Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

NOTES

INTRODUCTION

1 In this thesis, I hardly ever use the term Shi‘a and when it is used it refers to its generic meaning namely partition. I use the term Shi‘ism to denote the denomination as opposed to Sunnism. The term Shi‘i is used both as adjective and noun. As noun, Shi‘i means an adherent of Shi‘ism and an addition of ‘s’ is used for its plural form and its compound noun.

2 Kohlberg (1987)

3 Kohlberg (1987:41)

4 See collections of articles edited by Kramer (1987)

5 Esposito (1990) and Menashri (1990)

6 Nakash (1994)

7 Kramer (1987:2)

8 Hamka (1974)

9 Azra (1992, 1995)

10 Fatimi (1963)

11 Jamil quoted in Hasyimi (1983) and Azra (1995)

12 Hasyimi (1983)

13 Azmi (1981)

14 Aceh (1977, 1985)

15 Sunyoto (n.d)

16 Aceh (1977:31, 1985:21)

17 Kern (2001:85)

18 Fatimi (1963:47-53)

19 Fatimi (1963:53-55)

20 Azmi (1981:198)

21 Azmi (1981:198)

22 Azmi (1981:199-200), Hasjmi (1983:45-47)

23 Sunyoto (n.d:27-29)

24 The names of the Nine Saints are often said to be Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Sunan Ampel, Sunan Bonang, Sunan Derajat, Sunan Giri, Sunan Kudus, Sunan Muria, Sunan Kalijaga, and Sunan Gunung Jati (Zuhri 1981:247-352). Many studies such as Salam (1960), Sunyoto (n.d.), Fox (1991), and Van Dijk (1998) have been devoted to the role of Wali Sanga in the propagation of Islam in Java.

25 Sunyoto (n.d:105-108)

26 Mansur al-Hallaj was a famous Persian Sufi, teacher and writer of Sufism who was executed in Baghdad in 922 for famously saying ‘Ana al-Haqq’ namely ‘I am the Truth’.

27 Muhaimin (1995:176)

28 Rachman (1997:56-57)

29 On ‘ashura commemoration by the Shi‘is in Indonesia today, see Chapter Three.

30 In the broad sense, tabut (or tabot) in Bengkulu and Pariaman refers to the tradition surrounding the commemoration of the martyrdom of Husayn, the Prophet Muhammad’s grandson. The annual observance takes place from the first to the tenth of Muharram. In the narrow sense, it refers to the decorated cenotaphs carried in procession during the observance.

31 Snouck Hurgronje (1906:202-207)

32 Djajadiningrat (1958:380)

33 Kartomi (1986)

34 Feener (1999a)

35 Kartomi (1986:141)

36 Snouck Hurgronje (1906:205)

37 Aceh (1985:33)

38 Kartomi (1986:159)

39 Muhammad bin al-Hanafiyya is a son of Ali by a Hanafi woman and regarded by Mukhtar bin Abu Ubaid al-Thaqafi, the initiator of Kaysaniyya sect, as the person said to have taught that the imamate was transferred from Husayn bin Ali to Muhammad bin al-Hanafiyya. After the death of Muhammad bin al-Hanafiyya, the Kaysaniyya split into a number of groups. For this Shi‘i sect, see Momen (1985:47-49).

40 Brakel (1975:58)

41 Brakel (1975:60)

42 The seventeen Malay stories that she studies include Hikayat Nur Muhammad, Hikayat Bulan Berbelah, Hikayat Raja Khaibar, Hikayat Pendeta Raghib, Hikayat Muhammad Hanafiyah, Hikayat Ali Kawin, Hikayat Fatimah Berkata dengan Pedang Ali, Hikayat Nabi Mengajar Ali, Hikayat Nabi Mengajar Anaknya Fatimah, Cerita Tabut, Hikayat Amirul Mukminin Umar, Hikayat Raja Khandak, Bustanussalatin, Hikayat Nabi Bercukur, Hikayat Nabi Wafat and Hikayat Abusamah (Baried 1976:63-65).

43 Baried (1976:65)

44 Baried (1976:65)

45 Wieringa (1996:106)

46 Wieringa (1996:107)

47 Aceh (1985:35)

48 Al-Baqir (1986)

49 Al-Attas (1999)

50 Al-Baqir (1986:51)

51 Pelras (1985:113)

52 Ibrahim (2000)

53 For a description of this practice, see Chapter Three

54 Parlindungan (1965)

55 Azra (1995:13)

56 Azra (1992:86-87)

57 Azra (1995:12)

58 Azra (1995:17-18)

59 Azra (1995:17-18)

60 Zainuddin et al. (2000)

61 Nurmansyah (2001)

62 Ali (2002). This is a draft PhD thesis that was examined in ujian tertutup (exams not open to the public) in 2002 by the Graduate Programme, UIN Jakarta, but was not promoted until April 2004, the time that I received a copy of the thesis. I thank Prof. Azyumardi Azra for informing me of its existence and his attempts to make a copy available to me. I also thank Fuad Jabali and Idzam Fautanu for their efforts.

63 Rakhmat, interview, (2/7/2002)

64 Stigma may be defined as “the situation of the individual who is disqualified from full social acceptance” (Goffman 1986:n.p.). Goffman classifies three types of stigma: first, the physical deformities; second, blemishes of individual character perceived as weak, unnatural, treacherous or dishonest; third, “the tribal stigma of race, nation, and religion” (Goffman 1986:4). Stigma on Shi‘ism is included in the third category.

65 Goffman (1986)

66 Stewart (2000)

CHAPTER ONE: THE FORMATION OF THE SHI‘I COMMUNITY

1 Mughniyya (1973:204)

2 Gatra (6/12/2003:59)

3 Nurjulianti and Subhan (1995:21)

4 Pikiran Rakyat (2/7/2000:9)

5 Riddle (1997:224-225)

6 Shahab (1962:43-54). Abubakar Aceh for instance notes the presence of Sayyid Shi‘is from the Bilfaqih family in Kutaraja (Banda Aceh) in the early 20th century (1985:33).

7 We will deal with the teaching of taqiyya and other teachings of Shi‘ism understood and practised in Indonesia in Chapter Three.

8 This is not an unusual case. In the history of Islam in the Middle East, from the 10th to the 17th century, for instance, Shi‘i jurists performing taqiyya not only studied with Shafi‘i teachers but also participated in the Sunni legal education system. Some were recognised as professors of Sunni law, served as legal authorities in Sunni circles or wrote books within the Sunni tradition (Stewart 1998:109).

9 Zainal Abidin al-Muhdar, interview, (27/8/2002)

10 Shahabuddin (2000:114)

11 Zainal Abidin al-Muhdar, interview, (27/8/2002)

12 Shahab (1962:43-45), Hamzah Al-Habsyi, interview, (15/10/2002)

13 Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Shahab (d. 1891) was a wealthy Sayyid who financed the building of a number of mosques in Batavia and in Hadramaut (Shahabuddin 2000:43-44). Ali Ahmad Sahab’s mother, Nursatri came from Cianjur, West Java (Salam 1992:17).

14 Ali Ahmad Shahab wrote some books (published and unpublished) in Arabic, including al-Thalatha al-Abtal (the Three Heroes), Tarbiyyat al-Nisa’ (the Education of Women) and al-Sa‘ada al-Zawjiyya (the Felicity of Marriage) (Salam 1992:13-20). He contributed to periodicals such as the reformist journal al-Manar (the Minaret), the daily al-Mu’ayyad (The Reliable) published in Cairo, Thamarat al-Funun (The Fruits of the Arts) in Beirut and Utusan Hindia. His contribution to al-Manar suggested that modern schools should be established in Hadramaut.

15 Assegaf (1993:9)

16 Mobini-Kesheh (1999:60). Al-Irsyad was founded in 1914 by mainly non-Sayyid Arabs (including Ahmad Surkati following his resignation from his position as an inspector of Jami‘at Khair. The Sayyid dispute between Jami‘at Khair and Al-Irsyad concerned at least three related issues namely kafa’a (compatibility or equality between partners in marriage), kissing hands of the Sayyids, and the use of the title ‘Sayyid’. Whilst Jami‘at Khair supported these measures, Al-Irsyad strongly opposed them. (Mobini-Kesheh 1999:92-107). A large number of studies have been done regarding the conflicts including Noer (1973), Kostiner (1984), Haikal (1986), De Jonge (1993), and Mobini-Kesheh (1999).

17 Freitag (1997:124-125)

18 Noer (1973:67)

19 Freitag (2003:210-211). Since the late-19th century a number of wealthy Sayyids sent their children to Constantinople to pursue their education. Before Ali Ahmad Shahab, Sayyid Abdullah al-Attas sent his four children to Turkey, Egypt, and Europe to attain modern education. In 1898 four Arab boys from Java arrived in Constantinople for learning and this became a cause of consternation among the Dutch authorities. Following this episode, the Dutch urged the Turkish government to discourage people from Java from studying in Constantinople. In response the government rejected a request from the Consul-General in Batavia for 30 boys from Batavia and Singapore to be sent to Constantinople (Van Dijk 2002:68-69). In spite of this, the following two years saw the number of boys from Java who were studying in Constantinople increase to 17. However, their educational achievements cannot be regarded as successful due to their lack of education in the Netherlands-Indies. Moreover, “they were not model students, who could be paraded as paragons” (Van Dijk 2002:69). By 1901, only eight students remained in Constantinople. Four had died, two had returned to Asia, two had travelled to other countries in Europe and one was missing (Van Dijk 2002:69).

20 Shahab (1962:47)

21 Shahabuddin (2000:78)

22 Shahabuddin (2000:155)

23 Muhammad al-Sharbani al-Dimyati (d.1903) was widely considered to be the grandmaster in the field of Qur’anic studies. A number of Indonesian students,including Shaykh Mahfuz al-Tirmisi (d. 1919), learned from al-Sharbani al-Dimyati (Rachman 1998:39).

24 Al-Jalalayn is a concise Qur’an exegesis book written by Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 1459) and his student Jalaluddin al-Suyuti (d. 1505). It is a well known text in the Sunni Muslim world.

25 Al-Durr al-Manthur fi al-Tafsir bi al-Ma’thur (the Scattered Pearls in the Traditional Qur’an Exegesis) is the famous exegesis of al-Suyuthi (d. 1505) and frequently cited in Shi‘i works.

26 Shaykh al-Saduq Muhammad bin ‘Ali Ibn Babawaih al-Qummi (d. 991) was a leading scholar of Shi‘i hadith. His famous hadith collection man la yahduruh al-faqih (For him not in the Presence of Jurisprudent), is one of the four authoritative Shi‘i hadith collections.

27 Muhammad Kazim Tabataba’i Yazdi (1831-1919) was born in Kasnu near Yazd, Iraq, and died in Najaf. He became the sole marja‘ al-taqlid after the death of Akhund Khurasani in 1911 (Momen 1985:323).

28 See below for details on the educational system for Shi‘i jurists; on the obligation of laity to follow them see Chapter Three.

29 Al-Tihrani (1404/1984:1273), Al-Amin (1986:147)

30 Al-Tihrani (1404/1984:1274), Shahab (1962:52)

31 Al-Tihrani (1404/1984:1274)

32 Shahab (1962:52)

33 Shahab (1962:51-52)

34 His lengthy biography is provided by Muhammad Asad Shahab in Abu al-Murtada (1996) on which Freitag (2003) relies for her account of the role of Abu Bakr bin Shahab.

35 Al-Amin (1986:394-402)

36 Freitag (2003:187)

37 Freitag (2003:187)

38 Hamzah (1991:117), Roff (2002:104)

39 Ende (1973). Another discussion of Muhammad bin Aqil’s book is given by Roff (2002:100-103).

40 Mu‘awiya bin Abi Sufyan was the governor of Syria during ‘Uthman’s caliphate, the third caliph after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. He refused to accept Ali’s caliphate that was approved of and accepted by the large majority of Muslims, because he accused Ali of sheltering the murderers of ‘Uthman, his cousin. In 657 he led the Battle of Siffin against the Caliph ‘Ali, the first Shi‘i Imam, but the war ended in a call for arbitration. After the death of ‘Ali, he established the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750). Prior to his death, he appointed his son, Yazid, who sent an army to murder Husayn bin ‘Ali and his followers on the plain of Karbala on 10 Muharram 61AH (10 October 680).

41 Muhammad bin Aqil (1907:36)

42 Muhammad bin Aqil (1907:37)

43 Muhammad bin Aqil (1907:138)

44 Muhammad bin Aqil (1907:112)

45 In 1911, Sayyid Uthman published his work, I‘anat al-Mustarshidin ‘ala Ijtinab al-Bida‘ fi al-Din (Guidance for Seekers of Direction in Avoiding Innovations in Religion). Even though Sayyid Uthman himself never mentions Muhammad bin Aqil’s work in this treatise, his book was meant to reject Shi‘ism in general and the cursing of some companions of the Prophet Muhammad, in addition to demonstrate the invalidity of Wahhabism. He pointed out that Muslim scholars have agreed, in terms of textual and rational proofs, that Shi‘ism is the most deceitful path and the Muslim leaders know well the Shi‘is’ clever ability in deceiving. He went on to suggest that Abdullah bin Saba’ was the founder of Shi‘ism and wanted to destroy Islam. He mentioned the unbelievers (zindiq) who intended to destroy Islam by supporting the development of Shi‘ism. Additionally Uthman criticised the fact that Shi‘is, who were ignorant in knowledge, never refer to the pious scholars of jurisprudence, hadith, and Sufism but to the hypocrite unbelievers (Uthman 1911:22). “Shi‘is are a kind of hypocrites whose madhhab is dissimulation” (Uthman 1911:22). Sayyid Uthman further cited several Sunni views affirming that the Shi‘is wanted to slander the companions of the Prophet or even accuse them of being infidels. He regarded the Shi‘is as heretics who twisted facts regarding the companions of the Prophet and denied ‘Ali’s recognition of the validity of caliphate of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar (Uthman 1911:22-25). Several studies have been devoted to the role of Sayyid Uthman as an accommodationist scholar in the Dutch East Indies such as articles by Kaptein (1998) and Azra (1995a, 1997).

46 Hasan bin Alwi bin Shahab wrote a 153-pages treatise, al-Ruqya al-Shafiya min Nafathat Sumum al-Nasa’ih al-Kafiya (the Curative Charm against the Poisonous Spittle of ‘the Ample Admonitions’) that was completed in 1328H/1908. In the first page of the book, Hasan bin Shahab states that Muhammad bin Aqil’s book calls upon the Sunnis, particularly among the laymen, to follow the Shi‘i teachings. He emphasises that the Shi‘is are known as the religious groups that lie when citing references in order to support their stance. The author mentions one of the reasons as to why he wrote the book, namely the fact that many of his fellow Muslims requested him to write a refutation to al-Nasa’ih al-Kafiyya which contains clear errors and deceit regarding the Prophet Muhammad, his companions, followers of the companions as well as the recognised Sunni ‘ulama’ (Hasan bin Shahab 1908:2-3). He scrutinised the entire content of Muhammad bin Aqil’s work that is regarded to be Shi‘i and heavily tinged with the Shi‘i ways of understanding of Islam.

47 Aceh (1977:33)

48 ‘Id al-Ghadir is one of Shi‘ism’s religious commemorations held annually on the 18th of Dhu al-Hijja, the last month in the Muslim calendar. It celebrates the Prophet Muhammad’s designation of Ali as his successor at Ghadir Khumm.

49 Shahab (1962:26-27)

50 Zainal Abidin al-Muhdar, interview, (28/7/2002)

51 Salam (1992:18)

52 The complete title is al-Imam al-Muhajir Ahmad bin ‘Isa bin Muhammad bin ‘Ali al-‘Uraydi bin Ja‘far al-Sadiq, ma lahu wa li naslihi wa li al-A’imma min aslafihi min al-fada’il wa al-ma’athir published in 1980 by Dar al-Shuruq, Jeddah.

53 Salam (1986:90)

54 Hamka (1983:326-327)

55 Shahab (1986:322)

56 Shahab (1962:55)

57 Siradjuddin Abbas criticises Abubakar Aceh’s sympathetic attitude towards Shi‘ism and this becomes one of his motivations to write his famous book, I‘itiqad Ahlussunnah wal-Djama‘ah (the Doctrine of ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama‘a) first published in 1969 by Pustaka Tarbiyah, Jakarta. He dedicates many pages of the book to a discussion of the falsity of Shi‘i teachings and its contrast to the true teachings of Sunnism.

58 Visit to Lebanon is mentioned in Mughniyya (1973:205)

59 Shahab (1962:56)

60 Hamzah Al-Habsyi, interview, (15/10/2002)

61 Syafi‘i (1983/1984)

62 Hakim and Hadiwiyata (1997/1998:12)

63 For the reaction from the government, see chapter seven. Some Indonesian mass media which provided reports on the (unusual) fact that Abdul Qadir Bafaqih was a Shi‘i are daily Berita Buana 25/10/1982, Sinar Pagi Minggu 1/11/3100/XIII, Suara Merdeka 27,28,29/10/1982, and Tempo 20/11/1982.

64 Umar Shahab, interview, (9/1/2003)

65 The position of Husein Al-Habsyi as a Shi‘i leader is focused on in Chapter Two, while his pesantren is described in Chapter Five.

66 Al-Attas (1999:335)

67 Al-Attas (1999:337-338)

68 Habib Ali Al-Habsyi (1870-1968) known as Ali Kwitang was an ‘alim and leader of the Indonesian Arab community. He was the founder of the famous Majlis Ta‘lim (meeting place of education and da‘wa) of Kwitang. He was regarded as a Wali (friend of God) and his grave has become an important pilgrimage site for Jakarta’s Muslims. After its founder died, the Majlis Ta‘lim was led his son Muhammad (1911-1993) who was close to the then President Suharto and GOLKAR (Golongan Karya) political circles. Today it is under the leadership of Muhammad’s son Abdurrahman (Abaza 2004), Ali Ridho’s brother. Ali Ridho’s sister, Farida Al-Habsyi is a well-known Shi‘i figure who runs a number of Islamic foundations in Jakarta, including Al-Bathul.

69 Umar Shahab, interview, (9/1/2003)

70 Fischer (1980:78)

71 They include Musyayya Ba‘abud, Zahir Yahya (the leader of Al-Kautsar Foundation in Malang, East Java, and formerly the head of YAPI), Miqdad (the head of Pesantren Darut Taqrib in Jepara, Central Java), Fathoni Hadi (the founder of the Al-Hujjah Foundation in Jember, East Java and currently a staff at Islamic College for Advanced Studies, London-branch of Islamic higher educational institution in Jakarta), Muhammad Amin Sufyan (the head of Samudera Foundation in Surabaya), Abdurrahman Bima, Husein Alkaff (the adviser at Al-Jawad Foundation in Bandung), Herman Al-Munthahhar (the head of Amirul Mukminin Foundation in Pontianak, West Kalimantan), Muhammad Al-Jufri, and Abdul Aziz Al-Hinduan.

72 Syi‘ar (Muharram 1425/2004:31-32). This student association was established in August 2000 (http://islamalternatif.com/tentang_kami/hpi.html).

73 Ali (2002:201-204)

74 They were classified in terms of financial support; some will receive full scholarship whilst others will receive only monthly stipends excluding airfare ticket.

75 A brief account of ICIS can be read in: http://www.qomicis.com/english/about/history.asp.

76 Nasr (1987:165-182)

77 Momen (1985)

78 Momen (1985:200-201), Mallat (1993:39-40)

79 Momen (1985:200-201), Mallat (1993:40)

80 Momen (1985:202), Mallat (1993:41-42)

81 Fischer (1980:81)

82 Ayatollah Muhammad Kazim Shari‘atmadari (1904-1987) was known as a moderate clergyman. He was one of the maraji‘ al-taqlid in the Shi‘i world in 1975, the other being Ayatollahs Khoei and Khomeini in Najaf, Gulpayegani and Mar’ashi-Najafi in Qum, Khonsari in Tehran, and Milani in Mashhad. Conducting his fieldwork in 1975, Fischer noticed mild competition and friendly rivalry among these maraji‘ al-taqlid in setting up schools, hospitals, missionary activities and other activities abroad (Fischer 1980:91).

83 Fischer (1980:84)

84 Umar Shahab, interview, (9/1/2003). Dar al-Tabligh also carried out a number of Islamic da‘wa programmes such as trainings for preachers, correspondence courses on Islam, and publishing of Islamic books and journals. It had four journals. Maktab-i Islam (School of Islam), Payam-i Shadi (Glad Tidings), and Nasl-i Naw (New Generation) in Persian whereas al-Hadi (the Guide) was in Arabic. Their circulation was extensive; Maktab-i Islam reached a circulation of 60,000. With its circulation abroad al-Hadi served a link to Muslims and Islamic institutions in other countries (Fischer 1980:84).

85 Besides his school being dissolved, Shari‘atmadari himself was also declared to have been formally demoted from the rank of marja‘ al-taqlid on April 1982 (Momen1985:296).

86 Husein Shahab, interview, (2/4/2004)

87 Steward (2001:218)

88 An exceptional case is Abdurrahman Al-Aydrus known as Abdurrahman Bima since he comes from Bima, Lombok. He spent nine years in Qum for religious study. After graduating from YAPI of Bangil, under the recommendation of Husein Al-Habsyi he went to Qum in 1987 and entered the Hujjatiyya school. After accomplishing his muqaddamat in 1990, he pursued the sutuh level. Then he completed the study of usul al-fiqh at the dars al-kharij. He was then selected to pursue his learning at Imam Sadiq Institute, founded and headed by Ayatollah Ja‘far Subhani. At this institution, he majored in Islamic theology under the supervision of the prominent theologian Ayatollah Ja‘far Subhani with whom he continues to maintain a good relationship. He was required to write a PhD thesis for this institute (Ali 2002:246-249). In 1996, Abdurrahman returned to Indonesia where he has been engaged in the field of da‘wa and education. His activities include the directorship of Madina Ilmu College for Islamic Studies in Depok, Southern Jakarta. In 2000, he enrolled on a PhD programme at UIN in Jakarta.

89 This is the largest library in Qum and may become an important research site for scholars. Reports on this library may be seen in Syi‘ar (March 2003:39-40) and http://www.al-shia.com/hatml/eng/lib/lib-najafi_h.htm.

90 Ali (2002:192-194)

91 Syiar (Muharram 1425/2004:31)

92 Wisananingrum (2001:74)

93 Salam (1986:85-86)

94 Furqon Bukhari, interview, (10/9/2002)

95 Jamaluddin Asmawi, interview, (2/10/2002)

96 Abdullah bin Nuh (1401/1981:13-19)

97 Abdullah bin Nuh (1401/1981:19)

98 Abdullah bin Nuh (1401/1981:21)

99 The events of the revolution attracted the attention of the mass media in Indonesia, particularly Muslim magazines and Muslim-led newspapers. “At the beginning, the prestige of the Iranian revolution was high in the eyes of the Muslim leaders of Indonesia, even if they were Sunni, not Shi‘i” (Tamara 1986:24).

100 Hamka (pseudonym of Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah), is the only Indonesian ‘ulama’ to write about his views on the Iranian revolution. He pays great attention to what was happening in Iran at the time. In early 1979, for instance, his weekly magazine, Panji Masyarakat (the Banner of Society), provided detailed reports, combined with reflective views that basically credit and support the victory of the revolution. Hamka regards the Iranian revolution as one of the greatest historical events in the world and he relates it to the phenomenon of Islamic revival in the 15th century of the Muslim calendar. For Hamka, the Iranian revolution is parallel with other great revolutions in the world, such as the French and Russian revolutions. Hamka believes the most important value of the Iranian revolution is the success of the Iranians in fighting secularism. Initially, Hamka presented his appraisal and admiration of events to Ayatollah Ruhullah Khomeini, in his writings published in Panji Masyarakat. In the rubric “Dari Hati ke Hati” (From Heart to Heart) of the same Muslim magazine (1/3/1979), Hamka writes an interesting article, “Revolution and Evolution”, in which he describes the victory of the Iranian revolution and a profile of Khomeini. This prominent modernist religious scholar emphasises how the power of Islamic faith (iman), strongly upheld by Khomeini, succeeded in overthrowing the powerful Shah of Iran, renowned for his powerful army and sophisticated weapons. Hamka believes that it was solid faith which made the army with modern weapons lose its power. It is clear that Hamka, despite his position as a leading Sunni ‘alim, favours the victory of Iranian revolution regardless of the fact that the revolution was based on Shi‘i doctrines and that Khomeini and the majority of the Iranian population are Shi‘i. However, it can be argued that Hamka’s sympathetic view merely concerns the Iranian Islamic revolution, not Shi‘ism.

101 In 1979 Amien Rais wrote a column, published in Panji Masyarakat entitled “Avoiding Revolution” (reprinted in Rais 1987), in response to the revolution in Iran. In it he provides a theoretical outline of why a revolution takes place, pinpointing five causal factors of revolution: contradictions between the economic and political systems within a society, widening gap between the haves and the have nots, protracted financial crisis, deepening alienation of intellectuals, and arrogant, stubborn, brutal elites. In his conclusion, Rais affirms that in the Qur’an there are examples of elites being shattered by a disaffected population. He suggests that such examples should be considered valuable lessons for every nation, including Indonesia (Rais 1987:143). Even though Amien Rais barely refers specifically to the Iranian revolution in this article, his theoretical construction is clearly inspired by it. Seven years later, in April 1987, this Chicago-educated political scientist again wrote an article “Seven Years of the Iranian revolution” also published in Panji Masyarakat. In this long article, Rais (1987:199-218) sympathetically describes the historical processes of the Iranian revolution, beginning with the shoddiness and corruption of the Shah’s regime, which was clearly vulnerable to revolution. Rais then analyses the revolutionary ideas of Iranian leaders and ideologues, namely, Khomeini, Ali Shari‘ati, Ayatollah Taleqani and Ayatollah Mutahhari. This is followed by an analysis of the social and political problems faced by Iran, including the Iran-Iraq war. Important to note here is Rais’s favourable view of prospects for Iran; he predicted the end to the Iran-Iraq war that would enable Iran to realise its mission. Finally, Rais is highly critical of negative views suggesting critical situations and the disintegration of Iran. Failure of the Islamic Republic of Iran is not an option for Rais as this would mean a setback for the Muslim umma lasting for half a century or more. It should be noted that Rais does not discuss at length the importance of Shi‘i doctrines in the revolution. In another article (1985), however, Rais, describes the objective conditions pertaining in Iran at the time, stating that: “the revolution itself was founded on the basis of a revolutionary ideology originating in Shi‘ah Islam” (1985:37). With regard to Muslim responses to the USA and the Soviet Union, Rais again praises the Iranian revolution, which attempts to restore the self-confidence of the Iranians, freeing them from the influence of the super powers.

102 I will deal specifically with this figure in the following chapter.

103 Rakhmat (1997:440). Haidar Bagir notes that his father, Muhammad al-Baqir, never thinks to adhere to Sunnism or Shi‘ism in the field of Qur’an exegesis, law, and Islamic thoughts in general (Bagir 2003:73). Al-Baqir’s thought on jurisprudence may be found in his two volumes of Fiqh Praktis (Practical Jurisprudence) which contain a comparative analysis of the four Sunni schools and the Ja‘fari jurisprudence. Al-Baqir himself emphasises that although he practices religious rituals in accordance with the Shafi’i jurisprudence, he is reluctant to join a particular Islamic group (1999:32-33)

104 For a description of the Shi‘i publication, see chapter six.

105 A number of Indonesian Muslim leaders have paid more attention to the Islamic revival rather than to the Iranian Islamic revolution. Collections of articles written by them can be seen in Rusydi Hamka and Iqbal E.A. Saimima (eds) n.d. But there has been no single study devoted to the phenomenon of Islamic revival in Indonesia. The same phenomenon in Malaysia was documented by Muzaffar (1987). Muzaffar points out that the Iranian revolution has two meanings for the Islamic resurgence in Malaysia. First, it proves the ability of Islam to establish a state in the modern era, at the same time answering criticisms posed by scholars or leaders who reject the idea of an Islamic state. Second, it shows that “an Islamic state has its own identity” and that the Iranian experience can be an example for Malaysia What he singles out are the facts that in Iran the imams and religious elites played a major role in the politics and administration of the state and in implementing Islamic law based the Qur’an and hadith (Muzaffar 1987:36-37). For the proliferation of Islamic revival among university students in Malaysia, see Anwar (1987).

106 Hefner (1993:13)

107 Peeters (1998:217)

108 Panji Masyarakat (513/1986:19)

109 Panji Masyarakat (513/1986:20)

110 Syi‘ar (Muharram 1425/2004:35)

111 Syi‘ar (Muharram 1425/2004:35)

112 Syi‘ar (Muharram 1425/2004:35)

113 Tiras (1996:30)

114 See: http://rausyanfikr.tripod.com/divmks.htm

115 M. Deden Ridwan, interview (25/5/2003)

116 For an account of HMI MPO, see Karim (1997).

117 Al-Mandari has provided historical notes on the struggle of members and leaders of HMI MPO against the New Order regime (Al-Mandari 2003), as well as a description of discourses on social revolution among members of HMI MPO (Al-Mandari 2003a).

118 Islam Jama‘ah was founded by Nurhasan Al-Ubaidah in Kediri, East Java, in the 1950s and then spread to several cities in Java, Sumatra, and other islands. Since the Jakarta Council of Indonesian ‘Ulama’ banned it in 1979, it has changed its name to LEMKARI (Lembaga Karyawan Islam) or KADIM (Karyawan Da‘wah Islam), denying that it was simply a new association of Islam Jama‘ah (Anwar 1989:34-35). Then it changed once more into Lembaga Da‘wah Islam Indonesia (LDII). A description of this group can be seen in Marzani Anwar (1989:21-73). With regards to political orientation, this group fully supported Golkar, the New Order government’s party.

119 The Islamic Group, Isa Bugis first emerged in Sukabumi in the 1960s and has since spread to other areas such as Bandar Harapan in Central Lampung. As its name suggests, it is founded by Isa Bugis from Aceh. Its major concern of Isa Bugis is the study of verses of the Qur’an which are said to be based on the view of the Prophet Muhammad. These verses are then related to empirical reality (Afif HM 1989:75-140). This group used to attract some followers from HMI who called their activity Qur’anic studies.

120 Jama‘ah Tabligh was founded in India by Mawlana Muhammad Ilyas in 1930 and is thought to have come to Indonesia in 1952. It has spread throughout the country in both urban and rural areas. Azra (2002:42-43) provides a short description of this movement in Indonesia.

121 A number of studies on the Darul Islam movement have been conducted, but the most comprehensive one is van Dijk’s (1981). The division that is most noticed recently has been KW IX (Regional Command IX) led by Abu Toto, frequently associated with Syeikh Panji Gumilang, the founder of the luxurious Pesantren Al-Zaytun in Indramayu, West Java. One of my Shi‘i informants in Sukabumi, a former member of NII, suggests that Abu Toto and Panji Gumilang are the same person so Al-Zaytun is an educational centre of NII. This can also be seen in Al-Chaidar (2000) and Umar Abduh (2001).

122 Ali (2002:456)

123 Rambo (1993:12-14)

124 Woodberry (1992:23)

125 Ali (2002:456)

126 Rakhmat (1997:443)

127 Fuad Amsyari (1993), a lecturer at the Faculty of Medical Science, Air Langga University, the chairman of Al-Falah Muslim Intellectual in Surabaya, and influential in usrah circles, explains the necessity of imamate for Muslims in Indonesia, maintaining that it does not specifically belong to the Shi‘i doctrine but that it is strongly based on Sunni sources. According to Amsyari, Muslims who do not comprehend the totality of Islamic teachings (kaffah), have neglected the Islamic teaching on imamate.

128 According to the constitution of the Islamic State of Indonesia, Qanun Asasi, (article 12, clause 1), “the head of state was the Imam, who must be a native Indonesian, of the Muslim faith, and faithful to God and His Prophet” (van Dijk 1981:93). A comprehensive account of this constitution can be found in van Dijk’s book (1981:93-97).

129 Rakhmat (1997:445)

130 Zainuddin et al. (2000:97-103)

131 Nakash (1994:45)

CHAPTER TWO: LEADERS

1 Steenbrink (1985)

2 Humphrey (1991:187)

3 Shils (1968:399)

4 A study on the biography and role of Husein Al-Habsyi has been published in Studia Islamika (Zulkifli 2004).

5 Muhsin Husen (1997)

6 Feitag (2003:264)

7 Bukhori (n.d:10, Dialog Jumat 28/5/2004)

8 Muhsin Husein (1997:3).

9 Alwi Tahir al-Haddad (1884-1962) was a Sayyid ‘alim and leader in the Dutch East Indies before he was appointed as the mufti of Johor Sultanate in 1939. He also wrote several books on history, jurisprudence, and doctrine.

10 Beik (1997:14)

11 Panitia (n.d:1)

12 Bourdieu (1986). It refers to “cultural knowledge as a resource of power used by individuals and social groups to improve their position within the social class structure” (Joppke 1986:57).

13 Zamzami (1999:4)

14 Panitia (n.d:1)

15 Front Anti Komunis was a radical wing of Masyumi established in September 1954 and supported by leaders of Masyumi in Java, Sumatra and Sulawesi. Its chairman was Isa Anshary, the then chairman of Masyumi branch of West Java (Campton 1995:41).

16 Zamzami (1999:6)

17 Ricklefs (2001:325)

18 “Social capital is the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition...” (Bourdieu 1986:248).

19 Dialog Jumat (28/5/2004)

20 Van Bruinessen (2002:125)

21 Muhsin Husein (1997:5)

22 Muhsin Husein (1997:5)

23 Panitia (n.d:2)

24 Muhsin Husein (1997:5)

25 Beik (1997:14-15)

26 Panitia (n.d:2)

27 Hamzah Al-Habsyi, interview, (15/10/2002)

28 Muhsin Husein (1997:6)

29 Muhsin Husein (1997:6)

30 Several Studies have been devoted to Persis (Persatuan Islam) and its scholars. Federspiel (1970) provides us with a detailed discussion of this reformist Islamic organisation. It was founded in 1923 and Ahmad Hasan, (born in Singapore of Indian origin), joined in 1924. Persis’ views on Islamic theology and law are generally similar to that of Muhammadiyah, but can, on occasion, be more extreme. Ahmad Minhaji (2001), Federspiel’s student, provides a detailed account of Ahman Hassan and his reformist legal thought.

31 Minhaji (2001:242). For a description of Husein Al-Habsyi’s response to Ahmad Hassan, see Minhaji (2001:241-246).

32 Minhaji (2001:245-246)

33 O. Hashem (2002:8-9)

34 Al-Samarrai points out that the concept might be an invention of Sufis influenced by ideas from Judaism, Christianity or perhaps Zoroastrianism. The concept the Light of Muhammad is believed among some Sufis to have been created before all things (Al-Samarrai 1968:147:147).

35 Schimmel (1995:23)

36 Al-Muslimun (117/1979)

37 Al-Muslimun (123/1980)

38 Al-Muslimun (125/1980)

39 Al-Muslimun (126/1980)

40 The complete title of the book is Sanggahan atas Tulisan Pengingkar Nur Nabi Besar Muhammad SAW (A Refutation of the Writing of the Denier of the Light of the Great Prophet Muhammad). Unfortunately I am unable to obtain a copy.

41 Al-Muslimun (127/1980)

42 Al-Muslimun 127/1980:75-77)

43 Thalib (1993)

44 SAWW is an abbreviation of Salla Allah ‘alayh Wa alih Wa sallam (may God grant him and his household peace and salvation). Rather then SAW (Salla Allah alayh Wa sallam, may God grant him peace and salvation) which is common in Indonesia. SAWW is frequently used among the Shi‘is in Indonesia. The concept of the Prophet Muhammad’s Household is explained in Chapter Three.

45 Abu al-Hasan Ali Nadwi is an Indian scholar whose anti-Shi‘i work entitled Dua Wajah Saling Bertentangan antara Ahlu Sunnah dan Syi‘ah was published in 1987 by Bina Ilmu, Surabaya.

46 Husein Al-Habsyi (1992a:12-13)

47 Husein Al-Habsyi (1992a:228-229)

48 Husein Al-Habsyi (1992a:229-230)

49 Husein Al-Habsyi (1992a:229)

50 A text of this hadith can be seen in Chapter Three.

51 Husein Al-Habsyi (1991a:3)

52 Most Muslims consider the Barnabas Gospel to be the most original version of the Gospel.

53 Husein Al-Habsyi’s other published book is Agar Tidak Terjadi Fitnah (‘In Order That Slander Does Not Happen’, 1993). It contains his standpoint on a number of polemical topics, and includes his views on the most famous Shi‘i hadith collection al-Kafi (the Sufficient) by Muhammad al-Kulayni (d. 939). Husein Al-Habsyi uses this book to defend the validity and truth of several Shi‘i teachings based on both Sunni and Shi‘i sources. He concludes with an appeal for the scrutiny of a specific madhhab based on its authoritative sources.

54 The notion of habitus can be understood as “a system of lasting, transposable dispositions which, integrating past experiences, functions at every moment as matrix of perceptions, appreciations, and actions and makes possible the achievement of infinitely diversified tasks” (Bourdieu 1977:82-83).

55 Husein Shahab, interview, (2/4/2004)

56 Al-Fadl bin al-Hasan al-Tabarsi (d.1153) is a renowned Shi‘i scholar and theologian whose most important work is in the field of Qur’an exegesis, Majma‘ al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an.

57 Momen (1985:296)

58 Ali (2002:218)

59 Ayatollah Javadi Amuli is a leading theologian, philosopher, and Qur’an exegete in Qum. He was born in 1933 in Amul, Iran where he completed his primary education and entered the hawza ‘ilmiyya. In 1950 he moved to Tehran to continue his religious study and then to Qum where he was guided by renowned scholars including Ayatollah Burujirdi and ‘Allama Tabataba’i (d. 1981).

60 Born in South Lebanon, Sayyid Ja‘far Murtada studied in Najaf (1962-1968) and in Qum, and returned to Beirut where he becomes a theological historian and directs the Islamic Centre for Learning (Rosiny 2001:208-209). His debates and competition with the liberal Muhammad Husayn Fadlullah have been discussed by Rosiny (2001:207-219).

61 Ali (2002:218-220)

62 Husein Shahab, interview, (2/4/2004). Born in 1945, Soroush’s is increasingly recognised as a liberal thinker. One of his books, Menggugat Otoritas dan Tradisi Agama (To Challenge Religious Authority and Tradition), was first published in Indonesian by Mizan in 2002. For a review of this book, see Kompas (23/11/2002).

63 On the social, political and religious behind the prohibition of Shi‘ism in Malaysia, see http://www.e-fatwa.gov.my/fatwa_search_result.asp?keyID=194.

64 Husein Shahab, interview, (2/4/2004)

65 Abaza (2004:183)

66 My account of this workshop can be seen in chapter five.

67 Husein Shahab (http://aljawad.tripod.com/arsipbuletin/tasawufwanita.htm). The use of the term Mushaf Fatima is a source of controversy between the Sunnis and the Shi‘is. The Shi‘is are accused of having made their own alternative Qur’an. This derives from the fact that in Sunnism the term mushaf is used only in relation to the Qur’an, with the existing Qur’an being known as Mushaf Usmani.

68 http://www.e-fatwa.gov.my/mufti/fatwa_search_result.asp?keyID=327 accessed 18/10/2005.

69 Kang is a Sundanese term which literally means elder brother. It is a common form of address for elder men.

70 Malik and Ibrahim (1998:143-144)

71 Malik and Ibrahim (1998:144)

72 Rosyidi (2004:29-32)

73 Malik and Ibrahim (1998:143), Rosyidi (2004:43)

74 Abdulrahim (1986:15)

75 Rakhmat (1998:xxx)

76 Rakhmat (1997:51)

77 Rakhmat (1997:51-53)

78 Jalaluddin Rakhmat, interview, (2/1/2003)

79 Bagir (2003:72)

80 Rakhmat (1997:457)

81 Feener (1999:183-184)

82 Rakhmat (1999:xvi-xvii)

83 There are three articles by Rakhmat dealing with Sufism and its relation to emotional and spiritual intelligence, namely “Emotional Intelligence dalam Perspektif Sufi”, “Dengan Tasawuf Meningkatkan Spiritual Intelligence”, and “Sabar; Kunci Spiritual Intelligence”. They are collected in Bihar Anwar (2002).

84 Rakhmat (2001:xii)

85 Feener (1999)

86 Rakhmat (1988:173-201)

87 Rakhmat (1986:240)

88 Hernowo (1998:xxviii)

89 Kompas (31/10/1997:15)

90 Rakhmat (1999a:3)

91 Rakhmat (1999a:177)

92 Rakhmat (1999a:190-191)

93 Rakhmat (1999a:201)

94 Rakhmat (1999a:211)

95 Rakhmat (1991:298)

96 The attribute ‘Plus’ is used because, aside from its concentration on the establishment of morality, the school teaches a number of subjects from the national curriculum of the Department of National Education. For more information about this school, see Chapter Five or http://smuth.net/Profile/03-sejarah.asp accessed 18/10/2005.

CHAPTER THREE: MADHHAB

1 Rakhmat (1999:178)

2 Rakhmat (1998:liv)

3 Husein Al-Habsyi (1991:57)

4 QS (33:33)

5 Elryco (2002:55-56)

6 Husein Al-Habsyi (1991:58-59)

7 A Sunni version of this popular hadith reads: “I leave you two things that you will not go astray as long as you uphold them, the Book of God and the Sunna of His Prophet” (Ali Umar Al-Habsyi 2002:337). Although this hadith is widely taught and strongly upheld in the Sunni community, it is not narrated in the authoritative Sunni hadith books al-Sahih of Bukhari, al-Sahih of Muslim, al-Sunan of Abu Da’ud, al-Sunan of Nasa’i, al-Jami‘ al-Sahih of Tirmidhi, and al-Sunan of Ibn Majah (the six books). In the Sunni tradition, the term Sunna is commonly understood to be the way or deeds of the Prophet Muhammad. It is used interchangeably with the term hadith which means a collection of sayings, conducts, and approvals of the Prophet. Both terms are often translated as ‘Tradition of the Prophet’.

8 Ali Umar Al-Habsyi (2002:44). Al-Hawd is the pool in Paradise where Muhammad will meet his community on the day of resurrection.

9 Ali Umar Al-Habsyi (2002:122)

10 Alwi Husein (1998:38)

11 Rakhmat (1998:240-242)

12 Rakhmat (1986:250)

13 QS (98:7)

14 Alatas (2002:2)

15 O. Hashem (1994:246)

16 O. Hashem (1994)

17 Rakhmat (1986a:83)

18 Rakhmat (1986:250)

19 Rakhmat (1986:251)

20 Abdullah bin Saba’ was the founder of a sect called Saba’iyya. He was said to have converted from Judaism to Islam. He introduced ideas that tend to be considered ghuluw (extremism in matters of doctrine) such as the exaltation of ‘Ali, the divine character of ‘Ali, and the denial of ‘Ali’s death. In anti-Shi‘i accounts he is considered to be the founder of Shi‘ism who allegedly ignited the early disputes between companions of the Prophet, which later divided the Muslim umma into Sunni and Shi‘i.

21 M. Hashem (1989:37-39)

22 M. Hashem (1989:39)

23 QS (53:2-3)

24 Rakhmat (1999:293-294)

25 Rakhmat (1999:294-295)

26 Rakhmat (1999:295)

27 Rakhmat (1991)

28 Enayat (2005:19)

29 Abu Ammar (2002:37). The six pillars of faith are the fundamental belief system in Sunni Islam. They comprise a belief in God, His Angels, His Holy Books, His Messengers, and the Day of Judgement and in God’s decree known as al-qada and al-qadar (Indonesian, takdir).

30 In Indonesia, the greatest contribution to the rational theology of Mu‘tazilism was provided by the late Harun Nasution (1919-1998). For an intellectual biography of this figure, see Muzani (1994) and for an examination of his theological thoughts see Martin and Woodward with Atmaja (1997) and Saleh (2001:196-240).

31 Khalid al-Walid, interview, (2/7/2002)

32 Rakhmat (1986:178)

33 O. Hashem (2002:158), Alatas (2003:5-17)

34 Alatas (2002:11). Corresponding to the six collections of Sunni hadith, there are four authoritative collections of Shi‘i hadith, namely al-Kafi fi ‘ulum al-din (The Sufficient in the Knowledge of Religion) by Muhammad bin Ya‘qub al-Kulayni (d. 940), Man la yahduruhu al-faqih (For him not in the Presence of Jurisprudent) by Shaykh al-Saduq Muhammad bin Babuya al-Qummi (d. 991), Tahdhib al-ahkam (Rectification of the Statutes) by Shaykh al-Ta’ifa Muhammad al-Tusi (d. 1068), and al-Ibtisar fi ma ukhtulif fihi min al-akhbar (Reflection upon the Disputed Traditions) also by al-Tusi (Chittick 1989:16).

35 Rakhmat (1999:424)

36 Tabataba’i (1995:173)

37 Agus Abubakar Al-Habsyi (1984:7)

38 Al-Kaff (http://aljawad.tripod.com/arsipbuletin/imamah.htm)

39 Rakhmat (1997:427)

40 Ali Umar Al-Habsyi (2002:165-166)

41 Rakhmat (1998:lvi)

42 Al-Kaff (http://aljawad.tripod.com/arsipbuletin/imamah.htm)

43 Husein Al-Habsyi (1992a:175)

44 Husein Al-Habsyi (1992a:175-181)

45 Husein Al-Habsyi (1992a:181)

46 Anis (http://fatimah.org/artikel/masum.htm)

47 Alatas (2002:76-78)

48 Anis (http://fatimah.org/artikel/masum.htm)

49 Al-Kaff (http://aljawad.tripod.com/arsipbuletin/imamah.htm)

50 QS (2:124)

51 QS (4:59)

52 In Sunnism, the term ulu al-amr refers to ‘ulama’ or temporal leaders. In line with the Sunni understanding of the concept, at a conference in March 1953, a number of NU ‘ulama’ bestowed on President Soekarno the title wali al-amri al-daruri bi al-shawka (the ruler who at present is in power) that has to be obeyed according to the Qur’anic verse 4:59 (Boland 1971:133).

53 QS (5:55)

54 Rakhmat (1991:v), Ali Umar Al-Habsyi (2002:153-154)

55 Ali Umar Al-Habsyi (2002:154)

56 Rakhmat (1986:243)

57 Alatas (2002:60)

58 Ali Umar Al-Habsyi (2002:155-156)

59 Rakhmat (1997:432), Ali Umar Al-Habsyi (2002:205-206)

60 Rakhmat (1986:244), Ali Umar Al-Habsyi (2002:210-211)

61 Rakhmat (1998:lvii)

62 Abu Ammar (2000:149)

63 Abu Ammar (2000:149)

64 Abu Ammar (2000:86)

65 Rakhmat (2001a:4)

66 Rakhmat (1998:251)

67 Al-Walid (2004:11)

68 Al-Jufri (2000:72-73), Rahmat (http://aljawad.tripod.com/arsipbuletin/imammahdi.htm)

69 Ali Umar Al-Habsyi (2002:242)

70 Rakhmat (1998:249-250)

71 Abu Ammar (2000:35-38)

72 QS (29:14)

73 QS (18:25)

74 QS (4:58)

75 Abu Ammar (2000:39-40), Rahmat (http://aljawad.tripod.com/arsipbuletin/imammahdi.htm)

76 Abu Ammar (2000:40)

77 Rakhmat (1998:252)

78 Rakhmat (2001a:6)

79 Rakhmat (2001a:6)

80 Abu Ammar (2000:143-145)

81 Al-Walid (2004:15)

82 Al-Walid (2004:15)

83 There are different opinions about who the Sufyani is. One is that he is a descendant of Abu Sufyan (Ma‘awiyah’s father) who will appear and command armies before the advent of Imam Mahdi.

84 Al-Jufri (2000:82-102), Abu Ammar (2000:137-142)

85 Syuaib (1423:2)

86 QS (9:105)

87 Abu Ammar (2000:150-151)

88 Rakhmat (2001a:7)

89 Al-Jufri (2001:70)

90 Abu Batoul (1998:68)

91 Mulyadi (http://aljawad.tripod.com/arsipbuletin/mahdiisme.htm)

92 Abu Batoul (1998:68)

93 QS (24:55)

94 Abu Batoul (1998:68)

95 In Sunnism there are five pillars of Islam, namely the confession of faith, prayer, fasting in the month of Ramadan, religious tithe, and the hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca.

96 Adam (2003:44)

97 Bagir (1995:3). The four Sunni schools of law are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi‘i and Hanbali, names associated with its classical jurists: Abu Hanifa Nu‘man bin thabit (d. 765), Malik bin Anas (d. 792), Muhammad bin Idris (d. 204/820), and Ahmad bin Hanbal (d. 855).

98 Umar Shahab (2001:x)

99 Al-Kaff (http://aljawad.tripod.com/artikel/ijtihad.htm)

100 Umar Shahab (2001:xi)

101 Umar Shahab (2001:xii)

102 Rakhmat (1998:383)

103 QS (16:43)

104 Abu Qurba (2003:15)

105 Abu Qurba (2003:16-17)

106 Shodiq (1998:29)

107 ‘Ali Khamene’i was born in Mashhad, Iran, 15 July 1939. He studied at hawza ‘ilmiyya of Qum. He was a key figure in the Islamic revolution and close confidant of Khomeini. In 1979 he was appointed by Khomeini to the powerful position of Tehran’s Friday Prayer Leader. From 1981 to 1989, he was elected President of Iran and, since Khomeini’s death, he has become the Supreme Leader as elected by the Assembly of Experts on June 1989. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Khamenei). In 1994, he was nominated as a marja’ al-taqlid. For more information visit the website of the office of Supreme Leader (http://www.leader.ir) and his official website (http://www.khamenei.ir).

108‘Ali Husaini Sistani was born on 4 august 1930 in Mashhad, Iran, to a family of religious scholars. After studying in his hometown, he moved to Qum where he studied fiqh, usul al-fiqh and other religious knowledge under the guidance of renowned ayatollahs, including Hujjat Kuhkamari and Allamah Husayn Tabataba’i. He then moved to Najaf, Iraq, to study under, among others, the Grand Ayatollah Khoei (d. 1992) and Muhsin al-Hakim (d. 1970). He is heavily influenced by the prominent quietist scholar Grand Ayatollah Khoei who made him a marja al-taqlid in the 1960s. Before his death in 1992, Khoei named Sistani as his successor. Since the American invasion of Iraq in 2003, he has played an increasingly political role in Iraq (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Sistani). Unlike Khomeini, and his successor Khamene’i, Sistani adheres to a quietist tradition of Shi‘ism, envisaging the participation of ‘ulama’ in the public and legal spheres while discouraging their involvement in the state (Rahimi 2004). Sistani has a website - www.sistani.org - in a variety of languages, including Indonesian.

109 Muhammad Taqi Bahjat was born in 1915 in Fuman, Iran and began his religious education in his hometown. In 1929 he went to Qum and moved to Karbala and then Najaf, Iraq, to study under renowned ‘ulama’. In 1944 he returned to Qum to study under Ayatollah Burujerdi and Hujjat Kuhkamari (http://www.al-shia.com/html/eng/ser/ulama/ola-behj_h.htm).

110 Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah was born in Iraq in 1935 and studied in Najaf under renowned ‘ulama’, including the Grand Ayatollah Khoei and Muhsin al-Hakim. He moved to Lebanon in 1966 and is alleged to be the spiritual leader of Hisbullah (hisb Allah, party of God). Several studies on his ideals and roles in Lebanon have been conducted. For his theological thought, see Abu-Rabi (1996:220-247). His website is http://www.bayynat.org.lb (in Arabic, English, and French) and contains his fatwas and thoughts.

111 Maulana (1998:32)

112 Ahmad Baragbah, interview, An-Nashr (14/1998:53-54)

113 Alatas (2002:114)

114 Syarif Hidayatullah Husein (2001:90)

115 Ba‘abud (2002:45)

116 QS (8:41)

117 Turkan (http://aljawad.tripod.com/arsipbuletin/khumus.htm)

118 QS (4:24)

119 Hidayatullah Husein Al-Habsyi (2002:173)

120 Anam (1998:59-64)

121 Hidayatullah Husein Al-Habsyi (2002:176)

122 Rakhmat (1997:242)

123 Khalid Al-Walid, interview, (3/7/2002). On the practice of mut‘a and its consequences, see Marcus and Feillard (200).

124 Rakhmat (2002:ix-x)

125 Rakhmat (1994:289-304)

126 Al-Muhdhar (1998:1)

127 Al-Muhdhar (1998:42)

128 QS (5:35)

129 Rakhmat (2001:188)

130 Al-Muhdhar (1998:42-43)

131 QS (12:93, 96)

132 Rakhmat (2001:209-224)

133 Rakhmat (2001:225-226)

134 For the origins and early development of the celebration of this Muslim festival, see Kaptein (1994). One of his conclusions is that the celebration of mawlid is originally a Shi‘i tradition, first held in the 11th century by a Fatimid caliph in Egypt (Kaptein 1994:28-29).

135 Bubur sura is rice flour porridge with coconut milk and contains various food-stuffs including vegetables, beans, peanuts, potatoes, corns, fish, meat, and eggs. In Cirebon, West Java, it is distributed to neighbours and close kin (Muhaimin 1999:109).

136 The victorious events upheld in Sunnism include God’s granting of His grace to Adam and Eve when they requested repentance after being thrown out of paradise; God’s endowing of Henoch (Idris) with noble position; Moses’ receiving a revelation from God in the Sinai desert; Moses’ escape from the Pharaoh’s chase and the Pharaoh being drowned in the Red sea; Noah’s arrival on land after the long and severe flood; Abraham’s escape from being burned by King Namrud of Babylon; Joseph being freed from jail and clearing his name in the rape of Zulaikha, the then Egyptian king’s wife; Jacob’s recovery from serious eye disease; Jonas’ escape from the belly of a sea monster and David and Solomon gaining the positions of king and apostle of God (Muhaimin 1999:108).

137 Rakhmat (1997:324)

138 Suara Ummah (1/3/2004:72)

139 Suara Ummah (1/3/2004/72)

140 Mahayana (2003:8)

141Al-Kaff (http://aljawad.tripod.com/)

142 Rakhmat (2003:3)

143 Rakhmat (1999:322)

144 Rakhmat (1999:363)

145 Enayat (2005:175). Enayat points out that the terms usually used, ‘dissimulation’ or ‘concealment’, are no satisfactory translations of the standard translation of taqiyya in English (Enayat 2005:175).

146 Alatas (2002:142)

147 Alatas (2002:144)

148 QS (3:28)

149 Alatas (2002:143), Suherman (1998:354)

150 QS (16:106)

151 Enayat (2005:175)

152 Alatas (2002:144)

153 Rakhmat (1998a:lix)

154 Rakhmat (1998a:lix)

155 Rakhmat (1998a:lix)

156 Rakhmat (1998:381)

157 Tiras (24/11/1997:67)

158 Bagir, interview, Forum Keadilan (4/5/2003:57)

159 Bagir, interview, Forum Keadilan (4/5/2003:57)

160 Bagir, interview, Forum Keadilan (4/5/2003:56)

161 Aula (November 1993:60)

162 Husein Al-Habsyi (1991:6)

163 Husein Al-Kaff, interview, (19/5/2004)

164 Rakhmat (2002:51)

CHAPTER FOUR: DA‘WA

1 Boland (1971:193)

2 Safwan (http://rausyanfikr.tripod.com/makatul/sosio-agama.htm)

3 Abaza (2004:179)

4 Formerly, a list of the Shi‘i foundations in Indonesia could be seen at http://www.alhuda.or.id/data-yayasan.htm. However, the current homepage of the Islamic Cultural Centre of Jakarta no longer publishes this information.

5 Included in this category is a famous Shi‘i religious teacher Husein Syafi‘i al-Muhdar of Jember, East Java who accuses those who establish Shi‘i foundations of having social and economic interests rather than promoting religious teachings to the Muslim community (Husein Syafi‘i al-Muhdar, interview, 12/10/2002).

6 Bourdieu (1986)

7 Nurjulianti and Arief Subhan (1995:20)

8 Wisananingrum (2001:84)

9 Syi‘ar (July 2002:46)

10 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:17-18)

11 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:19)

12 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:19-20)

13 Rakhmat (1993:6)

14 With the exception of the ideals of Muthahhari Foundation which are taken from its brochure (1993), my analysis of the ideals of the Shi‘i foundations is based on information taken from their homepages: http://aljawad.tripod.com/aljawad.htm, http://www.fatimah.org/aboutus.htm and http://www.icc-jakarta.com/statis.php?id=abt (formerly http://www.alhuda.or.id/profile.htm). A brief profile of the Muthahhari, Al-Jawad and Fatimah Foundations can be seen in separate editions of Syi‘ar: October 2003:59-61; February 2003:51-52; and July 2002:46), respectively.

15 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:20)

16 Husein Shahab, interview, (2/4/2004)

17 Husein Al-Kaf (1421/2000:2)

18 Abaza (2004:82)

19 Howarth (2002:262)

20 Bourdieu (1986)

21 Gade (2004:147)

22 This topic will be discussed in detail in the following chapter.

23 Fischer and Abedi (1990:511)

24 Abaza (2004:179)

25 Al-Tanwir (25/5/2003:4)

26 Nagata (1984:82)

27 Syi‘ar (Ramadan 1423:47)

28 An-Nashr (7/July-August 1997, 14/1999)

29 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:24-27)

30 Nasr (1988:121)

31 There are at least two indications supporting the great interest of urbanites in Sufism: first, the courses on Sufism attracted a large number of participants; second, huge sales of books on Sufism.

32 Zen Al-Hadi completed his MA at Al-Azhar University in Cairo. Besides being a ustadh, he is known as a spiritual healer in Jakarta.

33 Othman Omar Shihab graduated from Al-Azhar University in Cairo and is currently a famous da‘i who often appears as a preacher on several religious television programmes. He is a descendant of the great learned man Sayyid Uthman bin Yahya (d. 1914).

34 Muchtar Adam is the head of the Babussalam Pesantren in Bandung. A more detailed description of him can be found in Chapter Seven.

35 Sayyid Abdul Qadir al-Habsyi is a lecturer at State Islamic University in Jakarta.

36 Said Agiel Siradj is a Nahdlatul Ulama leader.

37 This is a standard collection of Shi‘i prayers compiled by Abbas Muhammad Rida al-Qummi (1877-1941).

38 Syi‘ar (October/2002:50-51)

39 Sila (2002:7)

40 Zubaidah cited in Rosyidi (2004:122-123)

41 Azra (1995)

42 Rakhmat (1986:65-66)

43 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:39)

44 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:39-43)

45 Syi‘ar (Ramadan 2004:52-53)

46 Syi‘ar (October 2003:54-56)

47 Suara Ummah (4/1/2004:60-70)

48 Suara Ummah (4/1/2004/:70)

49 Poston (1992:132)

50 Nagata (1984:82)

51 Suara Ummah (1/1/2004:55-56)

52 Al-Tanwir (29/3/1993:8)

53 K.H. Abdul Fatah Ghazali was a prominent learned man in Bandung and close friend of Jalaluddin Rakhmat who delivered special sermon at the Munawwarah Mosque in memoriam of the learned man who passed away on 6 May 2001.

54 Dr. Afif Muhammad is a lecturer at Gunung Djati State Institute for Islamic Studies (now State Islamic University) in Bandung. He has written several articles and translated numerous books from Arabic.

55 K.H. Abdullah Gymnastiar, popularly known as Aa Gym, is a famous da‘i in Indonesia today and the head of Pesantren Daarut Tauhid in Bandung.

56 Dedy Djamaluddin Malik is currently a member of parliament from PAN. He was an activist at and secretary of the Muthahhari Foundation and a former member of the executive board of IJABI. He completed his Masters in Communications at UNPAD with a thesis about the Islamic thoughts of Abdurrahman Wahid, Nurcholish Madjid, Amien Rais and Jalaluddin Rakhmat.

57 Agus Effendi is an alumnus of Pesantren Gontor. He is a former teacher and executive of the Muthahhari Foundation.

58 A. Hajar Sanusi was an activist and executive of the Muthahhari Foundation.

CHAPTER FIVE: EDUCATION

1 Dhofier (1999:173)

2 Bukhori (n.d:17)

3 Zamzami (n.d:102-103)

4 Panitia (n.d:2)

5 Muhsin Husein (1997:5)

6 Al-Isyraq (1/1/1417)

7 Al-Isyraq (1/1/1417)

8 Pamphlet (2002/2003)

9 Dhofier (1999:25)

10 Dhofier classifies two types of santri within the pesantren tradition: the santri mukim who live in the pesantren complex and the santri kalong, the students coming from villages surrounding the pesantren who do not live in the pesantren complex (1999:31).

11 Dialog Jumat (28/5/2004)

12 Zamzami (n.d:112-113)

13 Ratib is certain formula of dhikr (remembrance) and prayers formulated by a Sufi teacher. YAPI in which many teachers as well as students are Indonesian Arabs practises that formulated by a famous hadrami Sufi Abdullah al-Haddad so that it is commonly called Ratib Haddad as it is very well known among this group.

14 Zamzami (n.d:112)

15 Al-Isyraq (1/1/1417)

16 Pamphlet (2002/2003)

17 Al-Isyraq (7/2/1418:42)

18 Sekilas (n.d:6-7)

19 Sekilas (n.d:7)

20 Sekilas (n.d:7-8), Ali Umar Al-Habsyi, interview, (5/10/2002)

21 Dhofier (1999:22)

22 Pamphlet (2002/2003)

23 Sekilas (n.d:8)

24 Abu Ali (1417:18)

25 Sekilas (n.d:8)

26 Zainuddin et al. (2000:33)

27 Al-Isyraq (1/1/1417)

28 Zamzami (n.d:113)

29 Nurjulianti and Subhan (1995:24)

30 Ahmad Baragbah, interview, (21/10/2002)

31 Tiras (3/2/1996:29)

32 Ahmad Baragbah, interview, (21/10/2002)

33 Tiras (3/2/1996:29)

34 Nurjulianti and Subhan (1995:29)

35 Nurjulianti and Subhan (1995:24)

36 See for the notion of habitus Chapter Two, nt. 54 above.

37 Rakhmat (1997:446-447)

38 This statement was made during his speech to the Al-Jawad Foundation in Bandung which was then published in Buletin Al-Jawad. The article is entitled “Menanamkan Sikap Persaudaraan Kaum Muslim (To plant the spirit of brotherhood among Muslims)” (http://aljawad.tripod.com/arsipbuletin/muslim.htm).

39 Wisananingrum (2001:81-82)

40 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:20)

41 For more information on the ideals of the Muthahhari Foundation and a brief biography of Murtada Muthahhari, see p.126-127.

42 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:21-22)

43 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:23-24)

44 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:24-27), Kompas (29/3/1992), Editor (49/4/1991)

45 Al-Tanwir (19/1992:3)

46 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:27)

47 (http://smuth.net/Profile/03-sejarah.asp accessed 18/10/2005)

48 Quantum Learning by DePorter and Hernacki was translated into Indonesian and published in 1999 by Kaifa, an Offshoot of Mizan.

49 Rakhmat (1997:351-359), Bandung Pos (24/5/1994)

50 Rakhmat (1997:359-365), Rakhmat (1999:33-35)

51 Rakhmat (1999:35)

52 Yulina (1997:44)

53 Howard Gardner pinpoints eight kinds of intelligences that may be possessed by individuals, namely linguistic, logic-mathematic, spatial, musical, kinetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic (Hernowo 2001:160-162).

54 Al-Tanwir (4/11/2001)

55 Al-Tanwir (4/11/2001)

56 Al-Tanwir has continuously reported all the visits and comparative studies by educational institutions throughout the country.

57 Ali (2002:176)

58 A description of this journal can be seen in Chapter Six.

59 Its title is Muthahhari: Sang Mujtahid Sang Mujahid (Bagir 1988)

60 The full name of the publisher is Muthahhari Press, Warisan Intelektual untuk Kesucian and Pencerahan Pemikiran (Muthahhari Press: Intellectual Legacy for Purity and Enlightenment of Thought) and it is headed by Jalaluddin Rakhmat’s second child, Miftah F. Rakhmat. Its publication of two works by a student team of the SMU Plus shows the creative activity of its students. The first book is Pintu Ilmu: 1001 Filsafat Hidup Pencinta Ilmu (The Gate of Knowledge: 1001 Philosophies of Life of Knowledge Lovers) and the other is a translated book entitled Mukhtasar Shahifah Husainiyyah: Nasihat, Kisah and Doa Imam Husein as (the Abridged Husayniyya Psalm: Advice, Story, and Prayers of Imam Husayn).

61 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:39-43)

62 Al-Tanwir (19/1992:4)

63 Al-Tanwir (200/2001:6)

64 For information on the Lazuardi foundation, visit http://www.lazuardi.web.id/aboutus.htm

65 Selayang Pandang (n.d:5)

CHAPTER SIX: PUBLISHING

1 This figure is derived from catalogues of the libraries of the Muthahhari Foundation, the Fatimah Foundation, the RausyanFikr Foundation, the Al-Jawad Foundation, and the ICC of Al-Huda.

4 Shafwan (http://rausyanfikr.tripod.com/makatul/sosio-agama.htm)

5 Peeters (1998:218)

6 Bagir (2003:71).

7 Bagir (2003:34-35)

8 Bagir (2003:35)

9 Bagir (2003:46)

10 Hernowo (2003:15)

11 O. Hashem (2002:12)

12 Pembina (16/1/1970)

13 Boland (1971:227-228). On polemics against Christianity by Muslim apologetics including O. Hashem, see Ropi (1999).

14 For this, see Chapter Eight.

15 Tamara (1986:24)

16 Von der Mehden (1993); Meuleman (n.d)

17 Azra (1999:223)

18 This is based on catalogues from Mizan and Lentera Publishers, and from the libraries of the Muthahhari Foundation, Fatimah Foundation, RausyanFikr Foundation, Al-Jawad Foundation, and ICC of Al-Huda.

19 Mutahhari was one of the founding members of the institution in 1965 and invited Shari‘ati to join it in 1968. By 1969-70, Shari‘ati’s lectures were becoming increasingly revolutionary and attracting unfavourable attention from ‘ulama’ and the state. Mutahhari accused Shari‘ati of being a Wahhabi, and tried to persuade him to moderate his position. In 1971 Mutahhari withdrew from the Husainiyya-yi Irshad and even after the death of Shari‘ati in 1977 he wrote to Khomeini about him, “complaining of his dishonesty, slander of the clergy and deviation, and requesting a ban on his works until they have been revised or corrected” (Martin 2000:79).

20 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:19)

21 Bagir (1988)

22 Rakhmat (1984)

23 Rakhmat (1991, 1993)

24 Madrid (2001:64)

25 Madrid (2001:65)

26 Rais (1991), Rahardjo (1983), Rakhmat (1988), Probotinggi (1986), Hadimulyo (1985), Bagir (1989)

27 Ridwan (1999)

28 Von der Mehden (1993:89)

29 Fitra alms is an obligatory alms that must be paid at the end of the fasting month of Ramadan.

30 Martin (2000:115). An English translation of this book is available at http://www.wandea.org.pl/khomeini-pdf/hukumati-i-islami.pdf).

31 Yamani (2001)

32 Yamani (2002)

33 Sihbudi (1996)

34 The perennial philosophy (philosophia perennis, Latin) can be understood as universal knowledge which is based on universal principles and gained through tradition that exists at the heart of all religions. It aims to return the human being to its genuine nature - the primordial self (Nasr 1992).

35 Its two reports were titled “Prof. Seyyed Hossein Nasr: Agama Masa Depan Peduli Lingkungan” (Prof. Seyyed Hossein Nasr: the Religion of the Future Caring about the Environment) (Republika 29/6/1993) or “Seyyed Hossein Nasr: Juru Bicara Islam di Barat” (Seyyed Hossein Nasr: A Spokesman of Islam in the West) (Republika 20/8/1993).

36 Tempo presents an interview with Nasr in “Kembali ke Tradisi yang Utuh” (Return to the Complete Tradition) (Tempo 10/7/1993).

37 “Nasr Menegur Manusia Modern” (Nasr Admonishes Modern Man) (Panji Masyarakat 761/1993).

38 Azra (1993:106)

39 The first translation of Nasr’s books into Indonesian was done by the prominent intellectual Muslim Abdurrahman Wahid and his brother Hasyim Wahid under the title Islam dalam Cita dan Fakta (Ideals and Realities of Islam) published by Lembaga Penunjang Pembangunan Nasional (LEPPENAS), Jakarta (1981).

40 The book was translated by Djohan Effendi.

41 This can be seen in a footnote in Chapter Nine.

42 Rakhmat (1999:xii)

43 The book was published by Islamic Research Institute of Jakarta and then republished in 1972 and 1980 by Ramadhani of Solo.

44 Bagir (2003:73)

45 Brunner (2004:51)

46 For example, this can be seen in a series of texts by of Haidar Ali (Al-Muslimun 225/12/1988, 227/2/1989, 228/3/1989). An Indonesian translation of Mahmud al-Zu’bi’s criticism of al-Musawi entitled Sunni yang Sunni: Tinjauan Dialog Sunnah Syiah-nya al-Musawi (Sunni Sunnism: A Review of al-Musawi’s Sunni Shi‘i Dialogue) was also published by Ganesha Publisher in Bandung in 1989.

47 Al-Baqir (1983:xxiii)

48 The writings are “Dialog Sunnah Syi‘ah” (Panji Masyarakat 11/7/1983 and “Syi‘ah: Bayangan Sebuah Jembatan” (Shi‘ism: Shadow of a Dialogue) (Tempo 11/6/1983). Syu‘bah Asa’s strong anti-Shi‘i attitude can be found in chapter eight and his writing (1998).

49 The most significant of these books are Ja‘far Subhani’s Studi Kritis Faham Wahabi: Tauhid and Syirik (Critical Study of Wahhabism: Tawhid and Polytheism, 1987), Tawassul, Tabarruk, Ziarah Kubur, Karamah Wali Termasuk Ajaran Islam: Kritik Atas Faham Wahabi (Tawassul, Tabarruk, Visitation to Tomb, Karama [Miracle] of Walis are Included in Islamic Teachings: Criticism to Wahhabism, 1989) and his Tentang Dibenarkannya Syafaat dalam Islam Menurut al-Qur’an dan Sunnah (About the Recommendation of Intercessions in Islam According to the Qur’an and Sunna, 1992), and Ja‘far Murtada al-‘Amili’s Perayaan Maulid, Khaul dan Hari-Hari Besar Islam Bukan Sesuatu Yang Haram (The Celebration of Mawlid, Khaul, and Great Islamic Festivals is not Forbidden, 1990).

50 Nasr (1989:8)

51 The first book, Shahifah Fathimiyyah: Doa-doa Suci Putri Nabi (Scroll of Fatima: Pure Supplications of Prophet’s Daughter) was translated by Jalaluddin Rakhmat and M. Taufik Yahya (2001). The second, Mukhtasar Shahifah Husainiyyah: Nasihat, Kisah dan Doa Imam Husain as (Abridgement of Scroll of Husayn: Advice, Story, and Supplication of Imam Husayn [upon whom be peace]) was translated by the translation team at SMU Muthahhari (2003). The third, Shahifah Sajjadiyyah: Gita Suci Keluarga Nabi (the Scroll of Imam al-Sajjad: Pure Hymn of the Prophet’s Household), was translated by Jalaluddin Rakhmat (1998). All three books contained introductory notes by Jalaluddin Rakhmat and were published by the Muthahhari Press. The fourth book, Shahifah Shadiqiyyah: Pelita Cinta dan Renungan Doa Imam Ja‘far Ash-Shadiq (Scroll of Imam al-Sadiq: Light of Love and Prayer Contemplation of Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiqh), was compiled and translated by a team of Qum alumni and published by Morteza of Bandung (2004).

52 Jafri (http://al-islam.org/sahifa/intro.html accessed 13/9/2005)

53 For instance, Mizan has a branch called Penerbit Misykat for publishing books on do‘a, whilst Pustaka Zahra has published ‘Seri Doa Mustajab’ containing not less than ten books, three of which are best sellers. Some of these supplications are supplemented with cassettes containing recordings of supplications provided by Ahmad Muhajir al-Muhdar.

54 Coser (1982:362)

55 Ali Umar Al-Habsyi (2002:335-349)

56 Abu Amar (2002:57)

57 Abu Qurba (2003)

58 Hidayatullah Husein (2001:79)

59 Mustafa (1999)

60 Hidayatullah Al-Habsyi (2002:169-217)

61 A widely held view among Sunnis, based on the revelation in two chapters of the Qur’an - namely QS: 113 and 114 - that the Prophet Muhammad was bewitched by a popular witch called Labid bin al-A‘sam (Ali Umar al-Habsyi 1998: 21).

62 Sukardi (2002)

63 O. Hashem (1987)

64 M. Hashem (1987)

65 Criticism of M. Hashem’s history of Abdullah bin Saba’ was included in Al-Muslimun (217/4/1988) and republished by Suara Masjid. A slightly different version of the same text was republished in the form of leaflet by Ma‘had Ad-Dirasatil Islamiyah of Jakarta.

66 M. Hashem (1989)

67 In addition to Abu Hanifah’s article “Koreksi atas Buku Saqifah“ (Correction to the Saqifah Book) serialised in Al-Muslimun (monthly from 213/12/1987 to 221/8/1988), Saleh Nahdi wrote a book entitled Saqifah, Awal Persatuan Ummat (Saqifa: the Beginning of Unity of Umma) that strongly rejects Hashem’s interpretation.

68 Labib (2004:11)

69 Fischer (1980:13)

70 In Indonesia, particularly among Shi‘is, the term journal is used to refer to scientific periodicals mainly contain serious articles, while the term bulletin is used for periodicals which are limited in page and rubric. Magazines contain various rubrics.

71 Rakhmat (1990:4)

72 The review is published in the daily Pikiran Rakyat (27/5/1990) and then included in a brochure of the foundation (Yayasan Muthahhari 1993).

73 Rakhmat (1990:4)

74 Yayasan Muthahhari (1993:64)

75 Hidayat (2000:n.p)

76 Hidayat (2000:n.p)

77 Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kehidupan Beragama (1985/1986:81-82)

78 Ali (2002:293)

79 Al-Isyraq (1/1/1417)

80 Suara Ummah (1/1/2004:4)

81 Suara Ummah (3/1/2004:2)

82 Suara Ummah (3/1/2004: 2).

83 Atiyeh (1995:xiii)

84 Jalaluddin Rakhmat, interview, (2/1/2003)

85 Takim (2000:474)

86 As mentioned in Chapter Two, the Indonesian translation of this work from Arabic (Thumma Ihtadaytu) was provided by Husein Shahab, a prominent Shi‘i ustadh in Indonesia. Its English version is entitled Then I was Guided. Both Arabic and English versions are available online (http://www.al-islam.org/guided/21.html).

87 Al-Samawi (1993:183)

88 (http://islam.gov.my/e-fatwa/mufti/fatwa-warta-view.asp?keyID=327, accessed 18/10/2005). Other forbidden Shi‘i works in Indonesian include Tabataba’i’s Tafsir Al-Mizan Mengupas Ayat-ayat Roh dalam Al-Quran (Tafsir al-Mizan Analysing the Verses of Spirit in the Qur’an) and Shari‘ati’s Wanita Dimata dan Hati Rasulullah (Women in the Eyes and Heart of Muhammad).

89 Al-Jawad (Sha‘ban 1421/2000:2)

90 Rakhmat (1997:488)

91 Eickelman and Anderson (1997:49)

92 Abdullah (1996:75)

93 Eickelman and Anderson (1997:52)

CHAPTER SEVEN: THE MASS ORGANISATION: IJABI

1 Umar Shahab, interview, (9/1/2003)

2 Furqon Bukhari, interview, (10/9/2002), Umar Shahab, interview, (9/1/2003)

3 Jalaluddin Rakhmat, interview, by Irwan Natsir, (Hikmah 1/11/1997:15)

5 Jalaluddin Rakhmat, interview, (2/1/2003)

6 Gatra (15/7/2000)

7 Gatra (15/7/2000)

8 Pikiran Rakyat (2/7/2000), Metro (2/7/2000)

9 Al-Tanwir (16/7/2000)

10 This supplication is practiced widely among the followers of traditionalist Islam in Java. It is commonly uttered by people in mosques prior to the performing of congregational daily obligatory prayers (Machasin, interview, 22/2/2005). Bases his view on this practise, the foremost NU leader Abdurrahman Wahid suggests that NU is culturally Shi‘i.

11 Al-Tanwir (16/7/2000:4)

12 Al-Tanwir (16/7/2000:4)

13 Pikiran Rakyat (2/7/2000)

14 Metro (2/7/2000)

15 Pikiran Rakyat (10/7/2000)

16 Wisananingrum (2001:67-68)

17 Rakhmat (1998:244)

18 Pikiran Rakhmat (2/7/2000)

19 Rakhmat (1998:240-242)

20 The complete version of the hadith can be seen p.85 fn.7

21 http://www.ijabi.or.id/bspweb/maknalogoing.htm

22 QS (33:33)

23 Pikiran Rakyat (2/7/2000)

24 http://www.ijabi.or.id/deforganisasi.htm

25 Pikiran Rakyat (10/7/2000)

26 Pikiran Rakyat (2/7/2000)

27 Pikiran Rakyat (10/7/2000)

28 Pikiran Rakyat (10/7/2000)

29 Rakhmat (1999:294-295)

30 Tekad (10-11/7/2000)

31 Al-Tanwir (17/9/2000)

32 This is different from the popular acronym JABOTABEK (Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang, Bekasi).

33 Al-Tanwir (2/7/2000)

34 Budiono is a Shi‘i figure in Jakarta. Besides leading Shi‘i foundations, in 1998 he founded a nasyid group called K’PAS (Kelompok Pencinta Aktif Shalawat, the Active Lover Group of Invocation) that has been invited to perform at religious events in Jakarta and West Java.

35 Al-Tanwir (3/5/2003:1-5)

36 Bahtera (October 2003:66-71)

37 Al-Kaff (2001:2)

38 Bahruddin Fanani, interview, (16/10/2002)

39 Ahmad Baragbah, interview, (21/10/2002)

40 Alison (2000:28)

41 Sayyid Usman, for instance, strongly rejected marriages between a Sharifa and a non-Sayyid man - either Arab or non-Arab – even if her wali (guardian) agreed to it. Sayyid Usman maintained that if a marriage of this kind occurs, it should be nullified, if necessary by force (Azra 1995:12).

42 Assagaf (2000:272)

43 Assagaf (2000:301-302)

44 Ahmad Muhajir al-Muhdar, interview, (29/8/2002)

45 Mobini Kesheh (1999:92-107)

46 Ahmad Muhajir al-Muhdar, interview, (29/8/2002)

47 Bahruddin, interview, (4/9/2002)

48 Ahmad Muhajir al-Muhdar, interview, (29/8/2002)

49 Ahmad Muhajir al-Muhdar, interview, (29/8/2002)

50 Stereotype means “a set of ideas based on distortion, exaggeration, and oversimplification that is applied to all members of a group” (Shepard 1981:216)

51 Jalaluddin Rakhmat, interview, (2/1/2003)

52 Gatra (6/12/2003:62)

53 Jalaluddin Rakhmat, interview, (2/1/2003)

54 Gatra (6/12/2003:62)

55 Umar Shahab, interview, (9/1/2003)

56 Ahmad Muhajir al-Muhdar, interview, (29/8/2002)

57 Haidar Bagir, interview (5/4/2004)

58 Ali (2002:413-414)

59 Khalid Al-Walid, interview, (3/7/2002)

60 Ali (2002:417-418)

61 Ali (2002:418)

62 Other foundations include AMALI (Medan), Al-Baqir (Bangil), Al-Hujjah (Jember), Al-Kazim (Cirebon), Al-Mujtaba (Purwakarta), CIS (Jakarta), Darul Taqrib (Jepara), Al-Batul (Jakarta), FAHMI (Depok), ICC of Al-Huda (Jakarta), Pelita Hidayah (Malang), Al-Kautsar (Malang), Al-Hakim (Lampung), Safinatun Najah (Wonosobo), Al-Muhibbin (Probolinggo), Al-Aqilah (Tangerang), Al-Wahdah (Solo), Al-Mawaddah (Kendal), Al-Muntazar (Samarinda), Al-Huda (Sumenep), Miftahul Huda (Tangerang), and As-Sajjad (Jakarta). The local organisation is FAJAR (Forum Jamaah Ahlul Bait Jawa Timur).

63 Ali (2002:431-432)

64 Suara Umma (1/1/2004:55-57)

65 Husein Shahab, interview, (2/4/2004)

CHAPTER EIGHT: SUNNI RESPONSES

1 Federspiel (2001:87)

2 Noer (1973:95)

3 The title is “Kawin Mut‘ah di Negeri Iran” (Mut‘a in Iran) written by Sulhawi Rubba (July 1979).

4 Abduh and Abu Huzaifah (1998:xiv-xviii). A. Ghozy, the head of Pesantren Persis in Bangil, affirmed that only Persis has declared Shi‘is to be unbelievers (A. Ghozy, interview, 4/10/2002). Shi‘ism has become a sensitive issue for Persis members. This is illustrated by my experiences during an interview with A. Ghozy. Eight other members of Persis attended, misunderstanding the purpose of the interview. They had expected a debate on Shi‘ism and seemed disappointed when I explained I was only gathering data on Persis’ official opinion of Shi‘ism.

5 Husin (1998:142)

6 Husin (1998:139-140)

7 This organisation was founded in Mecca in 1962.

8 Goldberg (1990:156)

9 Goldberg (1990:156)

10 Goldberg (1990:163)

11 Goldberg (1990:164)

12 Abduh and Abu Huzaifah (1998:xxi)

13 Pimpinan Pusat Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiyyah (1996:32)

14 Saleh (2001:75)

15 Noer (1973:94-95)

16 Abduh and Abu Huzaifah (1998:xii)

17 For Abdurrahman Wahid’s response to Shi‘ism, see the last section of this chapter. Regarding Said Agiel Siradj, polemics concerning his alleged adherence to Shi‘ism have appeared in a number of Indonesian national media. These polemics started when Said Agiel Siradj criticized the concept of Aswaja (ahl al-sunna wa al-jamaá) as formulated by the founder of the NU Hasyim Asyari. Several local NU ‘ulama’ considered him a heretic and as a result he was dismissed from his position as vice-secretary of the Religious Advisory Council on the national board of NU.

18 Kaptein (2004:116)

19 Adlani et al. (1997:90)

20 Mudzhar (1993:114)

21 Mudzhar (1993:115)

22 Tempo (17/3/1984:66)

23 Natsir (1984:9-10)

24 Natsir (1984:9-10)

25 Media Dakwah (November 1997:41)

26 Media Indonesia (5/10/1997)

27 Adlani et al. (1997:125)

28 Adlani et al. (1997:123)

29 Barton and Feilard (1999:26)

30 Amsyari (1994:155)

31 Aula (September 1993:24-28)

32 Aula (October 1993:55)

33 Ratu Prawiranegara (1982:27)

34 Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kehidupan Beragama (1985/1986:81-82, 1986/1987:65-66)

35 Surat Edaran (5/12/1983)

36 Despite the official anti-Shi‘i view of the department, the Ministers of Religious Affairs have been accused by anti-Shi‘i groups of having paved the way for the development of Shi‘ism in Indonesia. The late Munawir Sjadzali who occupied the position of minister for two periods (1983-1993) is said to have shocked the religious authority through his ‘re-actualisation’ of Islamic law project. Anti-Shi‘i groups saw the spread of Shi‘ism as a side effect of Munawir Sjadzali’s ‘re-actualisation’ of Islam, as the following quote shows: “In the mean time the ‘needle’ of Shi‘ism slowly but surely is stabbed into the youth bodies with the enticement of mut‘a that is permitted, whereas all this time this type of fornication with the label of religion was not known” (Media Dakwah November 1997:41). For the re-actualisation of Islam in Indonesia, see Van Dijk (1991). A different accusation was directed to Quraish Shihab. When he became the Minister of Religious Affairs for some months at the end of Suharto’s presidency in early 1998, M. Quraish Shihab was accused of being a Shi‘i. He was considered to have played an important role in influencing the MUI’s attitude to Shi‘ism (Jaiz 2002:114). LPPI distributes a brochure entitled Syiah dan Quraish Shihab (Shi‘ism and Quraish Shihab), which includes a statement by a friend of Shihab’s in Cairo that Shihab often defends Shi‘ism. This has become a controversial issue in the Indonesian media, requiring the chairman of MUI, Hasan Basri, to clarify that Quraish Shihab is not a Shi‘i but he refuses to regard the Shi‘is as infidels (Jawa Pos; Republika; Media Indonesia; Terbit 27/3/1998). The head of LPPI, M. Amin Djamaluddin showed me another manuscript which was to be published in the event that Quraish Shihab would have been reappointed in President Habibie’s cabinet (1998-1999). Shihab’s denials that he is a Shi‘i can be found, for instance, in Terbit (17/3/1998). A large number of opinions are published in the media (for instance, Terbit 20/3/1998, 26/3/1998, 31/3/1998, Media Indonesia 12/4/1998) including a long article entitled “MUI, Quraish Shihab, dan Seputar Isu Syi‘ah” (MUI, Quraish Shihab, and On the Subject of Shi‘i Issue) by Tontowy Djauhari Hamzah (Terbit 18/4/1998). All the writers ask him to prove his opposition to Shi‘ism. NU however supports Shihab. It is stated in Aula that the issue is raised due to the political interests of certain individuals or group (Aula April 1998:66).

37 Coser (1982:362)

38 Natsir (1984:9)

39 Brunner (2004:255-256)

40 Ende (1990:226)

41 Ende (1990:226)

42 Ende (1990:226)

43 The English version, The Shi‘ites and the Sunna, was printed at Lahore in 1984.

44 Its English translation is entitled Al-Khutoot Al-‘Areedah: Exposition and Refutation of the Sources upon which the Shiite Religion is Based, printed by the Islam Information Centre, South Netherlands, in 1983. This indicates the spread of anti-Shi‘i propagation in Europe. Takim also notes the intense anti-Shi‘i propagation via publications in America (Takim 2000:470).

45 Arifin (1984:11)

46 Nurwahid (2001:xii)

47 Its full title is Gen Syi‘ah: Sebuah Tinjauan Sejarah, Penyimpangan Aqidah dan Konspirasi Yahudi published by Darul Falah Publisher in Jakarta. Its original is Arabic al-Shi‘a, minhum ‘alayhim (The Shi‘is: from them on them).

48 Bashari (2001:vii)

49 Al-Buhairi (2001:300)

50 Al-Buhairi (2001:xi-xii)

51 Al-Buhairi (2001:299-300)

52 See www.fatimah.org

53 Bashari (2001:ix)

54 Ende (1990:221-222)

55 Azra (1994)

56 Rasjidi (1984:45). These scholars produced hadith collections namely al-Sahih, al-Sahih, al-Sunan, al-Sunan, al-Jami‘ al-Sahih, and al-Sunan respectively which are commonly called al-kutub al-sitta (the six books).

57 Tempo (12/5/1984)

58 Al-Muslimun (July 1984)

59 Tempo (14/4/1984:7)

60 Rasjidi (1984a:50)

61 Tempo (26/5/1984:7)

62 The titles are “Syi‘ah: Aliran yang Mana” (Shi‘ism: Which Stream) and “Syi‘ah: Kekeliruan Prof. Rasyidi” (Shi‘ism: the Mistakes of Prof. Rasyidi) respectively (Tempo 9/6/1984). Al-Habsyi’s criticism is entitled “Syi‘ah: Koreksi terhadap Rasjidi” (Tempo 26/5/1984).

63 Rasjidi (1984b:9-10).

64 The article and its response are then provided as an appendix to the collection of Muchtar’s writings, Gerakan Kembali ke Islam: Warisan Terakhir A. Latief Muchtar, Ketua Umum Persis 1983-1997 (The Movement to Return to Islam: the Last Legacy of A. Latief Muchtar, the General Chairman of Persis 1983-1997) published in 1998 by Rosda in Bandung. It is interesting to note that Jalaluddin Rakhmat writes an introductory note to the book even though he is one of the polemicists writing in Risalah.

65 Muchtar (1998:324)

66 The title is “Sekali Lagi, Awas Akidah Syiah” (Once More, Beware of Shi‘i Doctrine) (Muchtar 1998:359-399).

67 Rakhmat (1998:400:413). Mahmud Shaltut’s fatwa is frequently used by Shi‘is to support their opinions with regard to Sunni-Shi‘i dialogues. The main part of the fatwa (I follow Brunner’s translation [2004:289-290]) reads: “1. Islam does not oblige any of its adherents to be affiliated with a specific madhhab. Rather, we say: Every Muslim has the right to follow any of the legal schools that have been properly handed down and whose rules in their specific (legal) effects are laid down in writing. A person who follows one of these schools is entitled to turn to any other without being subjected to reproach. 2. In the sense of the religious law of Islam (shar‘an), it is allowed to perform the divine service (ta‘abbud) in accordance with the rite of the Ja‘fariyya, which is known as Shi‘a imamiyya, in the same way as in accordance with all schools of the Sunnis.”

68 Muchtar (1998:403)

69 Abduh and Abu Huzaifah (1998)

70 Baabdullah (1990)

71 Fakhruddin (1990)

72 Baabdullah (1990:83-84)

73 Fakhruddin (1992)

74 The titles include Kawin Mut‘ah dalam Pandangan Islam (Mut‘a in the View of Islam) published in 1992 by Pedoman Ilmu Jaya, Jakarta and Mengapa Aku Menolak Dikawin Kontrak (Why I Reject being Married ‘in Contract’) published in 2000 by Pustaka AlRiyadl, Jakarta.

75 Thalib (1993)

76 Al-Habsyi (1991a)

77 Al-Muslimun (December 1987, January-December 1988)

78 Al-Muslimun (1992:67-74)

79 Al-Muslimun (1992:47-57)

80 The seminar was organised in Jakarta by the West Java branch of KOMPPAQ (Korps Mahasiswa Penghafal dan Pengkaji Al-Qur’an).

81 One of the critics is Muhammad Hidayat Nur Wahid who was at the time a student in Saudi Arabia. In Tempo (23/1/1988:14-15), he fiercely criticises Madjid’s opinion on the fictive figure of Abdullah bin Saba’.

82 Rasjidi’s paper is without title, whilst the papers of Fakhruddin and Hosen are “Hakikat Syiah dalam Segala Pandangan Hidupnya” (The Nature of Shi‘ism and its all Worldviews) and “Syi‘ah Sebagai Gerakan Yang Membahayakan Eksistensi Islam” (Shi‘ism as a Movement Dangerous to the Existence of Islam) respectively. Hosen’s was published in Mimbar Ulama (126/XII/1988).

83 They include, respectively, Khomenisme (Khomenism) Beberapa Kekeliruan Akidah Syiah (Several Mistakes of Shi‘i Doctrine), Mengenal Pokok-pokok Ajaran Syiah al-Imamiyah dan Perbedaannya dengan Ahlussunnah (Introducing Principal teachings of Imamiyya Shi‘ism and their Differences from those of Sunnism) and Syiah dan Sunnah (Shi‘ism and Sunnism) (Tempo 23/1/1988).

84 Tempo (6/2/1988)

85 They are Chehab Rukni Hilmy, Zulkifli (Tempo 6/2/1988), Doni Darmawan (13/2/1988), Alwi Shihab (20/2/1988), Abdul Kadir and Bismar Siregar (27/2/1988). The organiser of the seminar has clarified the missionary goal of the seminar (Tempo 6/2/1988). Fakhruddin’s response is published in the same magazine (20/2/1988).

86 Husin (1998:285)

87 Abduh and Abu Huzaifah (1998:xxv-xxvi)

88 Abduh and Abu Huzaifah (1998:24-25)

89 Abduh and Abu Huzaifah (1998:158-160)

90 Abduh and Abu Huzaifah (1998:158)

91 Abduh and Abu Huzaifah (1998:160)

92 Abduh and Abu Huzaifah (1998:160-162)

93 Among others, the writings include “Terimakasih Adanya Berita Seminar Syi‘ah” (Thanks for the News on Shi‘i Seminar) by Abdullah Ali (Pelita 7/10/1997), “Syi‘ah dan Suni Tidak Mungkin Bisa Bersatu” (Shi‘ism and Sunnism cannot be united) by Unang D. Mintareja (Pelita 31/10/1997), and “Buktikan Bahwa Syiah Tidak Sesat” (Prove that Shi‘ism is not False) by Tontowy Djauhari Hamzah (Panji Masyarakat 17/11/1997).

94 Among others, the views are included in such writings as Saefudin’s “Mengapa Syi‘ah Dipersoalkan?” (Why is Shi‘ism Questioned?) (Pelita 3/10/1997), Sobar Awanto Habsyi’s “Seminar Syiah: Sebuah Keputusan Yang Menyesatkan” (Seminar on Shi‘ism: A Misleading Decision) (Republika 28/9/1997), Achmad Al-Attas’s “Seminar Soal Syiah Yang Tidak Proporsional” (A Non-Proportional Seminar concerning Shi‘ism) (Panji Masyarakat 20/10/1997), Abdullah Husin’s “Seminar Tentang Syiah Tidak Ilmiah” (Seminar on Shi‘ism is unscientific) (Panji Masyarakat 20/10/1997), and B.I. Yakup’s “Mengapa Syiah Ditolak?” (Why is Shi‘ism Rejected?) (Tiras 20/10/1997).

95 Tiras (24/11/1997)

96 The articles are entitled “Seminar atau Pengadilan In Absentia” (Seminar or Sentencing In Absentia) (Pelita 10/10/1997), “Mengadili Syi‘ah, Tak Relevan” (Judging Shi‘ism, Irrelevant) (Media Indonesia 14/11/1997), “Titik Temu Sunni-Syiah dan Kerukunan Umat Beragama” (the Sunni-Shi‘i Meeting Point and Religious Harmony) (Pelita 17/10/1997), and “Polemik Suni-Syiah” (Sunni-Shi‘i Polemics) (Tiras 17/11/1997), respectively.

97 The full title is “Jawaban Lengkap terhadap Seminar Nasional Sehari tentang Syi‘ah 21 September 1997 di Masjid Istiqlal Jakarta” (A Complete Answer to One day National Seminar on Shi‘ism 21 September 1997 in Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta), which was republished under another title “Mengapa Kami Bela Syi‘ah” (Why we Defend Shi‘ism). The book Syi‘ah Ditolak Syi‘ah Dicari (Shi‘ism is Rejected, Shi‘ism is Sought) is published by ICC of Al-Huda, Jakarta, firstly in 2000 and reprinted in 2002.

98 Cited in Djamaluddin (n.d:40). These sentences are omitted in Hashem (2002).

99 Djamaluddin (1998:40)

100 Djamaluddin (1998:41)

101 The title is “Tudingan Soal Syiah Tidak Berdasar” (Accusations concerning Shi‘ism have no base) published in Panji Masyarakat (3/11/1997).

102 Panji Masyarakat (3/11/1997:8)

103 The title is “Manuver Politik Kedubes Iran” (the Political Manoeuvre of Iranian Embassy) published in Panji Masyarakat (8/12/1997)

104 Pelita (28/10/1997)

105 Panji Masyarakat (3/1/1997:74-75)

106 “The Principles of Falsity of Shi‘ism” is published by LPPI in accordance with the recommendations of the mentioned seminar.

107 Pelita (1/4/1998)

108 Zainuddin et al. (2000:113-114)

109 Wisananingrum (2001:92-93)

110 A compilation of his journalistic reports is published as a book entitled Aliran dan Paham Sesat di Indonesia (False Streams and Teachings in Indonesia) in which he includes “Gerakan Syiah di Indonesia” (the Shi‘i Movement in Indonesia) (Jaiz 2002:114-144), which is mainly derived from his report to Media Dakwah (October and November 1997).

111 Aula (September 1993:12-13)

112 Koran Tempo (4/6/2003)

113 Koran Tempo (5/6/2003). The report on the prohibition of Shi‘ism issued by the Mayor of Mataram, Moh. Ruslan, and its controversies is also covered by Lombok Post (3-9/6/2003)

114 Gatra (25/5/1996)

115 Ali Hasan, interview, (11/9/2002)

116 An-Nashr (18/2000:57-59), Tempo (http://www.tempointeraktif.com/majalah/arsip/thn03/edisi07/per-1.htm accessed 17/4/2002)

117 Ummat (10/11/1997:21)

118 Kompas (31/10/1997:15)

119 Rais (1984:ix)

120 Rais (1988)

121 Rakhmat (1991:145-153, 1998:81-85)

122 Al-Muslimun (266/1992:6-7)

123 He died in August 2005

124 Media Dakwah (November 1997:47)

125 Tempo (23/1/1988)

126 Madjid (1989:15)

127 Tempo (23/1/1988:85-86)

128 Madjid’s paper entitled “Sekilas Tinjauan Historis tentang Paham-paham Sunnah-Syi‘ah” (A Glance of Historical Review on Sunnism-Shi‘ism) was then published as an introduction to the Indonesian translation of Jafri’s book (1989).

129 Madjid (1989:6)

130 Madjid (1989:15-16)

131 Madjid (1989:19)

132 QS (6:161)

133 Madjid (1995:687-688)

134 Asa (1998:147)

135 Aula (September 1993:18)

136 AB is an abbreviation of Al-Bayyinat and GD is Gus Dur, a popular nickname of Abdurrahman Wahid.

137 Aula (September 1993:18-19)

138 An example is the adoption of the consensus (ijma‘) of Muslim jurist as an authoritative argument in the Shi‘i legal theory (Stewart 1998:57).

139 Wahid (1999:185-186)

140 The full transcription of the speech is published in Aula (October 1993:40-49).

141 Aula (October 1993:47)

142 Mastuki (1999:63-64)

143 Barton (2002:174)

144 Media Indonesia (5/10/1997)

CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSION

1 Goffman (1986)

2 Mahar (1990: 18)