مَن تَبِعَهَا لَحِقَ و مَن تَأَخَرَ عَنْها غَرِقَ

“Indeed, the virtuous of my kindred and the pure ones of my lineage are the wisest of men in their childhood and the most learned of them in their grown up years. Indeed, we belong to a household whose knowledge derives from God's knowledge and whose judgments derive from the judgment of God, and we have heard the speech of the truthful one. So if you follow in our footsteps, you will be guided by our insights, and if you do not do so, God will destroy you at our hands. With us is the banner of the truth: whoever follows it will reach the shore safely, and whoever forsakes it will be drowned”.73

نَحْنُ الشِّعَارُ وَ الْأصْحَابُ، وَ الْخَزَنَةُ وَ الْأبْوابُ. وَ لا تُؤْتَى الْبُيُوتُ إِلَّا مِنْ أَبْوابِهَا فَمَنْ أَتاها مِنْ غَيْرِ أبْوابِهَا سُمِّيَ سَارِقَاً... فِيهِم كَرائِم القُرْآنِ، وَ هُمْ كُنُوزُ الرَّحْمنِ. إِنْ نَطَقُوا صَدَقُوا، وَ إِن صَمَتُوا لَمْ يُسْبَقُوا

“We are the intimate ones, the companions (of the Prophet), the treasures and the doors (of Divine knowledge). Houses may not be entered except through their doors (2:189), and one who enters them from a place other than the door is called a thief . . The Qur'anic verses mentioning noble stations are about them (i.e. the Ahl al-Bayt), and they are the treasurers of the All-beneficent. When they speak, they speak the truth; and when they are silent, no one may get ahead of them.”74

... أَيْنَ الَّذِينَ زَعَمُوا أَنَّهُمُ الرَّاسِخُونَ فِي الْعِلْمِ دُونَنَا، كَذِباً وَ بَغياً عَلَيْنَا أَنْ رَفَعَنَا اللهُ وَ وَضَعَهُم، وَ أَعْطَانا وَ حَرَمَهُمْ، وَ أَدْخَلَنَا وَ أَخْرَجَهُمْ. بِنا يُسْتَعْطَى الهُدَى وَ يُسْتَجْلَى العَمَى... إنَّ الْأَئِمَةَ مِن قُرَيْشٍ غُرِسُوا في هذَا الْبَطْنِ مِنْ هَاشِمٍ.. لا تَصْلُحُ عَلى سِواهُمْ، ولا تُصْلُحُ الوُلاةُ مِنْ غَيْرِهِمْ

“Where are those who falsely and insolently claimed that they are `ones who are firmly rooted in knowledge' (al-rasikhuna fi al-ilm; ref. to 3:7; 4:162) and not we? Because God has raised us in station and kept them low; He has bestowed upon us and deprived them; He has allowed us entry and kept them out. Through us, guidance is sought and blindness is turned into vision... Surely the Imams are from the Quraysh, planted in this lineage in Hashim's descent. Others are not entitled to it (Imamate), noris anyone besides them competent to assume leadership.”75

... لا يُقَاسُ بِآلِ مُحَمَدٍ صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَ آلِهِ مِنْ هذِهِ الأُمَةِ أَحَدٌ وَ لا يُسَوَّى بِهِمْ مَنْ جَرَتْ نِعْمَتُهُمْ عَلَيْهِ أَبَدَاً. هُمْ أَسَاسُ الدِّينِ، وَ عِمَادُ الْيَقِينِ. إِلَيْهِمْ يَفِيءُ الْغَاليِ. وَ بِهِمْ يُلْحَقُ التَّاليِ. وَ لَهُمْ خَصَائِصُ حَقَّ الوِلاَيَةِ، وَ فِيِهِمُ الْوَصِيَّةُ وَ الْوِرَاثَةُ

“No one from this ummah can be compared to the Household of Muhammad, may God's benedictionsbe upon him and his Household and one who benefits from their bounties can never equal them. They are the foundation of the religion and the pillars of certainty. To them the extremist must return and with them must catch up he who lags behind. They possess the prerequisites of the right of wilayah, and to thembelong the wasiyyah and the inheritance.”76

... وَ إنَّما الْأَئِمَةُ قُوَّامُ الله على خًلْقِهِ، وَ عُرَفَاؤُهُ عَلى عِبادِهِ، وَ لا يَدْخُلُ الْجَنَةَ إلَّا مَنْ عَرَفَهُمْ وَ عَرَفُوهُ، وَ لا يَدْخُلُ النَّارَ إلَّا مَنْ أنْكَرُوهُ

“Certainly the Imams are caretakers (quwwam, pl. of qa'im) appointed by God over His creatures, and the dispensers of the knowledge of the Divine to God's servants. None shall enter paradise except one who acknowledges them and is acknowledged by them, and none shall enter Hellfire except one who does not acknowledge them and is not acknowledged by them.”77

أُنْظُرُوا أَهْلَ بَيْتَ نَبِيِّكُمْ فَالْزَمُوا سَمْتَهُم وَ اتَّبِعُوا أَثَرَهُمْ فَلَنْ يُخْرِجُوكُمْ مِنْ هُدىً، وَ لَنْ يُعِيدُكُمْ في رَدىً. فَإِن لَبَدُوا، وَ إِنْ نَهَضُوا فَانْهَضُوا. وَ لاَ تَسْبِقُوهُمْ فَتَضِّلُّوا، وَ لا تَتَأخَّرُوا عَنْهُمْ فَتَهْلِكُوا

“Look at the Ahl at-Bayt of your Prophet and stick to their path. Follow their footsteps, for they will never lead you out of righteousness or land you into destruction. If they stand, you too stand up, and if they rise you also rise up. Do not overtake them, nor fall behind them, for that would destroy you”.78

In these passages, as in his letter cited earlier, the Imam considers the Imamate and the kind of leadership that it signifies as a kind of prophetic inheritance. This inheritance is not one which pertains only to the right of temporal authority, but is also accompanied with wasiyyah, wisdom, inner purity and infallibility.

It is a tradition that the Qur'an attributes to the prophets when it refers to the office that Abraham sought for his progeny and concerning which God declared that His covenant does not include the unjust (2:124). The Qur'an speaks of the prophets as belonging to one another's seed (dhurriyyah), although the concept of being chosen (ijtiba) plays a central role in the matted79

Some of the Sunnis imagine the Shi'i concept of Imamate to mean something of the sort of an ordinary hereditary right, and hence they have accused the Shi'ah of considering Imamate to be hereditary, whereas in the Shi'i conception Imamate derives from designation (nass). This designation acquires its meaning within the framework of a divine conception of inheritance which emanates from the Qur'an itself.

In a letter in which he refers to the dispute with the Quraysh and his insistence on demanding his own right, Imam Ali ('a) writes, “Am I being ambitious when I demand my inheritance and ask for the restoration of the right that God and His Apostle have granted me?”80 In this statement inheritance and right are mentioned side by side.

More important than the passages cited above is the incident which occurred during the first days of his entry into Kufah after the Battle of the Camel. At that time, as mentioned by scores of Sunni sources, Imam Ali ('a) summoned the people of Kufah and the Companions of the Prophet (S) who were accompanying him, to assemble in the mosque of Kufah. There, he asked those who had witnessed the event of Ghadir and heard the declaration made by the Prophet to stand up and bear testimony.

A large number of people, among them twelve Companions who had fought by the Prophet's side at Badr, bore testimony.81 Invoking the witness of the Hadith of Ghadir in a general gathering had no purpose other than to publicly establish his divine right to wilayah.82 The Qur'anic concept of hujjah (lit. proof, testament) also affirms the viewpoint of Imam Ali ('a) concerning wilayah. It is a concept that the Imam applies to the prophets as well as to others who, without being prophets, are assigned by God to guide mankind.

In one of his sermons he says, “At no time has God left His creatures without a messenger, or without making a scripture accessible to them, or without appointing a hujjah over then.”83 Elsewhere he says,

... لا تَخْلُوا الْأَرْضُ مِنْ قَائمٍ للهِ بِحُجَّةٍ، إِمَّا ظَاهِراً مَشْهُوراً أَوْ خَائِفاً مَغْمُوراً، لَئِلَّا تَبْطُلَ حُجَجُ اللهِ وَ بَيِّناتُهُ. وَكَمْ ذَا؟ وَ أَيْنَ أولئِكَ؟ أُولئِكَ وَ اللهِ الأَقَلُّونَ عَدَدَاً وَ الْأَعظَمُونَ عِنْدَ اللهِ قَدْرَاً. يَحْفَظُ اللهُ بِهِمْ حُجَجَهُ وَ بَيِّنَاتِهِ حَتَّى يُودِعُوها نُظَرَاءَهُمْ وَ يَزْرَعُوها في قُلُوبِ أَشْباهِهِمْ. هَجَمَ بِهِمْ العِلْمُ عَلَى حَقيقَةِ الْبَصِيرَةِ، وَ باشَرُوُا رُوحَ الْيَقِينِ. اسْتَلانُوا ما اسْتَعْوَرَهُ الْمُتْرِفُونَ، وَ أَنِسُوا اسْتَوْحَشَ مِنْهُ الْجَاهِلُونَ، وَ صَحِبُوا الدُّنْيِا بِأَبْدانٍ أَرْواحُهَا مُعَلَّقَة بِالْمَحَلِّ الأَعْلَى. أُولئِكَ خُلَفاءِ اللهِ في أَرْضِهِ وَ الدُّعَاةُ إِلى دِيِنِهِ

“The earth is never devoid of someone who is an upholder of God's proof. He is either manifest and well-known, or afraid and concealed, so that God's proofs and His clear signs are not invalidated. How many are they, and where are they? By God, they are few in number, but great in esteem near God. Through them God maintains His testaments and signs, until they entrust them to others like themselves and plant them in the hearts of their likes. Knowledge has led them to the reality of understanding, and they have attained the spirit of certitude. That which is hard upon seekers of comfort comes easy to them. They endear what the ignorant regard with aversion. They live in the world with their bodies, but their spirits are in a higher realm. They are the vicegerents of God in His earth and His callers to His faith.”84

In another instance, in a letter to one of his officers assigned for the collection of zakat, in which the Imam sets forth the manner in which the latter is to approach the people, he writes to him to make the following announcement while approaching the tribes:

عِباد الله! أَرْسَلَنِي وَلِيُ اللهِ وَ خَلِيفَتُهُ لآخُذَ مِنْكُمْ حَقَّ اللهِ في أَمْوالِكُمْ

O creatures of God! The waft of God and His vicegerent has sent me to take from you God's due pertaining to your property.85

The expressions “waliullah” and “khalifatulluh,” applied by the Imam to himself, are entirely Shi`i conceptions.

In any case, the conception of wilayah is one that grew during the caliphate of Imam Ali (`a) and it characterizes the Shi'i viewpoint concerning Imamate.86 In the course of several sermons that he delivered during the period of his caliphate the Imam makes prophesies of future events, which are traditionally known as malahimwa al-fitan. In these statements, the like of which were never heard from any other caliph, he would make prophesies about the future, though of course not as a political analyst.

The attraction of the Imam's personality for the mystics and the sufis had roots in his profoundly pious and ascetic life-style and thinking. It led to a conception of his personality that introduced him as someone who was a perfect instance of the high spiritual station of wilayah. The conception of wilayah as a preeminent spiritual station has roots in the statements and conduct of the Imam himself, who would make declarations from the minbar (pulpit) formally claiming to possess the knowledge of everything and asking the people to question him about anything before the time when he would not be in their midst.87

At the conclusion of the citation of these precedents it would be appropriate to mention an important episode. When `A'ishah was preparing to stage a rebellion against Imam Ali, Umm Salamah, one of the most dignified wife of the Prophet (S), tried to persuade her against carrying out her plans.

Abd Allah ibn Zubayr objected to her and said, “You have been an enemy of the family of Zubayr since past days.” Umm Salamah said to him, “Do you think that the people will follow Talhah and your father while Ali is still in their midst about whom the Messenger of Allah (S) said, “Ali is the wali of every believer, man and woman, after me.” Abd Allah said, “We have not heard any such thing from the Messenger of God.” Umm Salamah said to him, “If you haven't, your aunt, `A’ishah certainly has. I myself heard the Messenger of Allah say:

عليٌ خَلِيفَتي عَليْكُمْ في حَياتِي و مَمَاتِي فَمَنْ عَصَاهُ فَقَدْ عَصَانِي

“Ali is my successor (khalifah) amongst you, in my life and after my death; whoever disobeys him disobeys me.”

`A'ishah too confirmed that she had heard such a statement from the Prophet (S).88

On the basis of what has been mentioned, one may say in explanation of certain statements of Imam Ali (a) in the Nahj al-balaghah which refer to the allegiance of the Muhajirun and the Ansars that the popular principle of caliphal election until that time was the allegiance of the Muhajirun and the Ansars, an allegiance which was also pledged by them to the Imam.

The Imam was forced to take recourse to this principle in defense against the opposition of those who had broken the allegiance they had sworn him (nakithin) and those who had rebelled against him (qasitin). As a result of this argument of the Imam, many people accepted his leadership and went to war against his enemies.

Verses have been narrated from one of the Imam's supporters in affirmation of the validity of his caliphate and the people's commitment to him. Their author compares the covenant that the people made with him to those made with the first two caliphs:

له في رقاب النــاس عهدٌ و ذِمـــةٌ كعهدِ ابي حفصٍ و عهدِ ابي بكرِ

فبايع و لا ترجع على العقبِ كافراً أُعيذُكَ بالله العزيز من الكفر

“The people have made with him a pledge and a covenant,

Like the covenant made with Abu Hafs (i.e. `Umar) and Abu Bakr.

So pledge allegiance to him and do not turn back an apostate,

I exhort you to take refuge its Allah from apostasy”.89

However, the Imam himself did not consider such an approach as the basis of the legitimacy of his Imamate, nor was such a basis subscribed to by his close companions, who considered his Imamate to be something that lay beyond the allegiance of the Muhajirun and the Ansar.

That which is certain is that, as was mentioned earlier, Shi'ism grew in its extent and character during the events that occurred in the aftermath of the assassination of `Uthman and the caliphate of Imam Ali. Earlier, only a few of the Prophet's Companions possessed such a tendency. But for reasons that were mentioned, Shi'ism spread in Iraq. This tendency is called an Alit and Shi'i tendency.

Its weak degree involved the rejection of `Uthman and affirmation of the caliphate of Imam 'Ali ('a), and in its most developed form it meant the affirmation of the Imamate of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib ('a) after the Messenger of God (S) and his superiority over other caliphs. There were as well certain extremist tendencies that emerged during this period about whose exact extent and character there is a difference of opinion.90

Another trend that emerged and grew during this period was the Uthmanid tendencyIt emerged during the events of the Battles of the Camel and Siffin. Although the protagonists of this trend faced a defeat during the Battle of the Camel, but its effects remained in Basrah, and the people of this city were known for their `Uthmanid affiliations.91

Another branch of this trend came to dominate Syria (al-Sham) during the Umayyad era and it came to rule over Iraq. The rule of the Umayyads was an expression of the domination of the `Uthmanid creed. This creed did not acknowledge the legitimacy of the caliphate of Imam Ali (`a), and its argument was that the third caliph was killed by the Imam or at his instigation.

Moreover, it asserted that there was not a general consensus of the people about his caliphate. This belief was prevalent among the `Uthmaniyyah, who were the prototypes of the latter-day Ahl al-Sunnah. During that era, the terms the Shi`ah and the `Uthmaniyyah stood in contrast to one another.

The Uthmaniyyah believed that Mu'awiyah was the next legitimate caliph after 'Uthman. The basis of his legitimacy, as they claimed, was Mu'awiyah's kinship with `Uthman and his claim to be the next of kin in this case of homicide (wali al-dam).92 The two cities of Basrah and Kufah with their `Uthmanid and Shi'i inclinations were considered rival towns.

Another interesting aspect of the Battle of the Camel was the greater prominence acquired by Shi'ism in contrast to the `Uthmanid creed. During the course of the battle, Amr ibn Yathribi, who killed Zayd ibn Suhan, a companion of the Imam, said that he had killed the latter in a state when he was an follower of “the creed of `Ali” (din-i 'Ali). On the other hand, Ammar Yasir, addressing Amr, said these verses during that battle:

لاَ تَبْرَمِ الْعَرْصَةَ يابْنَ الْيَثْرِبِي حَتَّى أقاتلَكَ على ((دِينِ علي ))

نَحنُ وَ بيتُ الله أولى بالنبي

“O Son of Yathribi, I will not leave the field

Until I fight you while I am on the creed of 'Ali.

We and the House of God are nearer to the Prophet.”93

The term “creed of `Uthman” (din-i 'Uthman) emerged in opposition to the term “creed of 'Ali.” A poet belonging to Syria declared concerning the Syrian troops:

ثمانين ألف ((دينُ عثمان)) دينهم كتائب فيها جبرئيل يقودها

“Eighty thousand strong whose creed is the creed of `Uthman,

Squadrons, amongstwhom is Gabriel who leads them on.”94

Another Syrian poet who was at Siffin introduced himself in these words:

أنا ابن ارباب الملوك غسَّان و الدائن اليوم بـــ((دين عثمان ))

“I am a descendant of the lords of the princes of Ghassan,

And today I am a follower of the creed of `Uthman.”95

Rifa'ah ibn Shaadad also declared in a couplet:

أنا ابن شدَّاد على ((ديِنِ عَلي)) لَسْتُ لعثمان بن أروى بِوَلي

“I am the son of Shaddad, on the creed of `Ali,

I am not a friend of `Uthman, son of Arwa.”96

It has also been stated concerning the Syrian troops that they were eighty thousand soldiers who “followed the creed of `Uthman.”97

After the martyrdom of Imam `Ali ('a), the people of Iraq pledged their allegiance to Imam Hasan. Among them were Shi`is who actually had belief in the Imamate of Imam al-Hasan al-Mujtaba ('a) and they swore allegiance to him on that basis. Of course, in these circumstances there existed in general two tendencies, Shi'i and `Uthmanid.

The religious tendency of the people of Kufah was predominantly Shi'i, in the sense that they did not acknowledge `Uthman and affirmed the caliphate of Imam Ali ('a). During the five years of the Imam's rule they had been influenced by him and his companions. They followed the Alid tendency in religion and disdained the 'Uthmanid tenets. Opposition to `Uthman and his ill fame in this city was such since the era of Imam Ali that Jarir ibn Abd Allah al-Bajali said, “I would not stay in a town where they formally denounce `Uthman.”98

To the point that is relevant to the notion of Shi'i Imamate, there is evidence that Imam Ali designated his son as his successor, although the Sunni writers have not referred to it as signifying successor ship.99 In this regard, a tradition has been narrated from the Messenger of God (S) that is cited in many sources. It reports the Prophet (S) as stating:

ألحسن و الحسين إمامانِ، قاما أو قعدا

“Al-Hasan and al-Husayn are two Imams, whether they are active rulers or not”.100

The said tradition is clear evidence that there was a designation in favor of the Imamate of these two brothers. In this regard, there are also historical reports that corroborate the Shi`i viewpoint concerning the Imamate of Imam al-Hasan al-Mujtaba ('a)

Nasr ibn Muzahim reports that during the time of Imam Ali himself Awar al-Shanni said addressing the Imam,

زَاد الله في هُداك و سُرورك، نَظرتَ بنور الله، فَقدَّمْتَ رِجالاً، و أَخَّرْتَ رِجالاً، فَعَليْكَ أن تَقول و علينا أن نَفْعَل، أنتَ ألإمام، فإن هَلَكْتَ فهذان من بَعْدِكَ- يعني حسناً و حسيناً

“May God increase you in guidance andfelicity. You have seen with the light of God, and given preference to some men and set back other men. It is for you to command, and for us to obey. You are an Imam, and if you die, after you the Imamate will lie with these two (i.e. al-Hasan and al-Husayn)”.

Then he said to Imam Ali (a), “Listen to some verses that I have sung:

أبا حَسنِ أنتَ شَمسُ النَّهارِ و هذان في الحادِثاتِ القَمَرْ

أأنت و هذان حتَّى المماتِ بِمنْزلة السَّمع بعد البَصَرْ

و أنتـــم أنــاسٌ لكم سُورةٌ يَقصِّرُ عنها أكفُّ البَـــشـَرِ

يخبِّرنا الناسُ عن فضـــلِكم و فضلُكُم اليوم فوق الخَبـَرْ

“O Abu al-Hasan, you are the resplendent midday sun,

And these two (sons of yours) are like moons in times of crisis.

You and these two, until the last breath, are like our hearing and sight.

You are men of a high station,

Whose heights are beyond the aspirations ofmen.

People inform us concerning your merit,

Yet, your merit today is so great as to lie beyond reporting.”101

Mundhir ibn Jarad is also reported as having said to the Imam in Siffin,

فان تهلك فهذان الحسن و الحسين أئمتنا من بعدك

“If your die, these two, al-Hasan and al-Husayn, will be our imams after you”.102

Thus it becomes clear that since the day of Imam Ali (`a) his companions considered the Imamate as belonging to al-Hasan and al-Husayn after him. We know that after the martyrdom of Imam Hasan, the Shi'is of Kufah sent a message extending their support to Imam Husayn. Abd Allah ibn Abbas also summoned the people to pledge allegiance to Imam Hasan, declaring, “He is the son of your Apostle and the wasi of your Imam. Pledge your allegiance to him.”103

Imam Hasan, too, in a letter to Mu'awiyah wrote, “When my father was about to die, he entrusted this affair (amr) to me.”104 Haytham ibn Adi has narrated from many of his teachers (mashayikh) that they said that Hasan ibn Ali was the wasi of his father.105 Abu al-Aswad Du'ah too, who was in Kufah at the time when allegiance was being sworn to Imam Hasan (`a), said, “He has acquired the wisayah and Imamah from his father.”106 The people are also reported as having said to the Imam, “You are the successor and wasi of your father and we shall obey you.”107

In any case, on the whole it may be conceded that Imam Ali introduced his eldest son as someone whose succession was favoured by him.108 One Friday when the Imam was unwell, he ordered Imam Hasan to lead the prayers.109

Aside from the fact that the Shi`is of Kufah were drawn to Imam Hasan on the basis of their religious sentiments, one must take note of the peculiar Shi'i notions of Ahl al-Bayt and the station of Imamate at this stage. As reported by all the relevant sources, Imam Hasan stated in his first sermon:

أيها الناس، من عرفني فقد عرفني، و من لم يعرفني فأنا الحسن بن محمد- صلَّى الله عليه و آله و سلَّم- أنا ابن البشير، أنا ابن النذير، أنا ابن الدَّاعي إلى الله عزَّ و جلَّ بإذنهِ و أنا ابن السراج المُنير، و أنا مِن أهل البيت الَّذين أذهب الله عنهُم الرِّجْس وَ طَهَّرَهُمْ تَطهيراً، و الَّذينَ إفْتَرَضَ اللهُ مَوَدَّتُهُمْ في كتابه إذ يقول: (مَن يَقْتَرِفْ حَسَنَةً نَّزِدْ لَهُ فِيهَا حُسْنًا) فإقتراف الحسنة مَوَدَّتنا أهل البيت

“Anyone who knows me knows me. And if anyone does not know me, let him know that I am Hasan, son of the Messenger of Allah. I am the son of the bringer of good tidings and the warner. I am the son of him who invited the people to God with His command. I am the son of the shining lamp. I belong to a household from which God has kept of all uncleanliness and filth and He has purified them with a thorough purification-they are the ones loving whom has been made obligatory by God in His Book, where He says, “and anyone who does good We shall increase in his goodness”(42:23). Hence the `good work' is like loving us, the People of the Household”.110

Mas'udi reports part of one of the sermons of Imam Hasan in his history. In it the Imam is reported as declaring:

نحنُ حزبُ اللهِ المفلحون و عترةِ رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله و سلَّم الأقربون وأهل بيته الطاهرون الأطيبون وأحد الثقلين الّذين خلَّفَهما رسول الله صلى الله عليه وآله و سلَّم، و الثاني كتابُ الله الّذي فيه تفصيل كل شيء لا يأتيه الباطل من بين يديه، ولا من خلفه، فأطيعونا، فإنّ طاعتنا مفروضةً إذ كانت بطاعة الله و الرسول و أُلي الأمر مقرونة: (فَإِن تَنَازَعْتُمْ فِي شَيْءٍفَرُدُّوهُ إِلَى اللَّـهِ وَالرَّسُولِ إِن كُنتُمْ تُؤْمِنُونَ بِاللَّـهِ وَالْيَوْمِ الْآخِرِ ذَٰلِكَ خَيْرٌ وَأَحْسَنُ تَأْوِيلًا﴾ (ولو ردّوه إلى الرسول وإلى اولي الأمر منهم لعلمه الّذين يستنبطونه منهم ولو لا فضل الله عليكم ورحمته لاتّبعتم الشيطان إلاّ قليلاً (

“We are the felicitous party of God. We are the kindred of the Messenger of God (S). We are the people of the pure Household, the pure ones, and one of the two precious things (thaqalayn) that the Messenger of God left behind amongst you, the other being the Book of God, into which falsehood cannot enter. So obey us, for obedience to us, as those in authority (uli al-amr), is obligatory, for it is appended to the obedience to God and obedience to the Messenger of God, as the Book of God declares, “If you dispute concerning anything, then rifer it to Allah and His Messenger and those in authority amongst you” (4:59). When there comes to them a matter, be it of security or fear, they broadcast it; if they had referred it to the Messenger and to those in authority among them, those of them whose task is to investigate would have known the matter. (4:83).”111

Hilal ibn Yasaf say, “I was present at the sermon of Imam Hasan ibn Ali when he said, “O people of Kufah, fear God regarding us. We are your leaders and your guests. We are a household concerning whom God has said, `Verily, God wills to keep uncleanliness away from you O people of the house and to purify you with a thorough purification.”112 . It seems that it was after this sermon that Imam Hasan was wounded in an assassination attempt at Sabat.

Similar was the situation during the time of Imam Husayn ('a); that is, a part of the Shi'is were creedal Shi'is, while others consisted of those who preferred the `Alids over other groups and were strongly opposed to those who followed the `Utlunanid faction. It may be said that those who embraced martyrdom with Imam Husayn ('a) at Karbala' were Shi'is who considered the Imamate to be the sole right of Imam 'Ali and his sons. The Imam himself, in several instances, summoned the people to “restore the right to those who were most worthy of it” and to assist him, as the Umayyads had usurped the right that belonged to him.113

In one case, he declared,

أيها الناس أنا ابن بنت رسول الله و نحن أولى بولاية هذه الأمور عليكم من هؤلاء المدعين ما ليس لهم

“O people I am the son of the Messenger of Allah and we have a greater right to govern your affairs than those who claim that which is not their right.”114

In another place, he declared:

و أنا أحقُّ من غيري لقرابتي من رسول الله

“I have a greater right (to the caliphate) than anyone else by virtue of my relationship with the Messenger of Allah.”115

Besides the Imam himself, his companions expressed such a belief on various occasions. Muslim ibn Ziyad declared, “By God, Mu`awiyah is not a rightful caliph, but he has prevailed over the Messenger's successor with his cunning and usurped the caliphate.”116 Abd al-Rahmanibn Abd Allah al Yazani, one of the companions of Imam Husayn at Karbala', declared:

أنا بن عبدالله من آل يزن ديني على دين حسين و حسنْ

“I am son of Abd Allah, from the house of Yazan,

My creed is the creed of Husayn and Hasan.”117

Similarly, Hajjaj ibn Masraq said addressing Imam Husayn:

ثمَّ أباك ذي الندى عليَّاً ذلك الذي نعرفه وصياً

“Thereafter your magnanimous father, 'Ali, He it is whom we know to be the wasi.”118

Hilal ibn Nafi` Bajali declared in a verse:

أنا الغـــلام التممـــي البجــلي ديني على دين حسين و علي

“I am a youth belonging to Ranu Tamim and a Bajali,

My creed is the same as that of Husayn and Ali.”119

`Uthman ibn Abi ibn Abi Talib also delcared in these verses:

إنِّــي أنا عثمان ذو المفاخر شيخي عليٌّ ذو الفعال الطاهر

و ابـن عمّ النَّبــي الطاهـر أخـــو حســـين خيرة الأخائر

و سيد الكبـــار و الاصـاغر بعد الرســول و الوصيِّ الناصر

“Indeed, I am `Uthman, possessor of several honours:

My master is `Ali, man of sublime feats,

I am son of the Prophet's cousin,

And brother of Husayn, the chosen one among the elect,

The chief of the great ones and the humble,

After the Messenger and his wasi and helper”.120

Nafi` ibn Hilal would say,

أنا الجملي أنا على دين علي

“I am a Jamali and I am on the creed of 'Ali.”

In response to him someone from the opposite camp called out:

أنا على دين عثمان

“I am on the creed of `Uthman.”121

In these verses, as well as those which have been narrated from Abbas ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib, one can well discern the Shi`i belief of the Imam's companions, something which possesses doctrinal dimensions and is far different from mere political support and favor.

During the life of Imam Ali ibn al-Husayn ('a) the creedal Shi’as was clearly recognizable. Ibn Ziyad is reported as having told Amr ibn Hurayth, “I do not fear any danger for him (i.e. Yazid) from Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr; rather, I fear for him, from the quarter of the Turabiyyah, the Shi`ah of Abu Turab Ali ibn Abi Talib. `122

During this period, the slogan of the Tawwabin was restoration of the rule of the Household of the Messenger of Allah. `Ubayd Allah ibn Abd Allah, while recounting the preeminence of the Household of the Prophet (S) and the insult which was dealt to them in the events of Karbala', pointed out the way to repentance in these words:

أنا أدعوكم إلى كتاب الله و سنة نبيِّه و الطلب بدماء أهل بيته و إلى جهاد المحلين و المارقين فَإن قُتِلنا فما عند اللهِ خير للأبرار و إن ظهرنا، رددنا هذا ألأمر إلى أهل بيت نبيِّنا

“I summon you to the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the His Prophet, to avenge the blood of his household, and to jihad against those who permit what is unlawful and the renegades. Should we be killed, that which is with is God is better for the virtuous, and should we be victorious we shall restore this affair to the household of our Prophet.”123

The slogan of the Tawwabun was that in case of victory they would restore the Prophet's family's right to rule:

نُرد ألأمر إلى أهل بيت نبيِّنا الذين أتانا من قبلهم بالنِّعمة و الكرامه

“We shall restore the affair to the household of our Prophet, through whom God has blessed us and honored us.”124

By the time of the uprising of Mukhtar, creedal Shi'ism had become not only well established in Kufah, the emergence of the ghulat had become an issue. The criticism of Kufan nobility against the Shi'ism of Mukhtar and his supporters was that they showed disaffection towards “the righteous predecessors” (aslafuna al-salihin)125 .Probably what they meant was the Shiis' condemnation of many Companions of the Prophet (S) for their deviant actions.

Imam Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Sajjad ('a) in his supplications presents creedal Shi`ism in quite distinct and clear terms. In his supplications there is hardly any which does not invoke blessings on 'Muhammad and the Household of Muhammad.' The employment of this expression clearly indicates its connotations. One finds such expressions as:

محمد و آلهِ الطيبين الطاهرين ألأخيار ألأنجبين

“Muhammad and his Household, the pure ones and the good ones, the elect and the chosen,

Repeatedly in his supplications.” 126

The Imam's emphasis on mentioning the Prophet's progeny by the side of the Prophet's' name, in accordance with the command of God to invoke blessings upon the Prophet (S), has a great importance for the expression of Shi'i belief. Before citing some of the relevant statements from the Imam's supplications, it would be proper to mention a narration concerning the affirmation of the linkage between the Prophet and his Household. The Imam would say,

إن الله فرضَ على العالم الصَّلاة على رسول الله، صلَّى الله عليه و آله و سلم، و قرننا به فمن صلَّى على رسول الله، صلَّى الله عليه و آله و سلم،و لم يُصلِّي علينا لقي الله تعالى و قد بتر الصلاة عليه و ترك أوامره

“God has made it obligatory upon the whole world to invoke blessings upon the Prophet (S), and He has united us with him. Someone who invokes blessings upon the Prophet (S) but does not invoke blessings upon us, his invocation of blessings is deficient and incomplete and such a one has forsaken God's commands.”127

The raising of the issue of Imamate in the supplications of Imam Sajjad (`a) is a clear instance of the explication the Sht'j concept of Imamate in supplications. In them the concept of Imamate, aside from the aspect of worthiness for caliphate and leadership, is projected in its most sublime form as a divine office held by the infallible Imams as heirs to the knowledge of the prophets, especially that of the Noble Messenger (S). Here we will mention some of such statements from the supplications. In some of them, Imam Sajjad ('a) declares:

رَبِّ صَلِّ عَلى أطايِبِ أَهْلِ بَيْتِهِ الَّذِيِنَ اْخْتَرْتَهُمْ لِأَمْرِكَ، وَ جَعَلْتَهُمْ خَزَنَةَ عِلْمِكَ، و حَفَظَةَ ديْنِكَ، وَ خُلَفائَكَ في أَرْضِكَ، وَ حُجَجَكَ عَلى عِبادِكَ، وَ طَهَّرْتَهُمْ مِنَ الرِّجْسِ وَ الدَّنَسِ تَطْهيراً بِإِرادَتِكَ، وَ جَعَلْتَهُمُ الوَسيْلَةَ إلَيْكَ، وَ الْمَسْلَكَ إلى جَنَّتِكَ

“My Lord, bless the best of his (i.e. the Prophet's) Household, those whom Thou hast chosen for Thy affair, appointed the treasurers of Thy knowledge, the guardians of Thy religion, Thy vicegerents in thy earth, and Thy arguments against Thy servants, purified from uncleanliness and defilement with a thorough purification by Thy desire, and made the mediation to Thee and the road to Thy paradise.”128

اللَّهُمَّ إنَّ هذا الْمَقامَ لِخُلَفائِكَ وَ أَصْفِيائِكَ وَ مَواضِعَ أُمَنائِكَ فِي الدَّرَجَةِ الرَّفِيعَةِ الَّتي اخْتَصَصْتَهُم بِها قَدْ ابْتَزُّوها... حَتَّى عادَ صَفْوَتُكَ وَ خُلَفائِكَ مَغْلُوبينَ، مَقْهُورينَ مُبْتَزِّينَ

“O God, this station belongs to Thy vicegerents, Thy chosen, while the places of Thy trusted ones in the elevated degree which Thou hast singled out for them have been forcibly stripped! [But Thou art the Ordainer of that Thy command is not overcome, the inevitable in Thy governing is not overstepped! However Thou willest and whenever Thou willest! In that which Thou knowest best, Thou art not accused for Thy creation or Thy will!] Then Thy selected friends, Thy vicegerents, were overcome, vanquished, forcibly stripped; [they see Thy decree replaced, Thy Book discarded, Thy obligation distorted from the aims of Thy laws, and the Sunnah of Thy Prophet abandoned!] O God, curse their enemies among those of old and the later folk, and all those pleased with their acts, and their adherents and followers.”129

وَ صَلِّ عَلى خِيْرَتِكَ اللَّهُمَ مِنْ خَلْقِكَ مُحَمَّدٍ وَ عِتْرَتِهِ الصَّفْوَةِ مِنْ بَرِيَّتِكَ الطَّاهِرِينَ وَ اجْعَلْنا لَهُمْ سامِعِينَ وَ مُطِعينَ كَما أَمَرْتَ

“And bless Thy chosen, O God, from Thy creation, Muhammad and his descendants, the friends selected from among Thy creatures, the pure, and make its listeners to them and obeyers, as Thou have commanded.”130

أَللَّهُمَّ إِنَّكَ أَيَّدْتَ دينَكَ فى كُلِّ أَوانٍ بِإِمامٍ أَقَمْتَهُ عَلَمَاً لِعِبادِكَ وَ مَناراً فى بِلادِكَ بَعْدَ أَنْ وَصَلْتَ حَبْلَهُ بِحَبْلِكَ وَ جَعَلْتَهُ الذَّرِيعَهَ إلى رِضْوانِكَ وَ افْتَرَضْتَ طاعَتَهُ وَ حَذَّرْتَ مَعْصِيَتَهُ وَ أَمَرْتَ بِإمْتِثالِ أوامِرِهِ وَ الْإنْتِهاءِ عِنْدَ نَهيِهِ وَ اَلَّا يَتَقَدَّمَهُ مُتَقَدِّمٌ وَ لا يَتَأَخَّرَ عَنْهٌ مُتَأَخِّرَ فَهْوَ عِصْمَةٌ لِلَّائِذِينَ وَ كَهْفُ المُؤمِنينَ وَ عُرْوَةُ المُتَمَّسِّكينَ وَ بَهاءُ العالَمينَ

“O God, surely Thou hast confirmed Thy religion in all times with an Imam whom Thou hast set up as a guidepost to Thy servants and .lighthouse in Thy lands, after his cord has been joined to Thy cord! Thou hast appointed him the means to Thy good pleasure, made obeying him obligatory, cautioned against disobeying him, and commanded following his commands, abandoning his prohibitions, and that no forward-goer go ahead of him or back-keeper keep back from him! So he is the sanctuary of the shelter-seekers, the cave of the faithful, the handhold of the adherents, and the radiance of the worlds.”131

وَ أَقِمْ بِهِ كِتابَكَ وَ حُدُدَكَ وَ شَرائِعَكَ وَ سُنَنَ رَسُولِكَ صَلَواتُكَ الَّلهمَ عَلَيْهِ وَ آلِهِ وَ أَحْيي بِهِ ما أَماتَهُ الظالِمُونَ مِنْ مَعالِمِ دِيْنِكَ وَ اْجْلُ بِهِ صَداَءَ الْجَوْرِ عَنْ طَريقَتِكَ، وَ أَبِنْ بِهِ الضَّرَّاءَ مِنْ سَبِيلِكَ، وَ أَزِلْ بِهِ النَّاكِبِين عَنْ صِراطِكَ وَ اْمْحُقْ بِهِ بُغاةَ قَصْدِكَ عِوَجاً... و اْجْعَلْنا لَهُ سامِعين

“Through him, establish Thy book, Thy bounds, Thy laws, and the norms of Thy Messenger's sunnah (Thy blessing, O God be upon him and his Household), revive the guideposts of Thy religion, deadened by the wrongdoers, burnish the rust of injustice from Thy way, sift the adversity from Thy road, eliminate those who deviate from Thy path, and erase those who seek crookedness in Thy straightness! Make him mild toward Thy friends, stretch forth his hand over Thy enemies, give us his clemency, his mercy, his tenderness, his sympathy, and make us his hearers and obeyers, strivers toward his good pleasure, assistants in helping him and defending him, and brought near through that to Thee and Thy Messenger (Thy blessings, O God', be upon him and his Household).”132

From the passages that have been cited, it becomes clear that the Imam was intent on propagating the Shi'i belief in Imamate as the most important of Shi'i conceptions. Similar statements concerning the high station of the Ahl al-Bayt are found in Imam Ali's statements in the Nahj al-balaghah.

The original Shi'i doctrine and beliefs that were prevalent among the generality of the Shi`ah were inspired by teachings whose groundwork was laid by the Imams. In the period under discussion, Imam Muhammad Baqir ('a) and Imam Jafar al-Sadiq ('a) were exponents of this original tendency.

The followers of Imam Muhammad Baqir consisted of a large number of narrators of traditions whose names are collected in Shi'i works of rijal such as the Rijal of Shaykh Tusi.133 . One of the implications of the belief in the divine office of the Imamate was that only the traditions narrated through the Imams were to be considered as reliable in matters of law and Shari'ah.In other words, the Imams employed all their efforts to introduce the Ahl al-Bayt as the sole authority to lead the people in religious and political life.

The notion of obligatory obedience to the Imam was central to this outlook and it implied the necessity of referring to the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt in all affairs as set forth in the statements of the Imams from Imam M onwards. Earlier we have reviewed the statements of Imam Ali ('a) regarding the station of the Ahl al-Bayt.

Towards the end of the first century and the beginning of the second, when Imam Muhammad al-Baqir and ImamJa` far al-Sadiq assumed the leadership of the Shi'ah, there emerged various creeds and sects each of which claimed the leadership of Muslims. Most of them acknowledged the political authority of the ruling caliphs so as to secure the people's religious leadership for themselves. But the Shi'i Imams in their statements stressed the principle, which is also mentioned in the hadith al-Thaqalayn, a famous tradition of the prophet that the only valid source of the Shari 'ah were the Qur'an and the Ahl al-Bayt.

In the statements of Imam Baqir ('a) there are many instances in which the people are summoned to acquire their religious teachings from the Ahl al-Bayt as the sole source of authentic Sunnah and hadith. In a tradition it is reported that Imam Baqir ('a) said to Salamah ibn Kuhayl and Hakam ibn `Uyaynah:

شرقاً أو غرباً فلا تجدان علماً صحيحاً إلا شيئاً خرج من عندنا

“You will not find in the east or the west any sound piece of knowledge except that which is drawn from us”.134

In another statement referring to al-Hasan al-Basri, who was a well-known scholar of those times, the Imam said:

فَلْيَذْهَبِ الْحَسن- يعني البصري- يميناً و شمالاً فوالله ما يوجد العلم إلا هاهنا

“Let Hasan go wherever he may, by God, he would not find knowledge anywhere except here.”135

In another tradition it is stated:

فَلْيَذْهَبِ الناس حيث شاءوا، فوالله ليس الأمرُ إلا من هاهنا

“Let they people go wherever they may want, but, by God, the affair lies nowhere but here (i.e. his house).”136

These statements expressly call upon the people to consider the Ahl al-Bayt as the sole authority on religious teachings. The acceptance of such summons meant the acceptance of Shi`ism. In another statement Imam Muhammad Baqir declares:

آل محمد أبواب الله و الدعاة إلى الجنَّة و القادَة اليها

“The Household of Muhammadare the doors leading to Allah, who call the people to paradise and lead them towards it.”137

In another tradition he states:

كل شيءٍ لم يخرج من هذا البيت فهو وبالٌ

“Everything that does not derive from this house is disastrous.”138

Our purpose behind citing these statements is to make clear the decisive role that they played in the development of Shi`ism from a historical point of view.

Similarly in another statement Imam Muhammad Baqir is reported to have declared:

أيها الناس! أين تذهبون و أين يراد بكم؟ بنا هدى الله أوَّلكم و بنا ختم آخركم

“O people, where are you going, and where are you being led away? It is through us that God guided the first of you and it will be through us that the last one of you will be guided.”139

When Hashim, the Umayyad ruler, came to Madinah, among things that the Imam said to him was the following:

ألحمدُ لله الذي بعثَ محمداً بالحق نبياً و أكرمنا به، فنحنُ صفوة الله على خلقه و خيرَته على عباده و خلفاءه، فالسعيد من اْتَّبَعَنا و الشَّقي من عادانا و خالفنا

“All praise belongs to God who sent Muhammad with the truth as the prophet, and honoured us through him. We are those whom God has elected over His creatures and chosen over His servants and (we are) His vicegerents. The felicitous are those who follow us and the wretched are those who oppose us and are hostile to us.”140

It was on account of these statements that Hisham summoned the Imam to Syria. In the traditions of Imam Sadiq ('a) too one finds a large number of statements which introduce the Ahl al-Bayt and their traditions as the sole means of guidance. In one of them the Imam declares:

أيَّتُها العصابة! عليكم بآثار رسول الله، صلى الله عليه و آله، و سنَّته و آثار الأئمة الهُداةِ من أهل بيت رسول الله

“O people! Take care to follow the legacy of the Apostle of Allah (S) and his Sunnah and the legacy of the Imams of guidance from the Household of the Apostle of Allah (S).”141

In another statement addressing Yunus ibn Dabyan, the Imam says:

يا يونس! إن أردت العلم الصحيح فعندنا أهل البيت فإنّا ورثنا و اوتينا شرع الحكمة و فصل الخطاب

“O Yunus, if you seek authentic knowledge, it is with us, the people of the Prophet's household, for we have inherited it and have been bestowed with the canon of wisdom as well as conclusive judgment.”142

Imam Sadiq declares in another tradition:

إن عندنا ما لا نحتاج معه الى الناس و إنَّ الناس ليحتاجون الينا و إنَّ عندنا كتاباً بإملاءِ رسول اللهِ و خطُ عليٍ، صحيفة فيها كل حلال و حرام

“Verily, in our possession is that by virtue of which we do not stand in need of the people and the people stand in need of us. Verily, in our possession is a book (sahifah) dictated by the Apostle of Allah and in the handwriting of Ali, in which is mentioned everything pertaining to what is lawful and unlawful.”143

These statements reiterate what Imam Ali used to declare in his sermons addressed to the people of Kufah:

أهل الكوفة! سلونا عما قال الله و رسوله، فإنّا أهل البيت أعلم بما قال الله و رسوله

“O people of Kufah! Question us concerning what Allah and His Apostle have said, for we, the people of the Prophet's household, know better than anyone what Allah and His Apostle have said”.144

These citations indicate that from a historical point of view there existed a consistent religious drive that was pursued by the Imams of the Prophet's family which introduced the Ahl al-Bayt as the hub of the religious life of Muslims.

Here it is necessary to point out that due to the existence of taqiyyah (secrecy) during the larger part of the lives of Imam Baqir and Imam Sadiq, on account of hostile regimes as well as the harassment of the common people, there arose several difficulties for the Shi'ah which will pointed out in the discussion on the so-called extremist Shi'is (ghulat), problems which were faced by the Imams themselves due to the particular political circumstances of the times, which cannot be elaborated here.

The campaign to propagate the religious authority of the Ahl al-Bayt also faced problems arising from the emergence of claimants from among those who had family ties with the Imams and the Banu Hashim, who rose in opposition to the pious and learned Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt and created difficulties for them. Conflicting factions within the Alids opened the way for the spread of this deviation, leading to schism within the ranks of the Shi'ah on the one hand and, on the other, to separation of certain groups from the true Imams.

In this discussion concerning creedal Shi'ism one must also mention those who do not form a part of the Imami Shi'ah despite absence of belief in the legitimacy of the first two caliphs and faith in the Imam’s obedience to whom is obligatory. Among them is the sect of the Kaysaniyyah, who will be discussed ii the next section on ghuluww. At times, the ghuluww tendency was of such a character as to place the doctrines of a sect not only beyond the frontiers of Shi'ism but beyond the pale of Islam as well.

To be continued-insha' Allah…

Notes

1. It goes without mentioning that the expression “Shi'ah of Ali” occurs in some traditions of the Prophet (S).

2. M-Ya'qubi, Ta'rikh, vol. 1, p. 228.

3. Muqaddimah fi ta'rikh al-Islam, p. 48.

4. Masail al-Imamah, pp. 16-17; see also Murji'ah, ta'rikh wa andisheh, pp. 19-26; al-Zinah, p. 273; al-Tabari, Ta'rikh, vol. 5, pp. 57-58

5. Masail al-Imamah, p. 16

6. Khallal, al-Sunnah, p. 380.

7. Ibid., p. 381.

8. Ibid.., p. 393.

9. Ibid., p. 394.

10. Masa'il al-Imamah, pp. 65-66.

11. Khallal, al-Sunnah, pp. 398, 404; see also pp. 384, 396, 401-403

12. Ibid., pp. 404, 410.

13. Ibid., pp. 224-226.

14. Ibid., p. 421 (footnote).

15. Ibid., pp. 447

16. Ibid., pp. 489.

17. Ibid., pp. 492.

18. Ibn Abi `Asim, al-Sunnah, p. 460.

19. Al-Dhahabi Mizan al-i'tiddl, vol 2, p. 18.

20. Rijal al-Najashi, p. 297, no. 807

21. Mizan al-I'tidal, vol. 1, p. 432. Yahya ibn Main defines khashabi in these words:

خشبي ينسبون ألى زيد بن علي لما صلب عليها

“The Khashabis are those attributed to the planks of wood [khashabah] on which Zayd ibn Ali was crucified.”

22. Lisan al-mizan, vol 6, p. 249.

23. Mizan al-I'tidal, vol 3, p. 552.

24. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 6; Dhahabi is mistaken concerning the takfir.

25. Al-Ma'rifahwa al-ta'rikh, vol 2, p. 806.

26. Yahya ibn Main, Ta'rikh, vol 3, p. 394.

27. Ibn Faqih Hamadaani, Akhbar al-buldan, p. 30.

28. Basa'ir al-darajat, pp. 76-77.

29. Ibu Abd al-Barr, al-Intifa', p. 13; Ta'rikh at-madahib al-Islamiyyah, p. 361.

30. Rijal e-Najashi, p. 177.

31. Tafsir al-Imam al-'Askari ('a), p. 316, no. 161.

32. Ta'liqah Amal al-'amil, pp. 239. 240.

33. Diwan al-Imam al-Shafi'i, p. 38.

34. Ibid., p. 74.

35. Zafarat al-thaqalayn, vol 1, p. 291 (from Rashfat al-sadi, p. 24, 'Abaqat al-anwar, the part on “Hadith al-'Thaqalayn,” pp. 51, 911).

36. Diwan al-Imam al-Shafi'i, p. 57.

37. Zafarat al-thaqalayn, vol 1, p. 291 (from Mi'raj al-wusul fi ma'rifat Al al-Rasul, MS; Yanabi' al-muwaddah, vol. 2, p. 356; Ibn Shahr Ashub, al-Manaqib, vo1 3, p. 269; Fara'id al-simtayn, vol 2, p. 266).

38. Naqd, p. 218.

39. Rijal al-Najashi, p. 12.

40. Al-Mi'yarwa al-muwazanah, p. 51.

41. Al-Idah, p. 88; Ibn Abi al-Hadid, Sharh Nahj al balaghah, vol 12, p. 53.

42. At- Wafidat min al-nisa 'ala Muawiyah, p. 41.

43. Al-Tabari, Tarikh, vol 5, p. 64; Ansab al-ashraf, vol 2, 348.

44. Al-Mi'yarwa al-muwazanah, p. 194.

45. Nathr al-durar, vol 2, p. 77; Tarikh al-Ya'qubi, vol 2, p. 171.

46. Ansab al-ashraf vol 2, p. 118.

47. Ta'rikh al-Ya'qubi, vol. 2, p. 173.

48. Ansaab al-ashraf vol. 2, p. 183.

49. Ibn Majah, Sunan, vol. 2, p. 1270, No. 3862.

50. Al-Muwafaqiyat, p. 312; Dhakha'ir al-'uqba, p. 95.

51. Kitab al-zinah, p. 259.

52. Al-Wafidat, p. 24.

53. Ibid., p. 29; Balaghat al-nisa', p. 67; Ta'rikh Dimashq, “tarajim al-nisa',” p. 531.

54. Waq'at Siffin, pp. 18, 23, 24, 46, 381, 385, 416, 436; Sharh Nahj al-balaghah, vol. 1, pp. 143-150; Mukhtasar Ta'rikh Dimashq, vol. 11, p. 229; al-Fusul al-mukhtarah, pp. 217-218; sec also Nahj al-sabaghah, vol. 3, pp. 55-57; Ansab al-ashraf vol 2, p. 246; al-Futah, vol 2, p. 484, vol 3, pp. 246, 270.

55. Tarikh al-Ya'qubi, vol. 2, p. 179.

56. Al-Futuh, vol. 3, p. 226

57. Ibn Abi al-Dunya, Maqtal 'Ali ibn Abi Talib ('a), in the journal Turathuna, no. 12, p. 126.

58. See al-Ghadir, vol 2, pp. 25, 34, 78, which cites it from various sources; al-Muqni' fi al-Imamah, pp. 75-76 and the footnote, where are cited various sources. In Ta'rikh al-Ya'qubi, vol 2, p. 128, and al-Muqni', p. 233 and other sources this couplet is narrated from Hassan ibn Thabit:

حفظتَ رسول الله فينا و عهدَه إليكَ و من أولى به منك، مَنْ و مَنْ

ألستَ أخاهُ في الإخاءِ و وصيِّهُ و أعْلم فِهْرٍ بالكتاب و بالسُنن

“You have fulfilled the Apostle of Allah's instructions concerning us and the covenant he had made with you. And who is more closely related to him than you. Who? Who?

Are you not his brother and his wasi, and the most learned in the Scripture and the laws?”

59. Diwan Abu al-Aswad al-Duali, pp. 153, 293.

60. Al-Ghadir, vol 2, p. 48.

61. Ibid., vol 2, p. 34.

62. Ibn Abi al-Hadid, Sharh Nahj al-baldghah, vol 1, pp. 143, 149.

63. Ibid., vol 1, p. 145.

64. Al-Ghadir, p. 123.

65. Waq'at Siffin, pp. 118-119; for several instances of the use of the term wisayah see Maalim al-madrasatayn, vol. 1, pp. 295, 328.

66. Al-Muqni' fi al-imamah, p. 125, for other verse on this topic seeibid., pp. 126-127.

67. Al-Ghadir, vol. 2, p. 25, from Nahj al-balaghah, vol 2, p. 377, Tadhkirat al-khawass, p. 62, 62 and other sources.

68. Al-Ghadir, pp. 67-71, Jala al-Din Urumawi' s edition vol 1, pp. 195-204.

69. Al-Zamakhshari, Rabi' al-abrar, iii, 536.

70. Nahj al-balaghah, sermon 87.

71. Ibid. sermon 109

72. Ibid. sermon 239

73. Nathr al-durr, i 272; 'Uyun al-akhbar, ii, 236; al-'Iqd al farid (Dar al-l-Kutub al-`Ilmiyyah),iv , 157; Ibn Abi al-Hadid, Sharh Nahj al-balaghah, i, 276; al-Jahiz, al-Bayan um al-tabyin, ii, 52.

74. Nah al-balaghah, sermon 154

75. Nahj al-balaghah, sermon 144.

76. Nahj al-balaghah, sermon 2.

77. Nahj al-balaghah, sermon 152.

78. Nahj al-balaghah, sermon 97.

79. See, for instance, verses 6:84-87; 4:38; 19:58; 29:27; 57:26.

80. Al Thaqafi, al-Gharat, p. 111

81. Allamah Amini, al-Ghadir, i, 66 from numerous Sunni sources; see also al-Baladhuri, Ansab al-ashraf, ii, 156

82. In the Battle of the Camel, the Imam invoked the testimony of the Hadith Ghadir in his confrontation withTalhah, see Mukhtasar Ta'rikh Dimashq, ii, 204

83. Nahj al-balaghah, sermon 1

84. Ibid., short sayings 147.

85. Ibid., letter 25

86. According to Shi'i belief, this notion already existed during the lifetime of the Prophet (S).

87. See Mahmudi, Nahj al-sa'adah fi mustadrak Nahj al-ballaghah, ii, 314,

88. Ibn Atham al-Kufi, al-Futuh, ii, 282-283.

89. Nasr ibn Muzahim, Waq'at Siffin, p. 46.

90. See Ibn Abi al-Dunya, Maqtal al-Imam Amir al-Mu'minin ('a), 92

91. It has been said concerning Basrah that “It is a piece of Syria (al-Sham) in our midst,” (qit'atun min ash-Sham nazalat baynana), see Ibn Sad, al-Tabaqat al-kubra,vi , 333.

92. Al-Gharat, p. 70.

93. Al-Shaykh al-Mufid, al-Jamal, p. 346

94. Waqa'at Siffin, p. 556

95. Ta'rikh al-Tabari, v, 43.

96. Ansab al-ashraf, v, 232.

97. See Mukhtasar Ta'rikh Dimashq, viii, 52.

98. Ibid.,vi , 30, vii, 282.

99. Ibn Abi al-Dunya has cited a report to the effect that Ali ibn Abi Talib ('a) did not designate a successor; see Maqtal al-Imam Amir al-Mu'minin ('a), 61

100. Al-Tabrisi, Majma' al-bayan, ii, 403; al-Irbili, Kashf al-ghummah, ii, 159; al-Mufid, al-Irshad, 220.

101. Waqa'at Siffin, pp. 424-425; al-Tabaqat al-kubra, iii, 34

102. Al-Futuh, iii, 147.

103. Al-Irshad, ii, 8; in the text cited in Ibn Abi al-Hadid, Sharh Nahj al-balaghah, xvi, 30-31 and Maqatil al-Talibiyyin, 33, the word wasi does not occur

104. Al-Futuh,iv , 151. In the Maqatil al-Talibiyyin, 36, and Sharh Nahj al-balaghah, xvi, 24 the wording is as follows: “wallani al-Muslimuna al-amr min ba'dihi” The difference between the two versions is quite evident.

105. Al-'Iqd al farid, iv, 474

106. Al-Aghani, xi, 116.

107. Bihar al-anwar,xl , 43.

108. See al-Murtada al-Amili, al-Hayat al-siyasiyyah li al-Imam al-Hasan ('a), 48-49.

109. Al-Mas`udi, Muruj al-dhahab, ii, 431.

110. Maqatil al-Talibiyyin, 33; Sharh Nahj al-balaghah, xvi, 30-31; Ibn Sa'd, Tarjumah al-Imam al-Hasan, 167; Ansab al-ashraf, iii, 28; Hayat al-Sahabah, iii, 526-527.

111. Muruj al-dhahab, ii, 432; this is a reference to verse 4:83.

112. Ibn Sad, Tarjumah al-Imam al-Hasan, 167

113. Ansab al-ashraf, iii, 170; al-Futuh, v, 135.

114. Al-Futuh, v, 135.

115. Ibid., v, 144-145.

116. Ibid., v, 98.

117. Ibid., v, 194.

118. Ibid., v, 199.

119. Ibid., v, 201.

120. Ibid., v, 206.

121. Ta'rikh al-Tabari,iv , 331, 336.

122. Al-Futuh, v, 268-269.

123. Ta'rikh al-Tabari,iv , 433.

124. Ta'rikh al-Tabari, iv, 464; Ansab al-ashraf, v, 210; Miskawayh, Tajarib al-umam, ii, 109; the wording cited by Ibn Atham, al-Futuh, vi, 82, is as follows: “halumma ila ta'at Ahl al-Bayt al-nubuwwah.”

125. Ta'rikh al-Tabari,iv , 518.

126. Al-Sahifah al-Sajjadiyyah, supplication 6, verse 24.

127. Ta'rikh Jurjan, p. 188.

128. Al-Sahifah al-Sajjddiyyah, supplication 47, verse 56.

129. Ibid., supplication 48, verses 9-10.

130. Ibid., supplication 34, verse 5.

131. Ibid., supplication 47, verse 61.

132. Ibid., supplication 47, verses 63-64.

133. Al-Shaykh al-Tusi, al-Rijal, pp. 102-142.

134. Al-Shaykh al-Tusi, Rijal a-Kashshi, 209-210; al-Kulayni, al-Kafi, i, 309 al-Saffar, Basa'ir al-darajat, 9.

135. Al-Kafi, i, 51, al-Hurr al-`Amili, Wasa'il al-Shi'ah, xviii, 42

136. Al-Kafi, i, 399; Basa'ir al-darajat, 12.

137. Al-Ayyashi, Tafsir, i, 86;Wasa'il al-Shi'ah, xviii, 9.

138. Allamah Tabatabai, al-Mizan, iii, 176 from al-Kafi.

139. ` Al-Kafi, i, 478.

140. Al-Tabari, Dala'il al-Imamah,104 , Bihar al-Anwar, xlvi, 306

141. Wasa'il al-Shi'ah, xviii, 23, 61

142. Ibid., xviii, 48

143. Al-Kafi, i, 241

144. Al-Marifahwa al ta'arikh, ii, 759