CHAPTER SIX: PUBLISHING
Publishing has been an important means of struggle for Shi‘is in Indonesia to spread the teachings of Shi‘ism, and the development of Shi‘ism and publishing in Indonesia have gone hand in hand. The publication of Shi‘i books and periodicals can, to a certain extent, be considered to be a means of da‘wa, but it also demonstrates the contribution of Shi‘is to the intellectual and cultural life of Indonesia. Our discussion in this chapter is divided into five parts: First, I shall give a brief description of the general characteristics of Shi‘i publishers in Indonesia. The second and third parts deal with translations of Shi‘i books and look at their central content, as well as the books written by local Shi‘i figures. Fourth, I shall describe the Islamic periodicals published by Shi‘i institutions of learning and da‘wa in Indonesia, and finally, I shall explain the impact of publishing on the Shi‘i community and its relationship with the religious authorities in Indonesia.
A. The Shi‘is’ Publishers
Over the past two decades, in congruence with the increasing number of Shi‘i adherents there have been more than sixty publishers
in Indonesia producing hundreds of Shi‘i titles and publications. Shi‘i books, in the broad sense, are any books written by Shi‘i ‘ulama’ and intellectuals containing the teachings of Shi‘ism, as well as Shi‘i thoughts. The steady growth in the number of the publishers and of Shi‘i literature is a new and striking phenomenon in the history of Islam in Sunni-dominated Indonesia, and it has, to some extent, taken Muslim scholars and the country’s religious and political authorities unaware. In response to the proliferation of Islamic literature and Shi‘i works - and the Indonesian Muslim population’s thirst for this material - the late Indonesian liberal Muslim thinker Harun Nasution (1919-1998) wrote an article, for Tempo, (possibly the most famous Indonesian magazine), which celebrated its 60th anniversary in 1987 with a discussion of Islamic literature. Nasution’s essay deals with the origins, doctrines and development of Shi‘ism, and its inclusion in this special edition of Tempo indicates the significance of Shi‘i publications to the development of Islamic literature in Indonesia. Similarly, about a decade later Azra acknowledged the growth of Shi‘i publishers and literature as an unusual phenomenon in Islamic discourse in Indonesia.
There is a clear link between the large number of Shi‘i publishers, the wealth of Shi‘i literature and the development of Shi‘ism in Indonesia.
That said, the vast majority of these Shi‘is’ publishers are little-known or even unknown to the community of mainstream publishers in Indonesia, as the member of IKAPI (Ikatan Penerbit Indonesia, the Association of Indonesian Publishers).
Many small publishing houses are not registered with this professional organisation, and they do not take part in the book fairs attended by mainstream publishers. It is also the case that a number of these Shi‘i’ publishers appear on the market with a number of books and then disappear again, usually because their businesses cannot compete in and survive the market.
Two types of Shi‘is publishers in Indonesia can be classified: The first is purely commercial: Publishers whose core activity, since establishment, has been the publishing of books. This category includes Shi‘i-owned publishing houses who produce both Shi‘i and non- Shi‘i books. The three most important and well-known publishers in this category are Mizan, Pustaka Hidayah, and Lentera. All have become well-established publishing houses and registered members of IKAPI. There are numerous others publishers in this category, some of them no longer active. The second classification includes Shi‘i institutions who undertake publishing as a part of their wider activities, including da‘wa and education. In this regard, several big institutions such as ICC of Al-Huda, Muthahhari, Al-Jawad, YAPI (Yayasan Penyiaran Islam), YAPI (Yayasan Pesantren Islam) of Bangil and Al-Baqir of Bangil fall into this category. In addition, Shi‘i institutions involvement in the field of cultural production is also realised through the establishment of separate publishing houses such as Pustaka Zahra, belonging to the Fatimah Foundation and Cahaya, belonging to IPABI.
2 Azra (1999)
3 Iwan Setiawan, the deputy head of IKAPI, quoted in Republika (28/3/2004:5) states the total number of Islamic publishers as 50. Watson (2005:179) proves that this is an underestimation and the number is much greater.
Quantitative data illustrates the popularity of the established publishing houses as producers of Shi‘i works. In terms of the quantity of Shi‘i books published in Indonesia, figures provided by RaushanFikr, (a Shi‘i foundation based in Yogyakarta), show that until 2001 the top four publishers were: Pustaka Hidayah with 60 titles, Mizan with 56 titles, Lentera with 50 titles, and YAPI (Yayasan Penyiaran Islam) of Jakarta with 31 titles.
It is interesting to note that although Mizan is one of the largest of all publishing houses and even the most popular Shi‘i publisher, its position is below that of Pustaka Hidayah. These rankings may change with the appearance of new Shi‘i publishing houses such as Pustaka Zahra and Cahaya, who have been very active in recent years - figures until March 2004 show that Pustaka Zahra produced more than 50 titles and Cahaya more than 40.
The most active Shi‘i institution engaged in producing cultural materials is the Iranian-sponsored Islamic Cultural Centre of Al-Huda (ICC). Figures until March 2004 show that ICC of Al-Huda has published more than 30 books, including the Qur’an. This act of publishing the Holy Book may have been an attempt to discredit the accusation, made in many Sunni polemical writings, that the Shi‘is have their own Qur’an, and that it is very different to that used by Sunni Muslims. The content does not differ at all from the copies printed by other publishers in Indonesia. Other Shi‘i institutions are also engaged in publishing but on a smaller scale. Muthahhari Press, Al-Jawad, YAPI of Bangil, Al-Baqir of Bangil and Al-Kautsar of Jakarta, for instance, have produced less than 20 titles each. This illustrates the limitations of Shi‘i institutions in the field of publishing, which is not altogether surprising when one considers that for most Shi‘i institutions, publishing serves purely as a missionary activity.
There is stark contrast between the two types of publishers in terms of main orientation and management. While those publishers we have classified as purely commercial have a strong business orientation, those who fall into the second category can be said to be da‘wa oriented, only interested in undertaking publishing as a part of their da‘wa programmes. In respect of management. the ‘commercial’ publishers tend to be rational and modern, while those in the second group can be described as traditional. Both categories can be distinguished in terms of the types of books they publish. While the commercial puclishing houses produce only a small portion of the Shi’ite literature compared to their total number of publications, the Shi‘i da’wa institutions tend to confine themselves to the production of Shi‘i works. Furthermore, those books produced by the commercial publishing houses tend to be directed at attracting a wider readership than those of the Shi‘i da’wa foundations. In other words, the latter are only likely to publish Shi‘i works, only really of interest to the Shi‘i community in Indonesia, or works that are considered relevant to their da‘wa programmes. This also corresponds with the purpose of da‘wa, which is non-profit in orientation.
In order that we may fully understand the two categories of publishers mentioned above, there now follows profiles of Mizan and YAPI (Yayasan Penyiaran Islam):
Mizan is one of the biggest and most dynamic Islamic book publishers in Indonesia today, and it has played a great role in the development of Islamic intellectual life in the country. In 1982, Haidar Bagir, together with his friends Zainal Abidin and Ali Abdullah, graduated from the industrial department of ITB. With financial support from Bagir’s maternal uncle Abdillah Toha and Toha’s associate Anis Hadi, the three established a publishing business in Bandung. Mizan emerged with a distinctive product range, in striking contrast to the character of the Islamic books produced by such great Islamic publishers as Al-Ma‘arif of Bandung. Its distinctiveness is the Shi‘i nature of its books, something which has both popularised and stigmatised the publishing house. The popularity of Mizan in Indonesia goes hand in hand with the popularity of its co-founder and chief director, Haidar Bagir.
Though Mizan cannot formally be classified as a Shi‘i publisher, since its foundation it has been closely associated with Shi‘ism and is regarded as having made a significant contribution to the development of this branch of Islam in Indonesia for a number of reasons: First, since the early years of its establishment, Mizan has published a number of Shi‘i works. However, it should be noted that these works are only a fraction of Sunni works it has produced. Second, that Mizan published works written by Shi‘i ‘ulama’ and scholars, providing a platform for the teachings of Shi‘ism in Indonesia, was a controversial step given that to the majority Muslim population the word ‘Shi‘i had - and indeed still has - negative connotations and is regarded as heterodoxy. These brave efforts were clearly counter to the long-running tradition of Sunni Islam in the country. Moreover, Mizan’s first book, (and one of its bestsellers), Dialog Sunni Syi‘ah (Shi‘i-Sunni Dialogue) translated from al-Muraja‘at “summed up the purpose of Mizan [...] and intended to present a more ‘balanced’ view of Shi‘ism”.
Haidar Bagir admitted that one rationale for publishing this book was the fact that this madhhab is so often misunderstood by large numbers of Muslims in Indonesia.
Mizan went on to publish numerous works of Shi‘i scholars including those by Ali Shari‘ati, Mutahhari, Khomeini and Husayn Tabataba’i. Today Mizan is still regarded by many Indonesian Muslims as a Shi‘i publisher and in fact some Islamic da‘wa and educational institutions, such as Pondok Gontor in Ponoroga, East Java, actually forbid their students to read its publications, despite the fact that it has become a very well developed publishing house with leaders determined to promote its inclusive philosophical principles.
The formulated goal of Mizan is very broad, that is, to provide information on Islamic thought and the Islamic world in a balanced way and from a variety of standpoints. Haidar Bagir explains that books published by this publishing house have to fulfil at least two criteria: first, the research contained within the book has to be both scientific and verifiable; second, it has to contribute to developing the role of Muslims as rahmatan li al-‘alamin (‘mercy for inhabitants of the world’). Mizan’s writers are not all Muslim, and include authors from various religious backgrounds, and even Western scholars. Haidar Bagir bases this principle on the Traditions of the Prophet Muhammad and Imam ‘Ali that urge man to take hikma (wisdom) from any sources. Haidar Bagir quotes the saying of the Prophet Muhammad: “Wisdom is a lost thing belonging to Muslims. Pick it up wherever you find it”. He goes on to quote Imam ‘Ali: “Look at what is said, not who says it”.
Haidar Bagir goes on to say:
Because, for us, Islam is a universal religion and its universality can only be obtained if it is seen as an inclusive open religion. In other sides, we believe that all the openness can be embraced wholeheartedly without our obligation to sacrifice Islam on the surface, because the universality should certainly mean that the Islamic teachings have to be understood coherently and that they do not lose their basic principles. Well, if there is something that is said to be authenticity of a religion, this is what is meant by: coherency. Included in it is of course coherency with literal meanings of Islamic texts. For us, this means that the openness should be ‘guarded’ – a term which, because I fail to find its substitute, with a heavy heart I am forced to use – by our belief in a responsible and reliable interpretation of the principles of Islamic teachings: the Qur’an and Sunna of the Prophet.
On the basis of this principle, Mizan can be seen as promoting religious pluralism in Indonesia. The portrait of its publications reflects its vision with regard to religion and human civilisation. It is an Islamic publishing house which produces not only scholarly works of non-Muslim writers but also those of thinkers from different Islamic orientations. As Haidar Bagir suggests, all civilisations and religions in the world history interact with one another and they develop in certain historical contexts within which certain elements are adopted. Thus, Mizan rejects ‘exclusivity’ on the grounds that it is “the same as an a-historical and unrealistic attitude”.
These ideas are the basis of Islamic thought that might be considered ‘the Madhhab of Mizan’, ‘mazhab tengah’ (middle madhhab), which is open to development and revision.
With its inclusive and realistic religious attitude, the last 20 years have seen Mizan develop enormously in terms of both quality and quantity. It publishes titles in nearly all fields of knowledge and has established several offshoot subsidiaries as a way of attracting a wider readership for its books. Each of these subsidiairies specialises in a particular genre. The subsidiary Hikmah, for example, publishes books on religiosity and Sufism, Misykat on supplications, Harakah on Islamic movement, Kaifa publishes ‘how-to’ books, Arasy titles on fiqh, Qanita is for women issues and Teraju publishes academic books. In addition, Mizan has pioneered the e-book and direct selling through ekuator.com. Hernowo, who has worked for Mizan since 1984, attests to the rapid development of the publishing house, which he believes is the result of attempts to implement a hadith commanding to seek wisdom.
This also corresponds with Haidar Bagir’s statements above.
Having described Mizan, I turn to YAPI, which is the oldest of all the Indonesian publishers mentioned. YAPI, a Shi‘i foundation established in Surabaya in 1962 long before the Iranian revolution, is first and foremost a publishing house.
Its goals include the organisation of intellectual and religious activities and the publication and distribution of Islamic works. YAPI’s co-founders, who still lead the foundation today, are two brothers from the Sayyid family - Omar Hashem (b. 1935) and his elder brother Muhammad Hashem. Husein Al-Habsyi, who later established Yayasan Pesantren Islam (also abbreviated YAPI), was also one of its sponsors. The Hashmem brothers are renowned translators and writers of a number of works. Muhammad Hashem, who formerly worked at the Iranian Embassy in Jakarta, is a prominent translator of a large number of English originals. His younger brother, O. Hashem, is probably the most famous polemical Shi‘i writer in Indonesia today. For many years, YAPI was centred in Bandar Lampung where Dr (medical) O. Hashem worked for a local government clinic. Currently the institution, and its leaders’ residence, is located in Jakarta.
In terms of YAPI’s Shi‘i characteristics, there is a clear distinctions between those products published in the pre-Iranian revolution era and those produced afterwards. In short, no Shi‘i work is to be found among the intellectual products of YAPI during the pre-Iranian revolution period. (However, it had established connections with Muslim leaders and scholars in the world, including the Grand Ayatollah Muhsin al-Hakim who sent the institution a printing machine in 1970). Figures up until 1970, put the intellectual products of YAPI at more than 43 books and brochures that include translations and original writings.
During this pre-revolution period, YAPI was known for a series of polemic pamphlets against Christianity written by the institutions founders O. Hashem and Muhammad Hashem.
This series included titles such as Muhammad Hashem’s Tantangan dari Gua Qumran (Challenge from the Cave of Qumran, 1965), Darah dan Penebusan Dosa (Blood and Confession, 1965), Jesus dan Paulus (Jesus and Paul) and O. Hashem’s Keesaan Tuhan: Sebuah Pembahasan Ilmiah (Monotheism: A Scientific Discussion, 1962) and Djawaban Lengkap kepada Pendeta Dr. J. Verkuyl (Complete Answer to the Priest Dr. J. Verkuyl). Closely related to these polemical works is the publication of the translation of the Barnabas Gospel by Husein Al-Habsyi. Both M. Hashem and O. Hashem wrote and translated several works on other topics that were published by YAPI, including O. Hashem’s Marxisme dan Agama (Marxism and Religion, 1963) and Menaklukkan Dunia Islam (Conquering the Islamic World, 1968) or M. Hashem’s translation of the words of ‘Ali bin Abi Talib entitled Pedoman Pemimpin (Guidance of Leaders, 1968). Aside from the fact that YAPI tended only to publish the works of its owners, since its establishment it has proven itself to be a dynamic institution in the field of cultural production.
The shift in the character of YAPI’s publications after 1979 clearly reveals not only the individual conversion of both M. Hashem and O. Hashem to Shi‘ism but the conversion of YAPI as an institution. Most of the Shi‘i works published by YAPI are translations from English, in addition to several original books written by the brothers. Their close relationship (and that of the foundation) with the Iranian Embassy in Jakarta gave them access to Shi‘i materials requiring translation into the vernacular. Like the cultural products of Mizan, some of the Shi‘i books published by YAPI caused controversy. O. Hashem’s Saqifah, for instance, received bitter criticism from anti-Shi‘i groups.
Since YAPI is a non-profit institution with limited material and human resources, its products are less attractive in presentation and style when compared with those of Mizan. In addition, in contrast to Mizan’s professional modern management, YAPI is organised as a family-run business. It is unsurprising therefore that a number of its titles were republished by the established Shi‘is’ publishing houses in the hope of gaining wider circulation and to increase the chances of cultural and economic success. That said, YAPI has made enormous contributions to the development of the religious life of the Shi‘i community in Indonesia.
It is an important point to note that all the publishers and individuals involved in this field of cultural production are connected. It is through these networks of individuals and institutions that their products have been able to reach members of Indonesia’s Muslim society. Included in this is the circulation of books and periodicals through the network of existing Shi‘i institutions which are scattered throughout the country. The importance of this role has become ever more significant due to the fact that many of the cultural products of Shi‘i institutions cannot be found in mainstream bookstores. In fact, larger Shi‘i institutions such as ICC of Al-Huda, Fatimah, Muthahhari, and Al-Jawad have established their own bookstores, located within their complexes, to distribute and sell Shi‘i works. Another channel for reaching readers is through the libraries which most of the big Shi‘i institutions provide for the public. These libraries are filled with collections of books and periodicals published by the aforementioned publishers, in addition to collections of imported books in English, Arabic and Persian. In general, the established publishing houses utilise a variety of channels to reach their consumers, the most common being through bookstores, and their publications are generally available in big and small bookstores in cities throughout the country.
It is clear that both types of publishers profit from the significance of networking in terms of their existence and development. With regard to the publication of Shi‘i works, an international network - through which material can be produced and distributed - is a necessary element, given that many Shi‘i works are translations of foreign originals; and this international network is vital for accessing foreign books to be translated into Indonesian.
The Iranian connection, through which foreign Shi‘i books are imported, is a significant part of this international network, and is clearly revealed in the content, message, and style of the cultural products produced by the publishers. Both the publishing houses and Shi‘i institutions necessitate the international network in order to maintain and increase this field of cultural production.
B. The Translation of Shi‘i Books
The translation of Shi‘i literature has become an important aspect of the intellectual and missionary development of Shi‘is in Indonesia. Tamara has observed the proliferation of translations of works by Middle Eastern authors. This is a new phenomenon in Indonesian Islam, first seen in the 1980s as a consequence of the Iranian revolution.
What is obvious is the Shi‘i nature of the content or message of these translations. Scholars such as Von der Mehden and Meuleman also note the increase in translations of Shi‘i texts in the country.
Azra describes the phenomenon as a dramatic development in the field of translation of religious works into Indonesian, because it “has never taken place in Islamic discourse in Indonesia before”.
Most Shi‘i books, published by Shi‘i publishing houses in Indonesia, have been translated from English, Arabic or Persian originals, with English books constituting the greatest number, (even though originally, of course, these books were written in Arabic or Persian). In general, the authoritative Shi‘i texts are still written in foreign languages, inaccessible to most Indonesian Shi‘is and Sunnis, so translation is the most effective way for publishing houses to produce Shi‘i works.
It is impossible to recount all the translated books produced by Shi‘i publishing houses in Indonesia, but in accordance with the purpose of demonstrating the unique characteristics of those Shi‘i works circulated in the country it is necessary to pay attention to their authors. On the whole, those authors whose works are translated into Indonesian are modern Shi‘i ‘ulama’ or intellectuals from Iran or other Middle Eastern countries. Most of them are ‘ulama’ who hold the title Ayatollah (ayat Allah, ‘Sign of God’), or Grand Ayatollah, and who were educated in the traditional hawza system of Islamic education. These authors include ‘Abd al-Husayn Sharaf al-Din al-Musawi (1873-1957), Ruhullah Khomeini (1902-1989), ‘Allama Muhammad Husayn Tabataba’i (1903-1981), Murtada Mutahhari (1920-1979), Muhammad Baqir Sadr (1935-1980), ‘Ali Khamene’i, Nasir Makarim Shirazi (b. 1924), Ja‘far Subhani (b. 1922) and Ibrahim Amini (b. 1925). All these men are authoritative ‘ulama’ whose devotion to Shi‘i Islam and religious knowledge are recognised throughout the Shi‘i world. There are also authors who are scholars with both traditional and modern education, the most popular being ‘Ali Shari‘ati (1933-1977), who gained a PhD in France, and Seyyed Hossein Nasr (b. 1933) who earned his doctorate in the United States. This group of authors is known as the intellectuals.
The author with the most works translated into Indonesian is Mutahhari with no less than 50 titles. followed by Shari‘ati with 25 translated works. Then we find the works of Ruhullah Khomeini, ‘Allama Tabataba’i, Muhammad Baqir Sadr and Hossein Nasr, each of whom have published between 10 and 15 titles. As for other Shi‘i scholars, their works translated into Indonesian are still limited in number but they are likely to increase.
It should be noted that in many cases there is more than one translation of a certain work. The six most popular authors - in the quantitative sense - represent not only the positions of ‘ulama’ and intellectuals but also the position of revolutionary and moderate religious and political thought. The general characteristics of the works of Khomeini, Sadr, Shari‘ati, and Mutahhari, for example. are revolutionary; while the works of Tabataba’i and Nasr can be classified as moderate and sober. With the exception of Sadr, all the abovementioned scholars are Iranian. It should be noted, however, that other Shi‘i ‘ulama’, including the Lebanese ‘Abd al-Husayn Sharaf al-Din and the Tunisian Muhammad Tijani al-Samawi, have produced works that have been very influential in the dissemination of Shi‘ism in Indonesia.
Taking into consideration the above estimates, it is clear that Mutahhari and Shari‘ati - who were said to have worked together in the establishment of the Husainiyya-yi Irshad, (a style of religious institution meant to attract the educated young
), - have been very influential in Indonesia. Both of them, together with the abovementioned Iraqi, Muhammad Baqir Sadr, are considered to be martyrs. It appears that the position of Mutahhari is more important to Shi‘is in Indonesia than that of Shari‘ati, in all likelihood because Mutahhari was an ayatollah and considered to be a model for those Islamic scholars who qualify as ‘ulama’-intellectual.
Shari‘ati, however, is considered to be an intellectual, but he is a special one, namely a rawshanfikr (reformed intellectual). Muthahhari’s status is also illustrated by the fact that a Shi‘i institution in Indonesia was established under his name; and one of the reasons for establishing Yayasan Muthahhari, was to publish a series of Muthahhari’s works and thoughts, via the institution’s journal al-Hikmah. This has contributed to increasing Mutahhari’s popularity in Indonesia. Nearly all his works, which reach more than 50 titles, have been translated into Indonesian. These works cover nearly all fields of Islamic knowledge: doctrine, Qur’an exegesis, morality, jurisprudence, history, Sufism and the field of philosophy (in which there are the most titles). A circle of Shi‘i intellectuals is responsible for introducing Mutahhari’s thoughts to an Indonesian audience. For instance, Haidar Bagir has provided us with a short intellectual biography of Mutahhari,
and Jalaluddin Rakhmat - in lengthy introductory notes to a translation of Mutahhari’s work - supplies a short biography and details his principal thoughts.
For these intellectuals, Mutahhari is considered a model for ‘ulama’. There is little doubt that alongside Haidar Bagir, Jalaluddin Rakhmat, is one of the Indonesian Shi‘i intellectuals responsible for the spread of Mutahhari’s thoughts and works in Indonesia.
However, it is Shari‘ati who seems to have had a greater impact on Muslims in Indonesia, both Sunni and Shi‘i. Mutahhari’s thoughts simply have not gained the same level of appreciation as Shari‘ati’s from Muslim intellectuals in the country and so we can deduce that Shari‘ati may have attracted a larger and broader readership than Mutahhari. As Madrid has shown, Shari‘ati occupies the second position, after Nurcholish Madjid, as the most cited author among students in Yogyakarta.
“I was surprised that Shari‘ati would be more frequently cited and with more fervour than Mawdudi”, said Madrid.
The broad influence of Shari‘ati’s books is also illustrated by the fact that, unlike Mutahhari, Shari‘ati has attracted the interest of several Muslim intellectuals in Indonesia, both Sunni and Shi‘i. Through their writings, Muslim intellectuals, including Amien Rais, Dawam Rahardjo, Jalaluddin Rakhmat, Muchtar Probotinggi, Hadimulyo and Haidar Bagir, have provided us with both appreciative and critical analysis of Shari‘ati’s thoughts.
In addition, aspects of Shari‘ati’s thoughts have been thoroughly analysed by Azyumardi Azra.
In contrast, Mutahhari’s thoughts have yet to attract the same level of interest. Von der Mehden attributes the considerable influence of Shari‘ati’s thoughts on the circle of intellectuals to “Shari‘ati’s views of an egalitarian Muslim society and attacks on corrupt religious leadership”.
Furthermore, Shari‘ati provides his readers with a self-portrait and puts himself in the role of a rawshanfikr, the very role that Indonesian Muslims intellectuals wish to imitate in the Indonesian social, political, and religious context.
Iran’s Ruhullah Khomeini and Iraq’s Muhammad Baqir Sadr, whose intellectual works were translated into Indonesian, were maraji‘ al-taqlid (‘sources of emulation’), philosophers, and leaders of Islamic movements. Whilst Khomeini succeeded in his revolution, Sadr’s brief rise in 1979-1980 resulted in his execution in April 1980. The texts of Khomeini translated into Indonesian include work in the field of Qur’an exegesis and hadith, including the four volumes of 40 Hadis Nabi SAW (Forty Prophetic Traditions), published by Mizan and Rahasia Basmallah dan Hamdallah (Secrets of Basmallah [the first verse of the first chapter of the Qur’an] and Hamdallah [the second verse of the first chapter of the Qur’an]), also published by Mizan in 1994. In relation to his position as a marja‘ al-taqlid for Indonesian Shi‘is, several jurisprudence books written by Khomeini are available in Indonesian, including the two volumes of Mi‘raj Ruhani (Spiritual Journey) and Puasa dan Zakat Fitrah (Fasting and Fitra Alms
), and Fiqih Praktis Menurut Mazhab Ahlul Bayt (three volumes of Practical Jurisprudence according to the Madhhab of Ahl al-Bayt) as published by the Al-Jawad Foundation in Bandung and Al-Huda in Pekalongan respectively. These last two books also incorporate some fatwas of ‘Ali Khamene’i, currently a marja‘ al-taqlid for many of Indonesia’s Shi‘is. Regarding the fatwa collection of ‘Ali Khamene’i, a book entitled Fatwa-fatwa Ayatullah Al-Uzhma Imam Ali Khamenei (Fatwas of the Grand Ayatollah ‘Ali Khamene’i) was published in Indonesian by Al-Huda in Jakarta at the end of 2004. The translations of these books are instrumental to the religious practice of Indonesian Shi‘is because they help them fulfil the obligation within Shi‘ism to follow a living mujtahid. Khomeini’s political thought, which has made a great contribution to the political history of Islam, was later translated into Indonesian with the title Sistem Pemerintahan Islam (Islamic Government System), and published in 2002 by Pustaka Zahra. This significant work was originally a series of lectures delivered by Khomeini in Najaf in 1969-1970. Subsequently it was published in Persian in the autumn of 1970 and then in Arabic in 1976 in Beirut as part of a five-volume fiqh book entitled Kitab al-Ba‘i (the Book of Purchases).
In this book Khomeini argues that Islam is capable of establishing laws for the government and administration of a just society and that since the occultation of Imam Mahdi, a cleric is responsible for justice and ruling over an Islamic society, based on the Islamic shari’a. It is important to note that Khomeini’s political concept of wilayat al-faqih, as stated in this book, has become the main ideological foundation of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Despite the fact that Khomeini, as a learned man and Islamic leader, was - and still is - the ideal figure for Shi‘is in Indonesia, there has so far been no comprehensive study in Indonesian of this important man and his religious and political thought. To fill this gap, as previously described, Haidar Bagir - under the pseudonym of Yamani - has written two books: The first on the Sufi aspect of Khomeini’s thought
and the second on Khomeini’s political philosophy in comparison with al-Farabi.
In addition Sihbudi has written a political biography of Khomeini.
Khomeini’s political thought is paralleled by Sadr’s Sistem Politik Islam (Islamic Political System), published in 2001 by Lentera in Jakarta. The subjects covered in Sadr’s works, translated into Indonesian, are broader than Khomeini’s since, as well as politics, they also include doctrine, Qur’an exegesis, economy, philosophy and jurisprudence. Further, Sadr’s works, particularly those on philosophy and economics, seem to have attracted a wide readership in Indonesia, both Sunni and Shi‘i. Unlike Khomeini, who was popular as a Shi‘i leader, not all Indonesian Muslims recognise Sadr as a Shi‘i thinker. Moreover, no serious study of Sadr has been conducted in Indonesian, in spite of the fact that he was a prominent scholar, influential among both Sunni and Shi‘i Muslims throughout the world.
From these four radical and revolutionary figures, we move to the perennial (traditional) philosopher
Seyyed Hossein Nasr who migrated to America in 1979 where he served as professor of Islamic studies at Temple University in Philadelphia until 1984 and today holds the same position at George Washington University. Nasr’s works, attract a wide readership among Muslims in Indonesia. His focus is mainly on Sufism and Islamic philosophy. However, in fact Nasr’s work appears to be more influential the Sunni community in the country. Furthermore, Nasr’s perennialist ideas are particularly influential among the circle of Indonesian Muslim neo-modernist intellectuals, who discuss several aspects of his ideas through seminars and writings. In June 1993 Nasr was invited to Indonesia to participate in a series of seminars which were reported in the national media, (including Republika,
Tempo
and Panji Masyarakat
), and reviewed by Azra.
In addition, several articles and theses on certain aspects of Nasr’s thoughts have been published. It should be noted that many of Nasr’s books are published by Sunni-owned publishing houses,
something which can perhaps be explained by his close relations with the Shah of Iran before the outbreak of revolution. However, it does not mean that appreciation of Nasr’s scholarly works is absent among Shi‘i circles. In fact, several Indonesian translations of his works are published by the Shi‘i publishing house Mizan and can be found in the journal Al-Hikmah, published by the Mutahhari Foundation. Sunni appreciation and acceptance of Nasr’s ideas can be explained by the fact that in most of his works Nasr uses the perennial approach to Islam - and to its philosophical and spiritual aspects in particular - making him appealing to those interested in Islamic philosophy and Sufism. This perennialist approach also reveals the striking contrast between Nasr and Iranian revolutionary thinkers such as Khomeini, Shari‘ati and Mutahhari. Given this information, we can conclude that there is little connection between the publication of Nasr’s works and the spread of Shi‘ism in Indonesia, even though his Islamic philosophical thought can be viewed as being part of the Shi‘i intellectual tradition.
It is noteworthy that Nasr’s great teacher of Islamic philosophy is ‘Allama Muhammad Husayn Tabataba’i, one of the foremost philosophers and scholars among the 20th century Shi‘i ‘ulama’, some of whose works, (including aspects of doctrine and Qur’an exegesis), are translated into Indonesian. Tabataba’i’s comprehensive introduction to Shi‘i Islam - entitled Islam Syi‘ah (Shi‘i Islam) - was translated into Indonesian from the English version (translated from the original by Nasr) and published by Grafiti Press in 1989. However, it is neither translated by a Shi‘i scholar nor produced by a Shi‘i publishing house
. In my opinion, Tabataba’i’s greatest contribution to the development of Islamic discourse in Indonesia is to be found in the field of Qur’an exegesis. In addition to several related books and articles, his single most important work is the monumental commentary on the Qur’an, al-Mizan (the Balance). However, only certain aspects of the Shi‘i teachings contained in this exegesis have been translated into Indonesian. This Qur’an commentary has become an important source for the most prominent Indonesian exegete Quraish Shihab and his tafsir books, including his magnum opus, al-Mishbah (the Light, 2000). The publication of this work led anti-Shi‘i groups in Indonesia to declare Quraish Shihab, (at the time Suharto’s Minister for Religious Affairs), a Shi‘i and to castigate him.
The influence of Tabataba’i can also be found in Jalaluddin Rakhmat’s books. In the introduction to his Tafsir Sufi Al-Fatihah (Sufi Commentary of the First Chapter of the Qur’an), Rakhmat - who studied in Qum with Tabataba’i’s student, Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi - writes about his admiration of Tabataba’i and his commentary: “In the Islamic world today, particularly among the lovers of the ahl al-Bayt, no one studies tafsir without being influenced by his writings.”
It is important to note that although Tabataba’i’ was a great philosopher, there is no Indonesian translation of his philosophical works, with the exception of his popular booklet on philosophy and Sufism, Hikmah Islam (Islamic Philosophy) published by Mizan in 1984.
From the works of the six most prolific Shi‘i authors, we discover that they have written about all fields of Islamic knowledge, including Qur’an exegesis, hadith, jurisprudence, doctrine, history, philosophy, ethics, Sufism, politics and economics. As a result, the notion of Shi‘ism as a distinct madhhab is affirmed by the translated works of these six scholars which are distributed throughout Indonesia, and which are read, cited and discussed by both Sunni and Shi‘i scholars. One can conclude therefore, that such works are effective instruments for the dissemination of Shi‘i Islam within Indonesian society.
The transmission of Shi‘i doctrines and thoughts via publications is much more complex when the translation of books from Arabic, Persian or English originals is taken into account. In order to explain the book as a means of disseminating ideas, and the benefits of this for Shi‘is in Indonesia, we can classify existing Shi‘i books into three categories: doctrinal, intellectual and spiritual. These categories should be viewed not as distinct from each other but as integrated. The first category, doctrinal books, is the most important. These books are about the Shi‘i madhhab and meant to provide readers with an understanding of the correct teachings of Shi‘ism. Anti-Shi‘i groups often consider the books within this category to be tools for converting Indonesian Sunnis to Shi‘ism. They recognise a missionary motive in the publication of these works. This category ranges from books giving a general introduction to Shi‘i Islam to deep analyses of certain aspects of Shi‘i doctrines and teachings. In addition to the aforementioned Islam Syiah (Shi‘i Islam) and Inilah Islam (This is Islam), both written by Tabataba’i, this category includes the work of the late Lebanese scholar ‘Abd al-Husayn Sharaf al-Din al-Musawi, Shi‘i-Sunni Dialogue, that has proved so popular in Indonesia that, by 2001, it had been reprinted nine times.
It is important to restate that this work was the first book published by Mizan and led to the stigmatisation of Mizan as a Shi‘i publishing house. However, its translation into Indonesian only took place nearly half a century after the publication of the original al-Muraja‘at, by al-‘Irfan of Beirut, (the oldest Islamic publishing house in Lebanon) in 1936. It should also be kept in mind that the original book had already circulated widely among a number of Indonesian Muslims, particularly the Sayyids, who were sent free copies by Shi‘i institutions in the Middle East. Islamic institutions, such as the Islamic Research Institute in Jakarta, also kept the book in their libraries. In fact, it was the Islamic Research Institute’s copy which Abubakar Aceh borrowed when he wrote his sympathetic work, Sjiah, Rasionalisme dalam Islam (Shi‘ism, Rationalism in Islam), first published in 1965, and in which he recognised Shi‘ism as a valid madhhab in Islam.
Muhammad al-Baqir, the translator of al-Muraja‘at, received his original copy from the Middle East.
The translation of the al-Musawi’s title al-Muraja‘at (which may roughly be translated into ‘consultations’),
into Indonesian Shi‘i-Sunni Dialogue is not entirely correct. The central theme of the book uses a dialogue between two ‘ulama’ to instruct on Shi‘i Islam. The first, ‘ulama’ - the author, al-Muzawi - takes the role of Shi‘i teacher, while the second - the then Shaykh al-Azhar Salim al-Bisri - is a Sunni and takes the role of the student. The ‘consultations’ between the Sunni scholar and the Shi‘i marja‘ al-taqlid are about Shi‘i Islam (in which al-Bisri tends to accept all al-Musawi’s arguments). In other words, the dialogue affirms the validity of Shi‘ism by the Sunni religious authority. Thus, the image conveyed and the content of the book were of course viewed as provocative by much of the Sunni world. In the Indonesian translation, Muhammad al-Baqir, (Haidar Bagir’s father), provides us with a long and interesting introductory note which has also been the subject of criticism by anti-Shi‘i figures in Indonesia
. For al-Baqir, the translation is meant to provide Indonesian readers with an ‘insider’s’ perspective on Shi‘ism.
The publication of the Indonesian edition has attracted great interest from readers and has become a best seller, in turn contributing to the success of Mizan as a newly-established Islamic publishing house. At least, two sympathetic reviews of the book have been written: One by the moderate Muslim intellectual Djohan Effendi, the other by the journalist Syu‘bah Asa who 24 years after the book’s publication felt the need to demonstrate his strong anti-Shi‘i stance
. Controversial as this book may be in some quarters, it is clearly one of the most important works on Shi‘i Islam available in Indonesian.
Most books in the ‘doctrinal’ category deal with the Shi‘i doctrines and teachings which constitute the core of Shi‘i Islam. A distinct characteristic of these books is that many of them include both doctrinal and philosophical reasoning which has distinguished them from Sunni books on the same topics. This corresponds with the fact that Shi‘ism pays much greater attention to the use of ‘aql (reason) than Sunnism. Each of the five principles of Shi‘i faith - tawhid (belief in Divine Unity), nubuwwa (prophecy), ma‘ad (resurrection), imamate, and ‘adl (Divine Justice) - for instance, have been analysed in this way by prominent Shi‘i figures including Murtada Mutahhari, Ja‘far Subhani, Nasir Makarim Shirazi and Mujtaba Musawi Lari, translations of which are freely available in Indonesia. Some works by these scholars deal with the fundamentals of Shi‘ism and constitute the most important tenets of the madhhab. Other aspects of Shi‘i teachings and tradition are closely related to religious dogma, namely tawhid. In the context of Shi‘i tradition, mention should be made of books approving of Islamic beliefs and practices such as ziyara (visitation of graves), tawassul (uttering names of Sufi saints or Imams in supplications) and celebration of the Prophet’s birthday. These practices are also adopted by traditionalist Muslim groups, but are strongly opposed by Wahhabis and reformist groups.
Subhani’s Tauhid and Syirik (Divine Unity and Polytheism) published in 1987 by Mizan affirms that such practices have a sound religious foundation and in fact is highly critical of Wahhabism,.
After the doctrinal books, we turn to the second category - intellectual books. These books are designed to fulfil the intellectual demands of both Sunni and Shi‘i Muslims. This category also includes books that are not directly connected to specific Shi‘i beliefs and practices. The publications, (in the vernacular), in this category tend to reflect the great interest among Shi‘is in Indonesia for Islamic philosophy. While not necessarily containing clear elements of Shi‘ism, these books generally deal with aspects of philosophy and Islamic thought that might influence the weltanschauung of their readers. At least, we cannot consider the translation and publication of this genre of books as a direct vehicle for the spread of Shi‘i Islam. Most of the works by the scholars mentioned earlier in this chapter on philosophy, (some being critical of Western philosophies pertaining to man, society and history in support of Islamic philosophy), can be included in this group. The books within this category tend to promote Islam as a distinct worldview - the adverse of any other worldviews – and a blueprint for humanity, capable of solving the problems faced by mankind. This is demonstrated in works such as Sadr’s Falsafatuna (Our Philosophy), published in 1991 by Mizan; Mutahhari’s Masyarakat dan Sejarah (Society and History) published by Mizan in 1986 and Shari‘ati’s Kritik Islam atas Marxisme dan Sesat-Pikir Barat Lainnya (Islamic Criticism towards Marxism and Other Western Fallacies), also published by Mizan in 1983. In addition, great Shi‘i thinkers such as ‘Allama Tabataba’i have made a great contribution to the field of traditional Islamic philosophy. An example of note is the book Ilmu Hudhuri (Knowledge by Presence), by the contemporary Iranian philosopher Mehdi Hairi Yazdi, (published in 1994 by Mizan). Mehdi Hairi Yazdi, son of the reformer of hawza ‘ilmiyya of Qum Abd al-Karim Ha’iri, studied Islamic philosophy with Tabataba’i. Such works can be categorised as both intellectual and influential in terms of the religious life of Muslims.
Those books within the spiritual category deal with the spiritual life of the Shi‘i community. Most of them contain the sayings and supplications attributed to the Imams, as well as their hagiographies. These sayings and supplications are considered, within the Shi‘i tradition, to be part of hadith, and, therefore, extremely important to this Islamic group. As a part of hadith, these works become the principal source of Shi‘i Islam after the Qur’an. They are used as a reference for understanding all fields of Islamic knowledge. The most important book in this category has been Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence), various versions of which are available in Indonesian. The book contains collections of sermons, sayings and letters attributed to Imam ‘Ali bin Abi Talib, the first Imam. It was assembled and systematised by the 10th century Shi‘i scholar Sayyid Sharif al-Radi.
Among the Indonesian versions available are a 1990 edition by O. Hashem and M. Hashem, translated from the English version entitled Nahjul Balaghah, published by YAPI; Puncak Kepasihan (Peak of Eloquence) published in 1997 by Lentera; and Muhammad al-Baqir’s selective translation from Arabic of Abduh’s explanation, Mutiara Nahjul Balaghah (Pearls of the Nahj al-Balagha), published in 1990 by Mizan. In addition, there are translations of studies of the Nahj al-Balagha, including Arif Mulyadi’s translation (from English) of Mutahhari’s explanation, Tema-tema Pokok Nahj al-Balaghah (Major Themes of the Nahj al-Balagha), which was published in 2002 by Al-Huda and a translation of Muhammad Muhammadi’s work, Kisah-kisah Bertabur Hikmah Nahjul Balaghah (Stories Scattered with Wisdom of Nahj al-Balagha) published by Cahaya in Bogor. There are also translations of Sahifa (Scroll) containing the sayings, supplications, stories and even poems attributed to Fatima and the other Imams. For example, Sahifa Fatimiyya, Sahifa Husayniyya, Sahifa Sajjadiyya, and Sahifa Sadiqiyya, attributed to Fatima, Husayn (the third Imam), ‘Ali Zayn al-‘Abidin al-Sajjad (the fourth Imam), and Ja‘far al-Sadiq (the sixth Imam), respectively.
The most famous of these is al-Sahifa al-Sajjadiyya which is “the oldest prayer manual in Islamic sources and one of the most seminal works of Islamic spirituality of the early period.”
Aside from being important reference works, these books are functional instruments for the religious and spiritual life of the Shi‘is in Indonesia, particularly in the expression of loving devotion to the Prophet’s ahl al-bayt and Imams. It should be noted that these works are specifically Shi‘i in nature and there is nothing comparable in the Sunni intellectual heritage.
Related to this religious and spiritual life is the publication of large numbers of books on do‘a (supplications), frequently compiled from Shi‘i works. The most famous of these books is Mafatih al-Jinan (Keys to the Gardens of Paradise) by Abbas al-Qummi (d. 1941). They are usually selective supplications, followed by their Indonesian translation, and explanations of certain religious rituals and occasions. It should be noted that there is a great demand for this type of book; a demand met by Shi‘i publishing houses and Shi‘i foundations. Some of these books have become best sellers
. One of these books, Doa Kumail, Doa Thaif, Doa Keselamatan, Doa Tawassul, Doa Ziarah, published by Fatimah Foundation, was reprinted six times between 1998 and 2002. The growth in demand for these books is directly related to the routine performance of religious rituals and the growing number of pengajian and other da‘wa activities carried out by Shi‘i institutions or groups of the Shi‘i community throughout Indonesia. It is common, for example, for leaders of pengajian meetings and managers of Shi‘i foundations to order large numbers of these books for individual members or for the institutions’ collection.
The above descriptions reveal the general characteristics of these translated works, in particular those written by the most prolific authors. It is also evident that the Shi‘i works translated into Indonesian generally encompass all fields of Islamic knowledge, as well as all aspects of Shi‘ism. Thus, we can deduce that the Indonesian translations of these books have been an effective vehicle for the transmission of Shi‘i Islam into Indonesia from Iran, Iraq and other Middle Eastern countries. This migration of Shi‘ism and Shi‘i thought is in accordance with Coser’s statement: “Books are carriers and disseminators of ideas”.
C. Works by Indonesian Shi‘is
Shi‘i figures within Indonesia have also concentrated their attention and energies on the production and dissemination of religious thought through original works. However, thus far I have not found any systematic work by Indonesian Shi‘is with regard to Shi‘ism as a distinct Islamic madhhab or on aspects of principal Shi‘i teachings. It is clear that the translated works continue to dominate in terms of the fulfilment of the religious and intellectual demands of the Shi‘i individual, group, and community. We can identify several Indonesian Shi‘i intellectuals and ustadh who have contributed to the field of writing through essays and articles published in periodicals, however I intend to focus on those who have written books dealing with the main body of the Shi‘i madhhab. To mention but a few, the late Husein Al-Habsyi, Jalaluddin Rakhmat, Haidar Bagir, Muhammad Hashem and Omar Hashem have produced and disseminated religious ideas through books. Quantitatively, Rakhmat is the most prolific, with more than 20 books (including textbooks), followed by Husein Al-Habsyi with about ten titles (including his Al-Kaustar Arabic-Indonesian dictionary), and then the brothers, Muhammad Hashem and O. Hashem also with around ten. (Other writers have produced less than ten titles). We should bear in mind, however, that while some ustadh have begun to produce scholarly works, most Indonesian Shi‘i scholarship remains the product of Shi‘i intellectuals.
The books written by the Indonesian Shi‘i ustadh and intellectuals embrace aspects of doctrine, fiqh, tafsir, history and Sufism. In relation to doctrine, for example, we can mention several books dealing with ahl al-bayt (referring to the twelve Imams), an important concept in Shi‘i Islam. In Indonesia, it is the neutral term, rather than Shi‘ism, to mention Shi‘i Islam. There are at least three works which urge Muslim believers to uphold the Qur’an and the ahl al-bayt of the Prophet Muhammad: Ali Umar Al-Habsyi’s Dua Pusaka Nabi, al-Qur’an dan Ahlulbait (Two Prophetic Heirlooms: the Qur’an and Ahl al-Bayt. 2002. Pustaka Zahra.); Heru Elryco’s Ahlul Bait dan al-Qur’an, Peninggalan Yang Terlupakan (Ahl al-Bayt and the Qur’an: the Forgotten Inheritance. 2002. Rosda.); and Alwi Husen’s Keluarga Yang Disucikan Allah (The Family Purified by God. 1998. Lentera.). Following Shi‘i ‘ulama’, the authors affirm that this obligation is based on the Qur’an and the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad that are recognised in both Sunni and Shi‘i hadith collections. At the same time, this can be seen as a Shi‘i rejection of a number of Sunni sayings which are considered to be the Prophet Muhammad’s hadith, (and which command Muslims to follow the Qur’an and the Sunna of the Prophet Muhammad) because according to Shi‘i beliefs, the transmitter and content of this hadith are unreliable.
The most important book on Shi‘i doctrine is Hasan Abu Amar’s (Akidah Syi‘ah (Doctrine of Shi‘ism). Its full title is Akidah Syi‘ah, Seri Tauhid: Rasionalisme dan Alam Pemikiran Filsafat dalam Islam (Shi‘i Doctrine, Series of Tawhid: Rationalism and Nature of Philosophical Thought in Islam) and it was published by Yayasan Mulla Shadra, Jakarta, in 1992 and reprinted in 2002. The book consists of three parts - usul al-din (fundamentals of religion), doctrine, and unity of God – and its writer, a Qum alumnus, known among Shi‘i adherents in Indonesia as a literalist ustadh, uses logic, rather than Qur’anic verses, to prove the existence, unity, attributes and actions of God. Abu Amar emphasises the significance of reason in the Shi‘i belief system, stating that in Shi‘i Islam, the fundamentals of religion must be understood by every Shi‘i using logical evidence. Even textual proofs are secondary to logical proofs. In his words, “al-Qur’an and hadith occupy the position only to support (endorse) the logical proofs.”
Abu Amar’s book contains several references to Qur’anic verses and hadith, however, with the exception of the Bidayat al-Hikma (Beginnings of Philosophy) and Nihayat al-Hikma (Results of Philosophy) - two famous philosophical works by Tabataba’I, not yet translated into Indonesian - he never refers to authoritative Shi‘i books on this most essential aspect of religion.
Abu Amar’s book on Imam Mahdi, the twelfth Shi‘i Imam, (published by the Mulla Shadra Foundation in 2000) should be included in this field of doctrine, because it deals with aspects of imamate, one of the five fundamentals of Shi‘ism. However, it should be noted that the belief in the Mahdi is complex matter, worthy of a separate study. Amar admits that this book relies purely on Sunni sources, namely Sunni hadith collections and the views of Sunni ‘ulama’. Another book which deals with Imam Mahdi as a justice figure, was written by Jaffar Al-Jufri and published in 2001 by Lentera. Both these books emphasise the importance of belief in the existence of Imam Mahdi and his immunity, yet one author claims the belief has valid religious foundation in Shi‘i sources, while the other claims the belief is validated by Sunni.
While every Shi‘i is required to understand logical and textual proofs of the fundamentals of religion in which taqlid (emulation) is prohibited, in the field of fiqh (jurisprudence), lay Shi‘is are required to follow the fatwa of a marja‘ al-taqlid, who assumes the authority of reinterpreting Islamic jurisprudence. We should bear in mind that Shi‘is are classified into mujtahid and muqallid in terms of Islamic jurisprudence. Therefore, the aforementioned translations of books on fiqh are important manuals for performing religious duties. Alongside these translations, Indonesian Shi‘i figures have also authored several books on aspects of jurisprudence, in order to meet the demands of the Shi‘i community. At the outset, we should mention a booklet entitled Taqlid dalam Ajaran Syiah Imamiah (Emulation in the Teaching of Imamiyya Shi‘ism) written by Abu Qurba (possibly a pseudonym). In this booklet the author deals with the obligation of laity for taqlid and he supports his arguments with logical and textual proofs. Abu Qurba, who lives in Qum, also includes proof of the validity of those who take ‘Ali Khamene’i as marja‘ al-taqlid. That evidence is the statements of Iranian ‘ulama’ as proof of Khamene’i’s a‘lamiyyat (superiority in religious knowledge),
one of the requirements for assuming the position of marja‘ al-taqlid.
In terms of ritual observance, most jurisprudence books deal with prayers and the hajj. In this regard, there have been two books about prayers: Firstly, Abu Zahra’s Shalat Nabi saw Menurut Ahlul Bait (Prayer of the Prophet Muhammad According to the Ahl al-Bayt), published in 2001 by Kota Ilmu in Bandung; and secondly, Hidayatullah Husein’s Shalat dalam Madzhab Ahlul Bait (Prayer in the Madhhab of Ahl al-Bayt), published by the Abna’ Al-Husayn Foundation in Solo. In addition, a manual of ablution and prayer, supplemented by a VCD, has been produced by Yayasan Muhibbin in Probolinggo, East Java. These works illustrate a number of minor differences between Shi‘ism and Sunnism with regard to certain movements and incantations in prayers. In respect of the hajj, we find several books written by Indonesian Shi‘i figures, including O. Hashem’s Berhaji Mengikuti Jalur Para Nabi (Performing Hajj Following the Line of Prophets, 2001), Muchtar Adam’s Tafsir Ayat-ayat Haji (Qur’an Commentary of Verses of Hajj, 1993) and Cara Mudah Naik Haji (Easy Method to Perform the Hajj, 1993), and Husein Shahab’s Cara Memperoleh Haji Mabrur (‘Methods of Achieving Beneficent Pilgrimage’, 1995). With the exception of Husein Shahab’s book published by Pustaka Pelita, all three books were published by Mizan. All these works on specific ritual observance illustrate distinctive aspect of Shi‘i teachings. Some writers use their work to make statements about Sunni-Shi‘i relations. Hidayatullah Husein, for instance, uses his work to appeal for respect and tolerance among Muslims in cases of differences of opinion. The introduction to Al-Habsyi’s book, was motivated by the fact that some people regard the Shi‘is as infidel. Al-Habsyi wrote this book for the purpose of explaining that Shi‘i jurisprudence is based on authoritative religious arguments.
In the context of mu‘amalat (social transactions), there is a Shi‘i book about mut‘a (temporary marriage),a controversial issue used by anti-Shi‘i groups to attack Shi‘ism. It was written by Ibnu Mustafa who used Tabataba’i’s al-Mizan and Mutahhari’s Hak-hak Wanita Dalam Islam (Rights of Women in Islam) as sources for his study.
There is also an Indonesian version of Ja‘far Murtada al-‘Amili’s Nikah Mut‘ah dalam Islam (Temporary Marriage in Islam) translated by Hidayatullah Al-Habsyi, son of the late Husein Al-Habsyi. Interestingly, Hidayatullah Al-Habsyi, supplements this work with his own long chapter on ‘Sakralisasi Sebuah Perkawinan’ (‘The Making of a Marriage Sacred’).
These books are intended to explain the permissibility of mut‘a in Shi‘i Islam, (which can be practiced as an alternative legal solution to fornication and prostitution which are strongly forbidden in Islam).
Some Shi‘i figures have also authored books in the field of tafsir, although these are somewhat limited in quantity and quality. In addition to Husein Al-Habsyi’s two polemical works on the commentary of Surah ‘Abasa, Jalaluddin Rakhmat supplies two books in this field, namely Tafsir Bil Ma‘tsur (Qur’an Commentary by Narrated Sources) and Tafsir Sufi Al-Fatihah (Qur’an Commentary of the First Chapter of the Qur’an, 1999), both published by Rosda in Bandung. Ali Umar Al-Habsyi, (an ustadh at YAPI of Bangil, and Husein Al-Habsyi’s grandson-in-law), also writes two books: Tafsir Nuur Tsaqalain (Qur’an Commentary of The Light of Thaqalayn, 1994. Al-Baqir Foundation, Bangil.) and Nabi Tersihir? (The Prophet was Bewitched? 1998. As-Sajjad, Jakarta.). A large number of Shi‘i sources, particularly tafsir and hadith books, are included in these works, which are characteristically Shi‘i. Ali Umar Al-Habsyi’s Nabi Tersihir?, for instance, criticises the Sunni commentary that the Prophet Muhammad was bewitched.
For Shi‘is like Ali Umar Al-Habsyi, the notion that the Prophet Muhammad was bewitched is inconceivable, because the Prophet is immune and the most perfect human being. This is a widely held view contained in the works of Shi‘i scholars. Also related to the issue of sources cited, Rakhmat is correct in his statement that Shi‘i authors in this particular field - he includes himself - cannot neglect the influence of Tabataba’i, and his work al-Mizan in particular, in the implementation of tafsir bi al-ma’thur or the tafsir al-Qur’an bi al-Qur’an, which literally means using the Qur’an to interpret the Qur’an. These tafsir works by Indonesian authors only deal with certain verses of the Qur’an, and so they are incomparable with Quraish Shihab’s masterpiece, al-Misbah. Mention should also be made of the collaborative work on the sciences of the Qur’an, Belajar Mudah ‘Ulum al-Qur’an (‘Easy Learning the Sciences of the Qur’an’), edited by Sukardi, a librarian at SMU Muthahhari in Bandung. This book is a collection of articles by Middle Eastern ‘ulama’ and Indonesian intellectuals and ustadh, including Jalaluddin Rakhmat, Muchtar Adam, Haidar Bagir and Husein Shahab. Its editor says that it should be seen as an introduction for those interested in the meanings and commentaries of verses of the Qur’an.
All these works illustrate attempts by Shi‘i figures in Indonesia to produce and disseminate literature on Qur’an exegesis and sciences.
The field of Sufism is dominated by the work of Jalaluddin Rakhmat. As described in a previous chapter, Husein Shahab and Haidar Bagir also provide works on Sufism. As a result, there are many works on Sufism available to Indonesian Muslims. This reflects the great interest in Sufism among Muslims in Indonesia, (particularly the urbanites and upper-middle class), and goes hand in hand with the implementation of the Sufi approach to da‘wa activities undertaken by Shi‘is in the country. In a nutshell, Shi‘is hope that works on Sufism contribute not only to the enrichment of the Sufi tradition but also to the recognition of Shi‘i teachings and tradition among the wider Indonesian Muslim population.
In the field of Islamic history, we have previously described an introduction to the critical study of the history of the Prophet Muhammad by Jalaluddin Rakhmat. Controversial works in the field of Islamic history have included O. Hashem’s Saqifah: Awal Perselisihan Umat (Saqifa: the Origin of Umma Conflict, 1987) and M. Hashem’s Abdullah bin Saba: Benih fitnah (Abdullah bin Saba’: the Seed of Temptation, 1987), both published by YAPI. Criticising the Sunni interpretation of the election of Abu Bakr as the first caliph to succeed the Prophet Muhammad in the Saqifa (hall) of Bani Sa‘ida, O. Hashem suggests that the election resulted from a conspiracy among Abu Bakr, ‘Umar and Abu Ubayda, and as a result is the original source of division within the Muslim umma. (The conspiracy was against the Prophet Muhammad’s designation of Ali as his successor.
). In Abdullah bin Saba: Benih fitnah, M. Hashem bases his analysis mainly on Murtada al-Askari’s belief that Abdullah bin Saba’ - considered by Sunnis to be the figure responsible for the founding of Shi‘ism - was a fictional character.
These two books have certainly provoked bitter reactions from anti-Shi‘i groups. M. Hashem answers his critics
in his book, Abdullah bin Saba dalam Polemik (Abdullah bin Saba’ in Polemics), by simply reiterating the validity of the Shi‘i version of the history of Abdullah bin Saba’.
O. Hashem’s response
can be found in his provocative work, Syi‘ah Ditolak Syi‘ah Dicari (Shi‘ism is Rejected, Shi‘ism is Sought, 2002). All these historical works provide a common Shi‘i interpretation of early Islamic history, and are fundamental to the legitimation of Shi‘ism as an Islamic madhhab.
Included in the category of historical books are biographies of Imams such as Imam Husayn which recount his martyrdom at Karbala. In this area, O. Hashem writes Darah dan Air Mata (Blood and Tears), which re-iterates the historical evidence for this event, namely figures who witnessed the tragedy. Muhsin Labib, Husein Al-Habsyi’s stepson and Qum alumnus, has also supplied a series of works on this subject, the latest being Husain Sang Ksatria Langit (Husayn, a Knight of Heaven, 2004. Lentera.), which is presented as an historical novel. In view of the fact that the history of the murder of Husayn in Karbala is deliberately downplayed in Sunni literature, Labib maintains that the historical reality should be highlighted even though it might undermine the foundation of a certain Madhhab. Labib claims that his book portrays the reality of Husayn’s martyrdom. “In this novel, there is dripping of tears, there is also squirting blood. There is a big party, there is also a moan tearing one’s inner self. Once more, this is a real history!”
The writing of this story can be seen as a vehicle for transmitting what Fischer calls the ‘Karbala paradigm’, that is, the most emotionally intense episode in Shi‘i history.
Along with the yearly commemoration of ‘ashura, these texts can be seen as maintaining this deeply embedded emotional paradigm within the heart of Indonesia’s Shi‘i community.
All the abovementioned works follow the interpretation and arguments of Islamic teachings and history provided in the works of Shi‘i ‘ulama’. The writing about aspects of Shi‘ism in the vernacular may be considered as an attempt to provide a vehicle for the dissemination and transmission of Shi‘ism to an Indonesian audience. Unlike translations, original works clearly represent the most obvious interpretation of Shi‘i tenets by Indonesian Shi‘i intellectuals and ustadh. However, insofar as the content of these works is understood, we do not find significantly different views between the religious elites of the Shi‘i community with regard to the principal aspects of Shi‘i teachings. Suffice it to say that the attention, energy and creativity of Shi‘i figures in the field of religio-intellectual life play an important role in the dissemination of Shi‘i teachings and tradition in the country.
D. Shi‘i Periodicals
In the framework of the dissemination of the teachings of Shi‘ism to the Shi‘i community in particular, and Indonesian Muslims in general, several Islamic periodicals have been produced by Shi‘i institutions. In these periodicals, translated articles by Shi‘i scholars and articles by Indonesian ustadh and intellectuals can be found. Cultural production of this kind comprises journals, bulletins, and magazines.
With regards to the development of the Shi‘i community in Indonesia, two important scientific journals should be mentioned, (the contents of which are mainly serious articles dealing with various aspects of Islamic studies). The first was Al-Hikmah (the wisdom), subtitled Jurnal Studi-Studi Islam (Journal of Islamic Studies), 17 issues of which were published by the Muthahhari Foundation between 1990 and 1997. In accordance with the foundation’s mission, the publication of this Islamic journal was meant to present scholarly works within the fields of traditional Islamic knowledge, including the Qur’an, hadith, fiqh, philosophy and knowledge. Although the journal’s focus was on traditional Islamic knowledge, it also included the translated works by Mutahhari and studies on his works, in order to help readers comprehend his ideas. The content reflected the journal’s aim “to combine all meanings of wisdom given by Qur’an commentators and Islamic thinkers: the Qur’an, hadith, philosophy, Sufism, science, and other Islamic thought”.
The mission of Al-Hikmah was similar to that of the publisher Mizan, in that it was based on the concept of hikma (wisdom). As one reviewer
suggests, Al-Hikmah clearly contributed to enriching the development of Islamic thought in Indonesia. Its existence seems to have inspired Rakhmat’s statement: “...we want it to stir you”.
The reviewer goes on to emphasise the connection between Jalaluddin Rakhmat and the Muthahhari foundation with Shi‘ism and Shi‘i thought, suggesting, “AH [Al-Hikmah] is issued to distribute Islamic aspirations from the Shi‘i thought background”.
As a matter of fact, an analysis of all the issues of the journal suggests that it provided readers with the Islamic thoughts of both Shi‘i and Sunni scholars.
The second important scientific journal is Al-Huda (The Guidance), which began in 2000 and is published by ICC of Al-Huda. As its title suggests, this journal expects to provide “guidance for readers in entering the gate of religious consciousness and religiosity with the ahl al-bayt discourse in order to be able to distinguish which is true or false”.
Unlike Al-Hikmah, this journal is open about its Shi‘i nature. “The Journal of Islamic Studies in the hand of readers, in accord with its title Al-Huda, makes the Prophet Muhammad (may God grant him peace and salvation) and the ahl al-bayt (upon whom be peace) reference because they are the key holder of the originality of Guidance”.
The presentation style and theme of Al-Huda very much resembles Al-Hikmah, except that Al-Hikmah also contained the specific rubric of Muthahhari. The similarity between both publications can be attributed to the fact that Jalaluddin Rakhmat and Haidar Bagir were the co-founders of both institutions producing the journals. In terms of content, both journals contain relatively serious articles, (translations and originals), covering various aspects of Islamic knowledge, including Qur’an exegesis, hadith, history, philosophy, Sufism and morality. However, unlike Al-Hikmah, Al-Huda also provides a number of essays written by Indonesian ustadh.
It is generally accepted that Islamic magazines and bulletins are significant means of disseminating the teachings of Shi‘ism. Many Shi‘i institutions publish some form of periodical. Two publications of note are Yaumul Quds, which at the time of my fieldwork in 2004 had ceased to exist, and Waris (abbreviation of Warta Republik Islam, News of Islamic Republic), published by the Iranian Embassy in Jakarta, and widely read by Shi‘is in Indonesia. Notwithstanding the fact that they have a limited circulation, these two publications are instrumental in providing Indonesia’s Shi‘is with knowledge and information on Shi‘ism and the Shi‘i world. It is unsurprising then, that in its examination of Yaumul Quds, the Body of Research and Development of the Department of Religious Affairs (DEPAG) warns of the potential dangers of these publications to the Indonesian state, citing the possibility of the embassy using the periodicals to spread Shi‘i teachings and the Iranian revolutionary ideas in Indonesia.
The most regular Islamic bulletin owned by a Shi‘i institution has been Al-Tanwir (The Enlightenment), published by the Muthahhari Foundation. This bi-weekly bulletin, which has been issued since January 1991, is seen not only as a way for the foundation to communicate with its members but also as a conduit for da‘wa between the Muthahhari Foundation and Muslim society at large. The full title of the bulletin is The Da‘wa Bulletin of Al-Munawwarah Mosque and its offices are located behind Jalaluddin Rakhmat’s house. It is issued in cooperation with the Muthahhari Foundation. In fact, most of the articles in the bulletin are derived from transcriptions of Jalaluddin Rakhmat’s sermons, delivered at the mosque every Sunday morning. The bulletin also includes articles which are considered important for Muslim society and reports on the activities of the foundation. In step with the philosophical values of the Muthahhari Foundation, the bulletin provides a moderate view of various aspects of Islam, and in particular regarding the differences between Shi‘ism and Sunnism. Al-Tanwir is widely distributed and to date boasts more than 250 editions, consequently it can be seen as instrumental to the spread of the teachings of Shi‘ism in Indonesia.
Bahtera (meaning ‘ark’) is another publication created by Jalaluddin Rakhmat’s circle. It is the collaborative product of the Muthahhari Foundation and the Shi‘i organisation, IJABI. The magazine, which published its first issue in December 2003, is designed to be a vehicle of communication for the array of leaders and members of IJABI. Bahtera provides communicates and explains the ideas of the organisation’s intellectuals to its members, although it is also of interest to a wider readership. In general, its contents include topics concerning religious knowledge, as well as social and educational problems. As its subtitle suggests - Pencerahan dan Pemberdayaan (Enlightenment and Empowerment) - this periodical represents the ideology of IJABI. It aims to support the ensemble programme of enlightenment and empowerment.
In Bandung, a monthly bulletin, Al-Jawad, is produced by Al-Jawad Foundation. Al-Jawad is a combination of three bulletins that the institution used to publish: Al-Jawad (dealing with spiritual guidance), Risalatuna (Our Message, dealing with themes related to unity of God) and Al-Ghadir (dealing with information about knowledge within Shi‘ism). Historically, Al-Ghadir was the first bulletin produced by the institution, published between 1994 and 1997, and it contained the writings of Indonesian students in Qum, Iran. Risalatuna was briefly published in 1997.
The eight-page Al-Jawad attempts to include all three themes. In practice, like Al-Tanwir, each edition usually contains an article derived from a sermon recorded at the Nurul Falah Mosque. It also includes information from wali faqih Rahbar (the Supreme Leader), ‘Ali Khamene’i, or an exhortation from Shi‘i Imams, plus certain aspects of jurisprudence or prayers. Al-Jawad’s content is distinct from that of Al-Tanwir in that it has shown its commitment to follow the instructions and advice of Khamene’i, Iran’s foremost Shi‘i leader. It also pays attention to aspects of jurisprudence, an issue not covered by Al-Tanwir. Despite a limited circulation, Al-Jawad has clearly participated in the dissemination of the teachings of Shi‘ism in Indonesia.
In the same vein as Al-Jawad, there is a magazine (generally more than 50 pages) entitled An-Nashr (the Victory), published by IPABI of Bogor. This magazine provides several rubrics including doctrine, politics, history, morality, and reports on the work of the foundation. Some articles are original, while others are translations. Like Al-Tanwir and Al-Jawad, An-Nashr provides a large number of articles based on sermons, in this case by its leader, Abdullah Assegaff, (an ustadh and Qum graduate, who sometimes uses the pseudonym Abu Sukainah). In several aspects, the content of An-Nashr resembles that of Al-Jawad, reflecting the similar religious orientation, ideology, da‘wa strategy and close connections between the two institutions, (and on a broader level, among members of the ustadh group in Indonesia).
Several periodicals have also emerged from YAPI of Bangil. The first was Al-Isyraq (The Sunrise), which issued only nine editions (from 1996 to 1998), and was then succeeded by Islamuna (Our Islam) (from 1424/2003 to date). YAPI also produced one edition of KSAF, a journal of a study group for religion and philosophy that was meant to include scientific and popular writings on aspects of Islamic knowledge. The goal of Al-Isyraq was “to invite all Muslims to enlighten their thought with original and argumentative Islamic views”.
Compared to the abovementioned bulletins and magazines, these magazines published more varied topics, albeit in less detail, including articles on doctrine, the Qur’an, history, philosophy, morality, education, contemporary development of Islamic world and the obligatory report on the institution’s activities. Aside from being a platform for the strategy of the institution and an outlet for articles from the Shi‘i perspective (which constituted the largest portion of their content), both Al-Isyraq and Islamuna also published the Islamic thoughts of a number of Sunni leaders in the country.
The Friday bulletin from Al-Huda and the magazine Syi‘ar (Magnificence) are produced by ICC of Al-Huda. Al-Huda’s weekly four-page bulletin presents an article, mainly dealing with aspects of Sufism. Most articles were later republished in two volumes of a book entitled Renungan Jum‘at (Friday’s Reflection) by Suharto in 2002. Published monthly, the luxurious looking Syi‘ar provides articles on diverse topics of Islamic knowledge, education, and culture. It is by far the most varied among the existing Shi‘i periodicals. Although its content mostly deals with Shi‘i thought, (both translations and original), each edition also publishes interviews with Sunni scholars or leaders in Indonesia. However, a noticeable absence from Syi‘ar are articles on political issues, including the political development in Iran. Despite a request by some readers to include politics, the editorial board remains reluctant to do so. This reflects the stated philosophical basis of ICC, (as explained previously), as an apolitical organisation. Of note is that Syi‘ar is well-known for providing opportunities for young Shi‘i writers to be published.
The latest magazine to emerge is Suara Ummah (the Voice of Umma), published by Forum Al-Husainy of Jakarta. The first edition of this monthly magazine was published in February 2004. According to the magazine’s editorial board, the publication was the product of a series of meetings and discussion among ustadh and intellectuals. Their aim is to demonstrate the great potential of Muslim society and to encourage its resurgence. “Unity is the key word for resurgence because in it God’s mercy awaits”.
With the slogan ‘Assemble brotherhood, Side with the Oppressed’, the monthly magazine presents events, thoughts and aspects of Islamic teachings within a framework of Islamic brotherhood. Unlike other Shi‘i periodicals, Suara Ummah hopes to attract a wider readership in the country, and it is sold at a number of street kiosks in Jakarta. To reflect this vision of inclusiveness, the opinions of both Sunni scholars and Shi‘i intellectuals and ustadh are provided in the magazine, although the Shi‘i inclinations of the publication cannot disguised. For example, one reader, named Nurhidayah, wrote to the editorial board asking whether Suara Ummah was in fact a Shi‘i publication.
In response to her letter, the editorial board does not ignore the Shi‘i nature of the magazine, but emphasises the importance of contribution to the community instead of questioning one’s madhhab:
Miss Nurhidayah, it is history that will prove that, in the future, issues with regard to khilafiya [disputed matter] and conflict of aliran [stream] in Islam will be considered out-of-date. The Muslims will become more enlightened so that they are more interested in talking about movements beneficial for empowerment, education, and support of the Muslims based on the principle of justice. One day the Muslim society will see the contribution of a movement or the contribution given by a group to the Muslim community and mankind in general, without noticing its madhhab. Madhhab, let it become our own business before God. A Muslim has to be able to understand and respect each other. Then, he competes to become a supporter of others. Dialogue is still needed and, at the end, freedom to choose a madhhab believed to be true is needed, without necessarily regarding others infidel. It is then valid as well if there is a group thinking to have excellence as long as it can be explained with rational arguments or can be proved intellectually.
Thus, from the above description we may glean several points: First, the periodicals produced by Shi‘i institutions include scientific journals, bulletins, and magazines. Second, these publications are designed to be a means of da‘wa, communication and education for members of the institutions and organisations and of the Shi‘i community. Third, the content, style and presentation of the periodicals reflect the religious comprehension and ideology of the institutions or associations.
E. The Impact of Shi‘i Publishing
Without question, Shi‘i publishing, (which is a product of complex activity calling on several professions within the community, including writer, translator, editor and even manager), has had a considerable impact on the lives of Shi‘is in Indonesia. Atiyeh wrote, “People’s lives are definitely influenced by this old and basic vehicle of communication”.
By exploiting the community’s various networks, Shi‘i works are readily available to adherents. This corresponds to the fact that the majority of Shi‘is in Indonesia are literate. Given what we have learned, we can conclude that there are three functions of publishing in the Shi‘i context: Religious change, education, and communication. One of the most remarkable influences of publishing in terms of the development of Shi‘is in Indonesia has been in the conversion process. There is no doubt that publishing functions as conduit for religious change. Most Shi‘i converts in Indonesia admit the significance of books in their conversion process (although it should be noted that religious conversion is always a complex psychological and sociological process). Frequently certain Shi‘i books are a catalyst for readers to carry out intensive studies of Shi‘i teachings. A notable example is Jalaluddin Rakhmat’s conversion to Shi‘ism, which was greatly influenced by the Shi‘i works that he read. Rakhmat admitted that his understanding of imamate, for instance, was a direct result of his intensive reading of Shi‘i books on the subject.
By the same token, an event which occurred during my observations at the Al-Jawad Foundation on 19 May 2004 illustrates the importance of books in the conversion process:
A man came to the Al-Jawad Foundation in Bandung. In its office he met with Husein Al-Kaff and other foundation staff. In response to a question about his conversion to Shi‘ism, the man explained that about four months earlier he read a book about strings of Imam Ali’s excellent words entitled Mereka Bertanya Ali Menjawab, (They question Ali answers), published by Al-Jawad [1998]. Reading the book reminded him of his father’s advice emphasising the excellence of Ali, something he did not find in instructions at school. He told that he continued to read several Shi‘i works in order to understand Shi‘i teachings. He then converted to Shi‘ism, but only through books, since he has not found teachers and has not joined the Shi‘i community.
Most people convert to Shi‘ism from Sunnism as a consequence of their independent study of Shi‘ism through books, rather than as a result of, for example, sermons delivered by Shi‘i preachers. While we cannot deduce which book or books are most influential in this conversion process, we can suggest that it is the category of doctrinal books which is the most influential in attracting readers to Shi‘ism, as they can be seen as validating Shi‘i teachings with strong sound proofs. It appears that philosophical works by and large have very little impact on the conversion process. Many converts have mentioned the influence of al-Musawi’s Dialog Sunnah Syi‘ah, while others point to Muhammad Tijani al-Samawi’s works, one of which describes al-Samawi’s own conversion experience. One interesting point is that the writings of al-Samawi have also had a remarkable impact on the conversion of Sunnis to Shi‘ism in the United States, and in particular among the Muslim population of US prisons.
In Indonesia, al-Samawi’s books are read widely and been influential in attracting people to learn Shi‘ism. A graduate of the Darussalam Institute for Islamic Studies at Gontor, Ponorogo, East Java for example told that his Shi‘i beliefs and practices still follow those taught in the works of Tijani al-Samawi. Al-Samawi’s first book, Akhirnya Kutemukan Kebenaran
(Finally, I Found the Truth) published in Malay in 1991 and in Indonesian in 1993 by Pustaka Pelita, Bandung, has been incredibly influential in the conversion to Shi‘ism. In this book, al-Samawi who becomes a prominent Shi‘i figure in Tunisia, writes of his journey from Cairo to Alexandria and his subsequent meetings with Ayatollah Khu’i (then prominent marja‘ al-taqlid in Iraq) and Muhammad Baqir Sadr in Najaf. Subsequent to these meetings, al-Samawi begins to question his faith and undertakes an intensive study of the Shi‘i doctrines and teachings,(from both Sunni and Shi‘i sources), for a period of three years. At the end of this, he converts to Shi‘ism. The book deals not merely with al-Samawi’s spiritual quest but also his reflections on and interpretations of Shi‘i teachings. On his conversion to Shi‘ism, Al-Samawi writes:
Praise be to God, I have found the alternative. After the Messenger of God, I follow the Master of the faithful... [and other Imams after him].
I have also exchanged the ‘ulama’ of my people who discouraged us from thinking and whose majority followed the rulers all the time for the devoted Shi‘i ‘ulama’ who never closed the gate of ijtihad, and who neither submitted to nor sought mercy from the oppressive rulers.
Yes, I have changed narrow thoughts and beliefs, full of superstitions and contradictions for new enlightened, open, and liberal ones based on logical deductions and reasoning.
It is important to note that as a direct result of the impact of this book, on 19 November 2002, the mufti of Johor, Malaysia, issued a fatwa that declares it to be a forbidden book. Books are generally forbidden because they are contrary to the true teachings of Islam.
Despite its status in Malaysia, this book is still read and distributed among Muslims in Indonesia.
The most significant influence of publishing is in the process of education, in the broadest sense. For members of the Shi‘i community in Indonesia, publishing, along with preaching, education and training activities, has functioned, and continues to function, as way to deepen and broaden their religious knowledge, which is essential for their religious belief and practice. While books and periodicals will never surpass the importance of religious teachers in the educational and da‘wa process, they are instrumental in increasing religious comprehension and influencing the religious beliefs and practices of the Shi‘i community. Shi‘i publications serve not only as sources of knowledge but also as patterns for behaviour for the community. The fact that the majority of Indonesian Shi‘is are converts from Sunnism only confirms the influential nature of these publications.
Shi‘i publishing also plays an important role in sustaining the Shi‘i community, a minority Islamic group in Indonesia. Living as a minority requires ways of maintaining identity and continuity, in particular with regard to encounters with Sunni majority. Shi‘i texts are sources of religious knowledge, a crucial weapon in facing challenges from the surrounding majority Sunni. In this regard, Shi‘i publications are essential tools in the daily struggle within the dominant religious system and culture. Moreover, they provide the community (including Sunni converts), with the religious knowledge to respond to anti-Shi‘i attacks.
As a vehicle of communication, Shi‘i publishing has served not only to connect the Shi‘i community in Indonesia with other Shi‘i communities in other parts of the world but also to integrate it in the Shi‘i world. The importance of being part of this Shi‘i world is of great concern to Shi‘i ustadh such as Husein Al-Kaff, who points out that the Shi‘is in Indonesia should practice the tradition of Shi‘ism in order to avoid isolation from other Shi‘i communities in the world.
There is a need to find the Shi‘i identity and brethren among members of the Shi‘i community of the world. Together with the increasing numbers of students learning in Iran, Shi‘i publishing, and in particular the translations of works by mujtahid, has brought the Indonesian Shi‘i community closer to Iran, and increased Indonesia’s status as an important centre of Shi‘ism. Most of Shi‘is in Indonesia see ‘Ali Khamene’i, the wali faqih, as their marja‘ al-taqlid. This is a result of efforts by teachers, institutions and publications to promote the a‘lamiyyat (superiority in religious knowledge) and leadership of this figure. (Bestowing the positions of wilayat al-faqih and marja‘ al-taqlid on a single person can be seen as an attempt by Iran to attract as many Shi‘i adherents in the world under its leadership as possible). Shi‘i publishing has been instrumental in forming and sustaining the intense emotional relationship between the Indonesian Shi‘i community and other Shi‘i communities throughout the world, but in particular Iran.
The impact of Shi‘i publishing can be seen beyond the boundaries of Indonesia’s Shi‘i community. Without doubt, translations and works by Indonesian Shi‘s have been influential on Sunnis in Indonesia, and works of Shi‘i philosophy and thought, in particular, have exerted great influence on Indonesian Muslims. Shari‘ati’s social philosophical works are widely read, cited, and discussed, as are Nasr’s works on Islamic thought and Sufism. These works are considered to offer strong critiques of Western philosophy, worldview and modernity in general. Evidence for the impact of this category is the fact that many famous Muslim intellectuals and students are influenced by certain Shi‘i teachings and thoughts. Indonesia’s Shi‘is see it as a huge step in their struggle for the recognition of their madhhab when Muslim intellectuals in Indonesia express positive perceptions of the intellectual and philosophical aspects of Shi‘ism.
Doctrinal works have contributed to the maintenance of Islamic traditionalist practices, which come under fire from reformist groups. This is in contrast to the Sunni traditionalist group, which rarely produces scholarly works to counter reformist criticism. As a result there has been an emergence of translations of traditionalist books, and in fact, Shi‘i leaders, such as Jalaluddin Rakhmat, suggest that traditionalist Shi‘i works serve as an effective tool for defeating reformist arguments on Islamic traditionalist beliefs and practices. In relation to this, Rakhmat also claims that traditionalist Sunni groups in Indonesia, such as NU, also benefit from these Shi‘i works.
The impact of books cannot be underestimated. Despite the fact that many anti-Shi‘i groups have attempted to fight against Shi‘ism, Shi‘i works have become an integral part of the intellectual and cultural life of Muslims in Indonesia. Furthermore, books and articles published on the internet have further enhanced the impact of Shi‘i publishing. A number of Shi‘i foundations in Indonesia now provide websites which publish numerous Shi‘i works on various aspects of Shi‘ism. In the Indonesian social and religious context, the emergence and development of Shi‘i publishing can be seen to have contributed to the fragmentation of religious authority in Indonesia. On the impact of the media on the Muslim world at large, Eickelman and Anderson point out that the transmission and circulation of Islamic texts through a variety of media “... mark a fragmentation of authority. ‘Islamic’ books set aside the long tradition of authoritative discourse by religious scholars in favour of a direct understanding of texts....”.
Abdullah also observes that the circulation of religious texts among members of the community has expanded the number and scope of its audience. He goes on to suggest: “The spread of literacy and the translation of formerly esoteric texts have terminated the monopoly of the ulama in any religious discourse. Literacy and the growing importance of the print culture have expanded the number of people who can directly conduct a dialogue with the text.”
The fragmentation of religious authority in Indonesia takes different forms: First, in the context of the development of the Shi‘is, fragmentation has meant the emergence of a religious group distinctive from the majority Sunni community in terms of interpretation of certain tenets of Islam. Second is the rise of a literate group, products of a secular education within the Sunni community. This group has the same opportunities to engage in religious interpretation as those religious scholars at the traditional centre of Islamic learning. Unsurprisingly, the emergence and development of these groups has prompted attacks from militant groups who claim to represent the legitimate religious authority in Indonesia. We can conclude that the proliferation of Shi‘i publishing, together with other Islamic publications, has undermined the traditional religious authorities in Indonesia.
However, Indonesia is a Muslim country that has no single religious authority and it recognises various forms of Islamic tradition, two factors which encourage religious pluralism.
Although there is MUI (Majlis Ulama Indonesia, the Indonesian Council of ‘Ulama’) created by former President Suharto, different Muslim groups tend to follow the religious interpretation and fatwa of their own organisation, for example NU, Muhammadiyah or Persis. Such conditions benefit the existence of Shi‘is in Indonesia. It is their struggle to promote the validity of Shi‘ism as an element of the Islamic tradition, and they use publishing as an instrument to do so. Since the circulation of various forms of Shi‘i publications transcends the boundaries of the Shi‘i community, Shi‘i teachings and thought are read, cited and discussed among the wider Indonesian Muslims population. Publishing has allowed Shi‘i teachings and thoughts to penetrate the religious-intellectual life in Indonesia. Shi‘ism and Shi‘is in Indonesia have even gained recognition in the eyes of moderate Muslim figures. The Indonesian Shi‘i organisation, IJABI, has also gained official legal recognition from the government. That said, Shi‘is continue to struggle for the recognition of Shi‘i teachings and traditions by wider segments of the Muslim community in Indonesia. In this context, the goal of Shi‘i publishing remains the recognition of Shi‘ism as a valid Islamic madhhab by the religious authorities and majority Sunni community. Having demonstrated its extensive influence, we can conclude that publishing is clearly the most effective communicative weapon of struggle for the Shi‘is in Indonesia.
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Author: Zulkifli
