Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

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A Glance at Historiography in Shiite Culture

Authors(s): Rasul Ja'fariyan

Publisher(s): Ahlul Bayt World Assembly

Journal: General (Message of Thaqalayn)

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This version is published on behalf of www.alhassanain.org/english

The composing errors are not corrected.

Table of Contents

Beginning of Historiography Among the Shi’ites 5

Shi’ite Works on the Prophet’s Biography During the First Centuries 6

Books on the History of the Prophets 10

Kalāmī-Historical Books 12

Hadīthī-Historical Books 14

Rijālī-Historical Books 16

History of the Twelve Imams (‘a) from the 5th to 8th Centuries 17

Regional Histories from the 4th to 8th Centuries AH 19

Arabic and Persian Works of ‘Twelver Sunnis’ on the Twelve Imams (‘a) from the 6th to the 10th Centuries 21

Persian Works by Imamis from the 7th till 10th Centuries 23

Historiography on the Eve of the Safawid Era 25

Spread of Tashayyu’ and Beginning of Shi’ite Historiography during the Safawid Era 27

Maqtal Works During the Safawid and Qajarid Eras 31

Notes 33

Beginning of Historiography Among the Shi’ites

The Shi‘ites began their work in the field of Islamic sciences concurrent with other Muslims. One of these branches of knowledge was history. Alongside the historiography movement in Iraq, the Shi‘ites also began their activities and cooperated in the writing and compilation of books on history. Apart from the Iraqī Shi‘ites1 such as Abu Mikhnaf, Hishām Kalbī, or persons like Ibn Ishāq who were influenced by the Shi‘ite current of Iraq, others belonging to the Imāmī Shi‘ite group also cooperated in the task of Islamic historiography.

Different issues related to the biography of Prophet Muhammad (S) and the history of the developments that had taken place in Iraq, were among the issues in which the Shi‘ites were truly interested, and by no means did they consider themselves separate from these developments.

It was natural that in such a situation, Shi‘ite movements and movements inclined toward Tashayyu‘ or even those movements opposed to the Umayyuds were sometimes even more important for these historians than the biography of the Prophet (S), for they were witness to the fact that the account of the life of the Prophet (S) was at any rate being recorded by scholars of various other persuasions.

What was more important for them were the news related to the Alawis and the Shi‘ite movements which could be distorted or lost if not recorded. Other developments, such as discussions concerning the history of the caliphs did not attract the attention of the Shi‘ites, since they did not see any link between their own history and the history of the caliphs, except of course, from a negative angle.

During the first centuries after the advent of Islam, historiography among both the Shi‘ites and Sunnis was confined to a specific event. But the important point is that, from among the Sunnis, Abu Ja‘far Muhammad bin Jarīr al-Tabarī took an innovative step by collecting in his encyclopaedic history most of the treatises whether big or small, which were available to him as the cultural heritage (of his sect).

Such a project was not carried out by the Shi‘ites, and with the loss of the treatises dealing with specific aspects of the Islamic civilisation, an important part of the Shi‘ite historical heritage disappeared. Only a few samples survive, such as Waq‘at al-Siffīn by Nasr bin Muzāham and Ibrāhīm bin Muhammad al-Thaqafī’s al-Ghārāt, both written in the 3rd century. This extant material is indicative of the great importance for recording of historical developments.

After this initial period, Shi‘ite historiography became limited to a brief discussion on the biography and conduct of the Infallible Imams (‘a) as well as issues related to the Imamate. This situation continued until the re-establishment of a Shi‘ite government and the start of a new phase in the historiography of that government.

Shi’ite Works on the Prophet’s Biography During the First Centuries

As far as the biography of Prophet Muhammad (S) is concerned, it should be said that accounts of the maghāzī (campaigns in which the Prophet took part) were also taught by the Imams. The main testimony in this regard is a narration by Imam ‘Alī ibn al-Husayn Zayn al-Abidīn (‘a), who said: “Kunnā na‘lam maghāzī Rasulullāh kamā na‘lam al-surah min al-Qur’ān” (we teach the campaigns of the Messenger of Allah as we teach the surah of the Holy Qur’ān).2

In the ahādīth related on the authority of Imam Muhammad al-Bāqir and Imam Ja‘far al-Sādiq (‘a), several narrations could be found on the Prophet’s sīrah, many of which have been recorded. For example, Ibn Ishāq and later Ibn Sa‘d in their biographies of the Prophet, have quoted some narrations on the authority of Imam Bāqir (‘a).

Among the Shi‘ite works, about one fourth of ‘Alī Ibn Ibrāhīm Qummī’s exegesis of the Holy Qur’ān deals with the accounts and history of the Prophets. This book which was completed by referring to several other works, has made use of several written accounts that were available during the third and fourth centuries AH.

For example, the book al-Mab‘ath wa al-Maghāzī by Abān bin ‘Uthmān has been used by ‘Alī bin Ibrāhīm Qummī in his tafsīr (exegesis). Qummī’s tafsīr is among the works whose section on the Prophet’s biography almost exclusively quotes narrations from Imam Bāqir and Imam Sādiq (‘a). One of the reasons for this is the inclusion in it of Tafsīr Abī al-Jārud, which is entirely based on the narrations of Imam Bāqir (‘a) and gives an account of the Prophet according to the revelation of the ayahs.

The narrations of Abī al-Jārud are distinct from the other sections, and ‘Allāmah Majlisī has mentioned all the narrations of this book in the volumes of Bihār al-Anwār under the title Tārīkh Nabiyyinā (History of Our Prophet).

Another book is Mab‘ath al-Nabī wa Akhbāruh, by ‘Abdullāh bin Maymun al-Qaddāh, who was a narrator of hadīth from Imam Bāqir and Imam Sādiq (‘a).3 At any rate, these are firm proofs of the attention paid by the Infallible Imams (‘a) and the Shi‘ites to accounts of the Prophet’s sīrah.

The history of Islam in general was also a matter of interest for the Shi‘ites. Asbagh bin Nubātah is among the earliest Shi‘ite authors who has a book on martyrdom (maqtal) of Imam Husayn (‘a).4 Ahmad bin ‘Ubaydullāh Thaqafī is another one and the titles of two of his books are: Kitāb al-Mubayyazah fī Akhbār Maqātil Ali Abī Tālib, and Kitāb fī Tafzīl Banī Hāshim wa Zamm Banī Umayyah wa Atbā‘ihim.5 Muhammad Bin Zakariyyā bin Dīnār is also among the early Shi‘ite authors and according to al-Najāshī some of his books are: al-Jamal al-Kabīr, al- Jamal al-Mukhtasar, Siffīn al-Kabīr, Maqtal al-Husayn,6 Kitāb al-Nahr(awān), Maqtal Amīr al-Mu‘minīn, Akhbār Zayd and Akhbār Fātimah.7

Another example is Ibrāhīm bin Muhammad al-Thaqafī, who was at first a Zaydī and then became an Imāmī. He has written historical works such as: Kitāb al-Mubtada’ wa al-Maghāzī wa al-Riddah, Akhbār ‘Umar, Akhbār ‘Uthmān, Kitāb al-Dār, al-Ghārāt (a work that has survived), Akhbār Zayd, Akhbār Muhammad (Nafs Zakiyyah) wa (his brother) Ibrāhīm.8

The books which Jābir bin Yazīd al-Ju‘fī wrote also deal with similar topics and are titled: Kitāb al-Jamal, Kitāb al- Siffīn, Kitāb al-Nahrawān, Kitāb Maqtal Amīr al-Mu’minīn and Kitāb Maqtal al-Husayn.9

‘Alī bin Hasan bin ‘Alī bin Fazzāl was also a prominent Shi‘ite author, and among his works mention could be made of: al-Dalā’il, al-Anbiā’, al- Bashārāt and al-Kufah.10

Among the renowned Shi‘ite scholars of Basrah was ‘Abd al-‘Azīz Jalludī bin Yahyā al-‘Azdī who was a prolific writer. Some of the historical books which he wrote are: Kitāb al-Jamal, Kitāb al-Siffīn,11 Kitāb al-Hakamayn, Kitāb al-Ghārāt, Kitāb al-Khawārij, Kitāb Zikr ‘Alī fī Hurub al-Nabī, Kitāb Ma’āl al-Shī‘ah ba‘d ‘Alī (‘a), Akhbār al-Tawwābīn wa ‘Ayn al-Wardah, Akhbār man ‘Ashqa min al-Shu‘arā’, Akhbār Quraysh wa al-Asnām, Kitāb Tabaqāt al-‘Arab wa al-Shu‘arā’, Kitāb Khutab al-Nabī, Kitāb Khutab ‘Uthmān, Kitāb Rasā’il ‘Umar, Kitāb Rāyāt al-Azd, and Kitāb Munāzarāt ‘Alī ibn Musā al-Rizā (‘a).12

The Shi‘ites of Qum also contributed to the early historiographical works. Ahmad bin Ismā‘īl bin ‘Abdullāh Bajallī was one of them, and among his most important works is: Kitāb al-‘Abbāsī, about which al-Najāshī writes: “wa huwa kitāb ‘azīm nahw min ‘ashrah ālāf waraqah min akhbār al-khulafā’ wa al-dawlah al-‘Abbāsiyyah. Ra’aytu minhu akhbār al-Amīn” (It is a voluminous book of 10,000 pages dealing with the accounts of the caliphs and the Abbasid State. I have seen from it the account of al-Amīn).13

Muhammad bin Hasan al-Qummī had access to this book and he has quoted four instances from it in his History of Qum (refer to Bibliography of Works Related to Qum, p. 19. In History of Qum, the events on pp. 145, 200, 236 & 237 have been quoted from Tārīkh ‘Abbāsī).

Another early historian was ‘Alī bin Ahmad Jawwānī who wrote Akhbār Sāhib Fakhkh and Akhbār Yahyā bin ‘Abdullāh bin Hasan.14 Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Khālid al-Barqī who was a renowned traditionist (muhaddith) from Qum, has a book entitled Kitāb al-Maghāzī on the Prophet’s sīrah. He is the author of several other works such as, Kitāb al-Shi‘r wa al-Shu‘arā’, Kitāb al-Buldān wa al-Masāhah, Kitāb al-Tārīkh and Kitāb al-Ansāb.15

One of the renowned historians during the era of the Infallible Imams (‘a) was Abān bin ‘Uthmān Ahmar Bajallī. He authored a valuable book on the accounts of the previous Prophets and the biography of Prophet Muhammad (S), of which, unfortunately, only a few parts are extant. Shaykh Tusī says about this book:

“We have no information of his works except the book in which he has collected from the beginning the account of Prophet (Muhammad [S]), the start of his mission (mab‘ath), his military campaigns (maghāzī), his passing away as well as the happenings at Saqīfah (Banī Sā‘idah) and the riddah. There is another copy from which the scholars of Qum have related.”16

This book was available to ‘Alī bin Ibrāhīm Qummī and he has extensively quoted from it in his tafsīr. The bibliographer al-Najāshī was also aware of this book, and he writes: “He has an excellent and voluminous book in which he has collected accounts (of Prophet Muhammad [S]) from the beginning till his passing away including the military campaigns.”17 This work was available to many ‘ulamā’ of the following centuries, but the most detailed quotations from it are found in Shaykh Tabrisī’s I‘lām al-Warā.

We (the author of this article Rasul Ja‘fariyān) have published the extant portions of this book under the title Kitāb al-Mab‘ath wa al-Maghāzī and talked about him and his book in detail in the introduction.

Here we will point out a number of works that have been written on Prophet Muhammad (S) by early Shi‘ite scholars. We have mostly arranged the list according the subject:

1- Kitāb Sifāt al-Nabī (S): Wahab bin Wahab (Rijāl al-Najāshī, p. 430);

2- Kitāb Wufud al-‘Arab ilā al-Nabī (S): Munzir bin Muhammad bin Munzir. Some of his other works are Kitāb al-Jamal, Kitāb al-Siffīn, Kitāb al-Nahrawān, Kitāb al-Ghārāt (al-Najāshī, p. 418);

3- Mas’alah fī Imān Abā’a al-Nabī (S): Abī Ya‘lā Muhammad bin Hasan bin Hamzah Ja‘farī (al-Najāshī, p. 404);

4- Kitāb Mas’alah fī Ma‘rifah al-Nabī: Shaykh Mufīd (al-Najāshī, p. 402);

5- Kitāb Zuhd al-Nabī (S), Kitāb Awsāf al-Nabī (S), Kitāb fī Ma‘rifah Fazl al-Nabī (S) wa Amīr al-Mu’minīn wa al-Hasan wa al-Husayn ‘Alayhim al-Salām: Shaykh Saduq (al-Najāshī, p. 390). He also wrote Kitāb fī ‘Abd al-Mutallib wa ‘Abdullāh wa Abī Tālib (al-Najāshī, p. 390);

6- Kitāb al-Bayān ‘an Khiyarah al-Rahmān fī Imān Abī Tālib wa Abā’ al-Nabī (S): ‘Alī bin Bilāl al-Mahllabī al-Azdī (al-Najāshī, p. 265);

7- Kitāb Mab‘ath al-Nabī (S) wa Akhbāruh: ‘Abdullāh bin Maymun al-Qaddāh (al-Najāshī, p. 213);

8- Kitāb Wafāt al-Nabī (S): Salamah bin al-Khattāb Berāwastānī Azdurqānī (al-Najāshī, p.187);

9- Kitāb al-Radd ‘alā Man Za‘ama al-Nabī (S) Kāna ‘alā Dīn Qawmih Qabl al-Nubuwwah; Ja‘far bin Ahmad bin Ayyub Samarqandī (al-Najāshī, p. 21);

10- Kitāb al-Radd ‘alā Man Za‘ama al-Nabī (S) Kāna ‘alā Dīn Qawmih: Husayn bin Ashkīb Khurāsānī (al-Najāshī, p. 44);

11- Kitāb Akhbār al-Nabī (S): Abī ‘Alī Ahmad bin Muhammad bin ‘Ammār al-Kufī. He also wrote the book Kitāb Imān Abī Tālib (al-Najsahi, p. 95);

12- Kitāb Zikr al-Nabī (S) wa al-Sakhrah wa al-Rāhib wa Turuq Dhālik: Ahmad bin Muhamamd bin Sa‘īd Sabī‘ī Hamdānī (al-Najāshī, p. 94);

13- Kitāb Fazl al-Nabī (S): Ahmad bin Muhammad bin ‘Isā Ash‘arī (al-Najsahi page 81).

14- Kitāb Sīrat al-Nabī (S) wa al-A’immah ‘Aalayhim al-Salām fī al- Mushrikīn: Husayn bin ‘Alī bin Sufyān Bezufarī (al-Najāshī, p. 68);

15- Kitāb al-Wufud ‘alā al-Nabī: Husayn bin Muhammad bin ‘Alī al-'Azdi (al-Najāshī, p. 65);

16- Kitāb Nasab al-Nabī (S), Kitāb Kutub al-Nabī (S), Kitāb Akhbār al-Wufud ‘alā al-Nabī (S), ‘Abd al-‘Azīz bin Yahyā al-Jalludī al-Azdī (al-Najāshī, pp. 241-244);

17- Kitāb Asmā’ Alāt Rasulullāh wa Asmā’ Silāhih wa Kitāb Wafāt al-Nabī (S): ‘Alī bin Hasan bin ‘Alī bin Fazl (al-Najāshī, p. 258);

18- Kitāb al-Maghāzī: Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Khālid al-Barqī (al-Najāshī, p.76);

19- Al-Munbi’ ‘an Zuhd al-Nabī (S): Abī Muhammad Ja‘far bin Muhammad bin ‘Alī Qummī ibn al-Rāzī. Ibn Tāwus has quoted this in several of his works.18

20- Kitāb Asmā’ Rasulullāh (S): Hasan bin Khorzād (al-Najāshī, p. 44).

On biographical works concerning the Prophet, there is a marked difference between the approach of the Sunnis and Shi‘ites. The Shi‘ite writers regarded Prophet Muhammad (S) more holier than their Sunni counterparts and based their works on his infallibility.

It is important to note that in Sunni historiography, although the feeling of admiration toward the Prophet’s life is clearly visible, his infallibility in all aspects has been ignored. An example in this regard is the writing of the book Zallah al-Anbiyā’ by Abu al-Fazl Mashshāt19 in response to Sharīf Murtazā’s Tanzīh al-Anbiyā’.20 Earlier during the 3rd century AH, a Sunni ‘ālim had written a book titled Ma‘āsī al-Anbiā’, which was refuted by the renowned mutakallim of Samarqand, Abu Mansur Mātirīdī.21

Books on the History of the Prophets

Accounts of the divine Prophets were carried out as part of Islamic historiography by various scholars in books entitled al-Mubtada’ which means the beginning or the origin. These works deal with the history of mankind since the beginning or the creation of Adam till the time of the last divine messenger, Prophet Muhammad (S).

In this field also the Shi‘ites did not lag behind. Part of the book al-Mubtada’ wa al-Mab‘ath wa al-Maghāzī by Abān bin ‘Uthmān Ahmar Bajallī, the extant portions of which we have published as mentioned earlier in this article, indicates that the recording of such traditions also existed among the Shi‘ites, although, as we have said in the introduction to this book, it contains certain narrations from Israelite sources, which are of course not acceptable.

Among Shi‘ite sources, the section dedicated to the history of the Prophets is found scattered and sometimes in detail. ‘Allāmah Majlisī has mentioned these narrations in volumes 11 to 14 of Bihār al-Anwār. Most of these are found in the works Shaykh Saduq, in Tafsīr ‘Alī bin Ibrāhīm Qummī, in Tafsīr al-‘Ayyāshī, Tafsīr Majma‘ al-Bayān and similar books, and as we said, these narrations have been borrowed from the Sunnis who related from such persons as Ka‘b al-Ahbār, ‘Abdullāh bin Salām, and especially Wahab bin Minbah.

Ibn Tāwus has quoted an excerpt in Faraj al Mahmum from a book entitled Qasas al- Anbiyā’ which he considers was written by Muhammad bin Khālid bin ‘Abd al-Rahmān al-Barqī.22 But apparently, no one else among the Imāmī bibliographers have mentioned this book.

However, from among the books exclusively written on the history of Prophets, reference can be made to the Qasas al-Anbiyā’ of Qutb al-Dīn al-Rāwandī, which has been published by the Foundation for Islamic Research by Professor Ghulām Rizā ‘Irfāniyān. This work, in addition to being the history of Prophets, has a section that includes their miracles (chapter 19, p. 280 onwards), while chapter 20 deals in brief with the life of Prophet Muhammad (S).

The author has not mentioned his sources for the accounts of the Prophets and most of the chain of narrators which he has mentioned do not clearly indicate the source. It is likely that a major part of Chapter 20 is based on Tafsīr ‘Alī bin Ibrāhīm Qummī.

After al-Rāwandī’s work, the book al-Nur al-Mubīn fī Qasas al-Anbiyā’ by Sayyid Ni‘matullāh al-Jazā’irī (d. 1112 AH) deals elaborately with the history of Prophets.

Part of the historical books of the Shi‘ites is those which have been written to record the miracles performed by the Infallible Imams (‘a) in proof of their Imamate. Naturally in these works different aspects of the lives of the Imams (‘a) have also been recorded. Among the most ancient books in this regard is the Dalā’il al-A’immah by Muhammad bin Mas‘ud ‘Ayyāshī the Shi‘ite scholar of the late 3rd and early 4th centuries who lived in Samarqand.

His works, including this one, have been mentioned by Ibn Nadīm.23 This book however has not survived and is presumed to be lost. Another work in this field is al-Dalā’il wa al-Mu‘jizāt by Abī al-Qāsim Kufī who is accused of exaggeration. He has also written a book on this subject titled Tathbīt Nubuwwah al-Anbiyā’.24

Here, mention could also be made of Dalā’il al-Nabī (S) written by Ahmad bin Yahyā bin Hakīm ‘Uday Sufī al-Kufī,25 and al-Ihtijāj li Nubuwwah al-Nabī (S) by Ismā‘īl bin ‘Alī bin Ishāq bin Abī Sahl bin Nawbakht.26 Two books with the same title Kitāb al-Dalā’il, have also been written by Abu al-‘Abbās ‘Abdullāh bin Ja‘far Himyarī and Abu ‘Abdullāh Muhammad bin Ibrāhīm bin Ja‘far al-Nu‘mānī.27

Abu Muhammad ‘Abd al-Bāqī bin Muhammad al-Basrī, a Shi‘ite ‘ālim of the 6th century is the author of the book entitled Dalā’il, and another book entitled al-Hujaj wa al-Barāhīn fī Imāmah Amīr al-Mu’minīn wa Awlādih al-Ahad ‘Ashar A’immah al-Dīn Salawāt Allah wa Salāmuhu ‘Alayhim Ajma‘īn.28 Another book that has been published is Dalā’il al-Imāmah by Muhammad bin Jarīr Tabarī, a contemporary of Shaykh Tusī.

Although al-Kharā’ij wa al-Jarā’ih by Qutb al-Dīn al-Rāwandī elaborates in detail on the miracles of the Prophet and Imams, the author has unfortunately not mentioned his sources. This book has been summarised and translated under the title Kifāyah al-Mu’minīn. The Arabic version of al-Kharā’ij has been published in 3 volumes with the efforts of the Imam al-Mahdī (‘a) Foundation.

Another early Shi‘ite work at hand is the book al-Thāqib fī al-Manāqib by Abu Ja‘far Muhammad bin ‘Alī, known as Ibn Hamzah (d. after 552). This book contains narrations on the miracles of several Prophets, including Prophet Muhammad (S), as well as the miracles of Hazrat Fātimah and the Imams (‘a). One of the sources of this work is Mafākhir al-Rizā (‘a) by Hākim Nayshāburī.

Sunni scholars have also written books on this subject such as Dalā’il al-Nubuwwah which is the title used by both Bayhaqī and Abu Na‘īm Isfahanī for their works. The book Tathbīt Dalā’il al-Nubuwwah by Qāzī ‘Abd al-Jabbar Hamdānī also follows this method, except that it has presented the discussion in kalāmī or theological form.

Kalāmī-Historical Books

Part of the Shi‘ite kalāmī works have extended the discussion to history in proportion with its importance to the issue of Imamate. The discussions on the Imamate could generally be divided into two sections. A rational discussion to prove the necessity for the existence of the Imam, and a historical discussion to prove existence of divine designation (nass) and the reason for lack of attention to nass by others as well as criticism of the actions of certain companions of the Prophet in this regard.

The historical part of these works mainly contains strong criticism of the caliphate and the caliphs, a subject that is referred to as matā‘in. The noteworthy point in this regard is that some of these works are kalāmī-historical and some are historical-kalāmī, the latter being presented mainly in the framework of hadīth.

An example of the extant works that have been published is the book al-Istighāthah fī Bida‘ al-Thalāthah by Abī al-Qāsim al-Kufī who is accused of exaggeration. Another is a book written by Sulaym bin al-Qays, which apart from ambiguities with regard to certain narrations, is an early text on the historical defense of the kalāmī beliefs of the Shi‘ites within the framework of hadīth on the issue of Imamate.

Mas‘udi’s Ithbāt al-Wasiyyah, which should definitely be attributed to someone besides the author of Muruj al-Dhahab could also be placed among the hadīthī-historical-kalāmī works. Among the earliest such works is the brief book al-Muqni‘ fī al-Imāmah by al-Sudābādī (belonging to the village of Sudābād near Rayy) published by Intishārāt-i Islāmī, Qum.

A famous work of this kind is Kitāb al-Shāfī of Sayyid Murtazā which has been published. Shaykh Tusī wrote a new edition of his teacher’s book under the title Talkhīs al-Shāfī, which has also been published. Several works of Shaykh Mufīd also contain numerous historical issues especially concerning the hadīth al-Ghadīr and the meaning of wilāyah and related words spoken by the Prophet on the occasion. Shaykh Mufīd’s al-Jamal should be considered a historical- kalāmī work rather than a kalāmī-historical one.

This book is part of the purely historical works written by the Shi‘ites during the 4th century AH. They form part of the historiographical works concerning a single specific event written by the Shi‘ites of Iraq to record subjects in view.

The historical nature of this work cannot be disputed. In fact that Shaykh Mufīd has used his knowledge of history as an instrument to prove the viewpoints of the Shi‘ites in his debates with the ‘Uthmānis and Mu‘tazalites, and thus made pioneering efforts in combining the school of history with the science of kalām.

Books that have been written on the history of the Shi‘ites contain kalāmī-historical discussions. Two works that are quite similar to each other in this regard are Firaq al-Shiī‘ah by Nowbakhti and al-Maqālāt wa al-Firaq by Sa‘ad bin ‘Abdullāh al-Ash‘arī. These two works contain valuable information on Shi‘ite history.

The book al-Ihtijāj by Tabrisī could be placed in the same category. It is a work, which in addition to the debates and argumentations, provides valuable accounts of the life of the Imams (‘a). The book al-Tarā’if fī Ma‘rifah Mazāhib al-Tawā’if also contains historical information and hadīth in criticism of the rival sects.

Hadīthī-Historical Books

Undoubtedly hadīth and history are closely intertwined in Islam. Some times more emphasis has been laid on history and at other times more on hadīth. Many historical issues are found in the book al-kāfī. Among the Shi‘ite hadīthī works of the 3rd and 4th centuries AH, as is the case with Sunni books of hadīth, plenty of historical material is found.

In al-kāfī, the section dedicated to discussion of the Imamate, also includes historical issues about the lives of the Imams’ (‘a). Unfortunately, no other early Shi‘ite book like al-kāfī has remained extant to throw more light on such issues. Perhaps one can point to Basā’ir al-Darajāt which contains some historical material.

The most outstanding work concerning the life of Imam Rizā (‘a) is Shaykh Saduq’s masterpiece ‘Uyun Akhbār al-Rizā. The life of the 8th Imam (‘a) and the situation of the Shi‘ites of that period has been fully reflected in this book. Saduq’s other works also contain more or less historical ahādīth. His book ‘Ilal al-Sharā’i‘ is among the most outstanding in this regard. One can also find similar narrations in Saduq’s Amālī.

Since Saduq lived at a time when the great literary current for compiling voluminous books was about to start, and used in his books most of the early heritage of the Shi‘ites - part of which was on the point of being lost forever to posterity - his works are considered quite valuable from an historical point of view.

Three valuable books remain with regard to the ghaybah (occultation) of Imam Mahdī (‘a), each of which reflects an important part of the Shi‘ite history during the third century. The books Kamāl al-Dīn by Saduq, al-Ghaybah by Shaykh Tusī and al-Ghaybah by Nu‘mānī are the most important works in this connection. Shi‘ite history in this period is based on these few works since many other similar works are not extant today. Two examples are the works of the third century scholar Muhammad bin Bahr Rahnī, part of which is mentioned in Kamāl al-Dīn.

Among the hadith corpus, mention should be made of the manāqib books. Such works also constitute a kind of historiography. Among the earliest books in this regard is Manāqib al-Imam Amīr al- Mu’minīn (‘a) by Muhammad bin Sulaymān Qāzī al-Kufī who lived in the third century.29 This book is full of historical information on the characteristics of Prophet Muhammad (S) and the life of Amīr al-Mu’minīn (‘a). Despite the fact that its compiler is a Zaydi Shi‘ite the book contains many narrations from Imam Bāqir (‘a).

Like the above mentioned work, among the Ismā‘ilī Shi‘ites one can point to the valuable book Sharh al-Akhbār by Qāzī Nu‘mān bin Muhammad Tamīmī Maghribī (d. 363) who compiled many books and was the most outstanding Ismā‘īlī scholar during the Fatimid rule in Egypt and North Africa. This book which has recently been published,30 deals with the merits of the Prophet’s Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) and is also very rich in historical information.

For example the first, second and third sections describe Imam ‘Alī’s (‘a) merits in the words of Prophet Muhammad (S), his companionship of the Prophet and his participation in the Battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq and other expeditions. The fourth section of the book is on the Battle of Jamal and the War of Siffin. The fifth section is continuation of the narrations on Siffin. The sixth section deals with the filthy characteristics of the enemies of Imam ‘Alī (‘a) especially Mu‘āwiyah and his killing of Hujr bin ‘Adī.

The seventh to tenth sections describe the virtues of Amīr al-Mu’minīn (‘a). The eleventh section is the continuation of the merits of the Ahl al-Bayt, especially Hadhrat Fātimah (‘a). The twelfth section discusses the merits of Imam Hasan (‘a), his life and the martyrdom of Imam Husayn (‘a).

The thirteenth section is continuation of the sufferings of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) and also talks about other outstanding members of the Banī Hāshim such as Ja‘far ibn Abī Tālib and other descendants of the Prophet’s grandfather ‘Abd al-Mutallib. This section also focuses on the merits of Imam Zayn al-Abidin (‘a) and Imam Muhammad Bāqir (‘a).

The fourteenth section is on Imam Sādiq (‘a), the history of Shi‘ite sects till the time of Mu‘tazid al-‘Abbāsī, and the appearance of the Fatimid Mahdī. The fifteenth section is one the characteristics of the promised Mahdī and the sixteenth and last section on the characteristics of the Shi‘ites. Although it has distinctive Ismā‘ilī tendencies, the book is a valuable, comprehensive and accredited work on the history of the Ahl al Bayt (‘a), and in view of its antiquity it is considered unique within its own time frame.

If we take into account that Qāzī Nu‘mān has relied on al-Tabarī’s lost work al-Wilāyah for the event of Ghadīr, then we will come to know the importance of this work and its contents in view of the books and treatises that were available to him and which are not extant today, although, unfortunately, he does not always mention the sources of his quotations. al-‘Umdah by Ibn Bitrīq is also considered among these works.

Rijālī-Historical Books

The Science of rijāl is one of the important branches of Islamic history. The Shi‘ites have given much attention to this particular field by meticulously recording the names of the companions of the Prophet and the Imams (‘a), as well as the chains of narrations. Although most of the early Shi‘ite works of rijāl have not survived, the most important of the extant works is the book al-Ikhtiyār Ma‘irfah al-Rijāl or Rijāl al-Kashshī as it is also known.

It should be considered important from every aspect. Another important work is Rijāl al-Najāshī, which apart from its rijālī details, is a mine of information on Shi‘ite books of the early centuries of Islam as well as Shi‘ite cultural history. During the later eras, such works were not compiled as much as before, but every work compiled in this regard is important from the historical point of view. Among them are such books as al-Fihrist and al-Rijāl by Shaykh Tusī and also the al-Rijāl by ‘Allāmah Hilli.

The valuable book al-Fihrist by Ibn Nadīm should also be considered a fully Shi‘ite work, something that has been duly proved. Ibn Abī Tayy, the Shi‘ite scholar of the seventh century AH (d. 630) wrote a book entitled Tabaqat al-Imāmiyyah which has unfortunately been lost.

Ibn Hajar ‘Asqalānī has quoted from it in his al-Isābah on Yaghus Sahābī. Ibn Abī Tayy also wrote a history which was in chronological order. This work has also been given up for lost. A few quotations from it are found in Safdī’s Nukat al-Hamiyān on prominent blind figures.31

We should not overlook the books of ansab or geneology which are also in a way related to history. This science was prevalent among the Shi‘ite and two of the earliest books in this field are al-Mujdī and Sirr al-Silsilah. This branch in the history of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) cannot be overlooked. A list of the scholars related to the late Ayatullāh Sayyid Shihāb al-Dīn Mar‘ashī Najafī has been mentioned in the introduction to Lubāb al-Ansāb. In addition to elaborating on the geneologies these books also mention historical issues.

During the Safawid and Qajarid eras several encyclopaedic rijālī works such as Riyāz al-‘Ulamā’ and Rawzāt al-Jannāt were written, giving us more detailed historical information especially in the field of the history of culture.

History of the Twelve Imams (‘a) from the 5th to 8th Centuries

A very early work entitled Tārīkh al-A’immah or Tārīkh al-Mawālīd wa Wafayāt Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) is available. It mentions the dates of birth and martyrdom of the Infallible Imams (‘a) on the authority of Imam Baqir (‘a), Imam Sādiq (‘a), Imam Rizā (‘a) and Imam ‘Askarī (‘a).

This book is variously attributed to Ibn Khashshāb, Nasr bin ‘Alī Jahzamī, Ahmad bin Muhammad Faryābī and Ibn Abī al-Thalj. Whoever happens to be its author it should be considered among the oldest books in this field that has survived from the 3rd century AH.32 Another book entitled Zuhrat al-Muhaj wa Tawārīkh al-Hujaj on the lives of the Imams (‘a) has been referred to by Ibn Tāwus, but there is no further information on this book at hand.33

Exclusive books were written on the life of the Twelve Infallible Imams (‘a). The earliest surviving work in this field that has discussed this issue in detail is al-Irshād fī Ma‘rifah Hujaj-Allāh ‘alā al-‘Ibād by Shaykh Mufīd. The author has dedicated the first part of his book to a detailed account of Amīr al-Mu’minīn (‘a) and has practically dealt with the life and qualities of Prophet Muhammad (S) by emphasising on the prime position of Imam ‘Alī (‘a) right from the beginning of the Prophetic mission.

The second part of al-Irshād deals with the life of the other eleven Imams and mainly contains historical and kalāmī discussions. Although Shaykh Mufīd has not mentioned his sources in every case, it is evident that he has used credible and important sources. Basically the major characteristic of Shaykh Mufīd in this regard is that he was well acquainted with books available in Iraq which were compiled by Iraqī historians. Masār al-Shī‘ah by Shaykh Mufīd also gives us information on the life of the Imams (‘a).

The next important work in this field is the book I‘lām al-Warā bi A‘lām al-Hudā, on the characteristics of the Prophet and his infallible progeny (‘a). In its section on the Imams (‘a) the book contains historical-kalāmī issues proving their Imamate, as is the case in al-Irshād.

The author Abī ‘Alī Fazl ibn Hasan al-Tabrisī has accurately recorded his sources and in this way added to the book’s value. He has also incorporated important parts from Abān ibn ‘Uthmān’s biography of the Prophet, a valuable Shi‘ite work which is not extant today.

Another immortal book is Manāqib Al-i Abī Tālib by Muhammad bin ‘Alī Ibn Shahr Ashub al-Sarvī al-Māzandarānī. This important and detailed work has been compiled with reference to hundreds of books and the author has given the work special value by quoting different sources and mentioning their names. The greater part of the book includes the life of Amīr al-Mu’minīn (‘a) and his merits as found in Sunni sources. But before that Ibn Shahr Ashub has dwelt in detail on the life of the Prophet and after the account of Imam ‘Alī (‘a) has focused on merits of the other Imams.

The book Rawzah al-Wā‘izīn by Fattāl Nayshāburī (d. 508) is also an important work which without mentioning its sources has dealt with the lives of the Twelve Imams (‘a). Another remaining work from the seventh century is Mukhtasar Ahwāl al-Nabī wa al-A’immah al-Thānī ‘Ashar (‘a) by Shaykh Rashīd bin Ibrāhīm bin Ishāq Bahrānī.

The only extant copy of this book is being kept at the Markaz Ihyā’ al-Turāth al-Islāmī (Center for Revival of the Islamic Heritage) in Qum. Muntajab al-Dīn al-Babawayh in his al-Fihrist has also referred to a book entitled Sīrah al-Anbiyā’ wa al-A’immah by Shams al-Islam Hasan bin Husayn bin Babawayh al-Qummī who lived in Rayy, but there is no trace of this book today.34

He has also mentioned another book named al-Maghāzī wa al-Siyar by Sayyid Abī al-Qāsim Zayd bin Ishāq Ja‘farī which shows the Shi‘ite community’s interest in this particular field. Shaykh Abī al-Hasan bin ‘Alī bin Hibatullāh bin ‘Uthmān Musilī wrote a book named al-Anwār fī Tārīkh al-A’immah al-Abrār.35

Another important work of the seventh century is Kashf al-Ghummah fī Ma‘rifah al-A’immah by ‘Alī bin ‘Isā Arbilī. This book which has been compiled from diverse Shi‘ite and Sunni sources, and has been written in an extremely moderate style, played a very important role in spreading Shi‘ism in the world of Islam and has been translated into Persian several times. This book describes the lives of the 14 Infallibles (‘a). We have elaborated on this work and its sources in an exclusive book.

During the 7th century several books were written on the martyrdom of Imam Husayn (‘a) and the tragedy of Karbalā’. Ibn Tāwus (d. 664) has written two books entitled Kitāb al-Luhuf ‘alā Qatlā al-Tufuf and al-Masra‘ al-Shayn fī Qatl al-Husayn. A common book named Maqtal, Abu Mikhnaf is also believed to probably the work of Ibn Tāwus (Etan Kohlberg: A Medieval Muslim Scholar at Work - Ibn Tāwus and his Library, pp. 42, 43).

Regional Histories from the 4th to 8th Centuries AH

The Sh’ites have also had a share in regional historiography. Among the earliest work in this field, which predates all other books is Nihl al-‘Arab by Muhammad bin Bahr Rahnī.36 Yāqut al-Hamawī, commenting on this book and its author, writes:

He has written many works including the one titled Kitāb Nihl al-‘Arab, in which he has mentioned the dispersion of Arabs in the lands of Islam, noting whether they were Shi‘ite, Kharijite or Sunni, but he had good words for the Shi‘ites as well as for others. I know about the part of the book which deals with the people of the east, especially of Kirmān, Sīstān, Khurāsān and Tabaristān.

Nothing remains of this book except what Yāqut al-Hamawī has written in Mu‘jam al-Buldān.

The book al-Buldān wa al Masāhah or al-Tibyān fī Ahwāl al-Buldān as it is also known, was written by Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Khālid al-Barqī. The author of Tārīkh al-Qum used this work in the fourth century as a source for his history of Qum (Mudarrisī has pointed out the quotations from al-Tibyān in Tārīkh al-Qum; refer to Bibliography of Works related to Qum, p. 18. Rāfi‘ī has also quoted some passages from it in al-Tadwīn, pp. 44-48).

In the printed edition of Tārīkh al-Qum, al-Barqī has been quoted extensively, and in one instance, it says: “In the book al-Bunyān al-Barqī thus writes...”.37 It is possible that al-Bunyān is the misspelling of al-Buldān. Another possibility is that the author of the bibliographical work Kashf al-Zunun has misspelled the book whose actual title is Kitāb al-Tibyān fī Ahwāl al- Buldān.38 Muhammad bin Khālid al-Barqī, the father of Ahmad al-Barqī has also been named as the author of al-Buldān wa al Masāhah.39

Another book of the same name al-Buldān wa al-Masāhah was written in the third century by Abī Ja‘far Muhammad bin ‘Abdullāh bin Ja‘far bin Husayn bin Jami‘ al-Himyarī. When he failed in his efforts to get a copy of Ahmad al-Barqī’s book in Baghdad, Rayy and Qum, he decided to write a new book in this connection under the same title.40

Another important book on the history of Qum is the one written in 378 AH by Hasan bin Muhammad bin Hasan al-Qummī. It is one of the most interesting and academic books of the early period of Islamic civilization. In contrast to the regional historiography of this period which mainly concerns the life of the notables of the cities, this particular work is a scholarly account of the various issues, including civic affairs, related to the city’s history.

In the introduction, the compiler has divided the book into twenty chapters but unfortunately the Persian translation of only the fifth chapter is extant. There is no information either on the Arabic version or the rest of the translation. The Persian translation was completed in 805 AH by Hasan bin ‘Alī bin Hasan bin ‘Abd al-Malik Qummī. Apart from the information given on the city of Qum, the book mentions valuable details concerning the collecting of taxes in those days.

In addition the author has elaborated in detail on the Ash‘arī tribe of the city beginning with its place of origin in Yemen and the meeting with Prophet Muhammad (S) in Medina on the advent of Islam till its migration to Iraq and then to Qum. He has also focused on the role of Ash‘arite tribesmen in the early Islamic conquests especially the conquest of parts of Iran.

Another valuable but lost book is the Tārīkh Rayy by Muntajab al-Dīn Ibn Babawayh the author of al-Fihrist who lived in the sixth century. Ibn Hajar ‘Asqalānī in his Lisān al-Mīzān has quoted accounts of several Shi‘ite and Sunni notables from this book, of which 47 have been mentioned by the late Urmawī in his introduction to the edition of al-Fihrist published by the Ayatullāh Mar‘ashī Najafī Library, Qum (pp. 11-16). Tārīkh Rayy was also the title of a historical book written by Abu Sa‘īd Mansur bin Husayn Abī the author of the valuable book Nathr al-Dur.41

Another important book is the Tārīkh Tabaristan of Ibn Isfandiyār who lived in the 6th century AH. It is considered the most important work on the history of Tabaristān by a Shi‘ite historian. Mention should also be made of the Tārīkh Ruyān of Mawlānā Awliyā’ Allah Amulī. It is a precious work on regional history in which the author has mentioned part of the historical viewpoints of the Shi‘ites in the days of the Imams (‘a).

K

Kadaitswami: (Tamil) "Marketplace swami." The 159th satguru of the Nandinatha Sampradaya's Kailasa Parampara. Born ca 1804; attained mahasamadhi October 13, 1891. Renouncing his career as a judge in Bangalore, South India, Kadaitswami became a sannyasin and trained under the "Rishi from the Himalayas," who sent him on mission to Sri Lanka. He performed severe tapas on an island off the Jaffna coast, awakening many siddhis. For decades he spurred the Sri Lankan Saivites to greater spirituality through inspired talks and demonsting siddhis. He initiated Chellappaswami as the next satguru in the parampara. Kadaitswami's initiation name was Muthyanandaswami. See: Kailasa Parampara, Natha Sampradaya.

Kadavul: (Tamil) "Beyond and within." An ancient Tamil name for Lord Siva meaning, "He who is both immanent and transcendent, within and beyond." See: Siva.

Kailasa: (Sanskrit) "Crystalline" or "abode of bliss." The four-faced Himalayan peak in Western Tibet; the earthly abode of Lord Siva. Associated with Mount Meru, the legendary center of the universe, it is an important pilgrimage destination for all Hindus, as well as for Tibetan Buddhists. Kailasa is represented in Shaktism by a certain three-dimensional form of the Sri Chakra yantra (also called kailasa chakra). See: Sri Chakra.

Kailasa Parampara: (Sanskrit) "Crystaline lineage." A spiritual lineage of 162 siddhas, a major stream of the Nandinatha Sampradaya, proponents of the ancient philosophy of monistic Saiva Siddhanta. The first of these masters that history recalls was Maharishi Nandinatha (or Nandikeshvara) 2,250 years ago, satguru to the great Tirumular, ca 200 bce, and seven other disciples (as stated in the Tirumantiram): Patanjali, Vyaghrapada, Sanatkumara, Sivayogamuni, Sanakar, Sanadanar and Sananthanar. Tirumular had seven disciples: Malangam, Indiran, Soman, Brahman, Rudran, Kalanga, and Kanjamalayam, each of whom established one or more monasteries and propagated the Agamic lore. In the line of Kalanga came the sages Righama, Maligaideva, Nadantar, Bhogadeva and Paramananda. The lineage continued down the centuries and is alive today--the first recent siddha known being the Rishi from the Himalayas, so named because he descended from those holy mountains. In South India, he initiated Kadaitswami (ca 18101875), who in turn initiated Chellappaswami (18401915). Chellappan passed the mantle of authority to sage Yogaswami (18721964), who in 1949 initiated the current satguru, Sivaya Subramuniyaswami. See: Chellapaswami, Kadaitswami, Natha Sampradaya, Patanjali, Subramuniyaswami, Tirumular, Vyaghrapada, Yogaswami.

kaivalya: (Sanskrit) "Absolute oneness, aloneness; perfect detachment, freedom." Liberation. Kaivalya is the term used by Patanjali and others in the yoga tradition to name the goal and fulfillment of yoga, the state of complete detachment from transmigration. It is virtually synonymous with moksha. Kaivalya is the perfectly transcendent state, the highest condition resulting from the ultimate realization. It is defined uniquely according to each philosophical school, depending on its beliefs regarding the nature of the soul. See: moksha, samarasa, Sivasayujya, jnana.

Kaivalya Upanishad: (Sanskrit) A philosophical text of the Atharva Veda. This treatise teaches how to reach Siva through meditation.

kala: (Sanskrit) 1) "Time; to calculate." 2) "Black; of a black or dark blue color; death."

kala: (Sanskrit) "Part, segment; art or skill." 1) Cultural arts. (See: kala64). 2) A five-fold division of the cosmos based on the 36 tattvas, as explained in the Saiva Agamas. The five kalas--spheres, or dimensions of consciousness--are: 1) Shantyatitakala, "sphere beyond peace," the extremely rarified level of shuddha maya (actinic energy) in which superconsciousness is expanded into endless inner space, the realm of God Siva and the Gods; 2) Shantikala, "sphere of peace," the level within shuddha maya where forms are made of inner sounds and colors, where reside great devas and rishis who are beyond the reincarnation cycles; 3) Vidyakala, "sphere of knowing," the level within shuddhashuddha maya (actinodic energy) of subsuperconscious awareness of forms in their totality in progressive states of manifestation, and of the interrelated forces of the actinodic energies; 4) Pratishtakala, "sphere of resting, tranquility," the level within ashuddha maya (odic energy) of intellect and instinct; 5) Nivrittikala, "sphere of perdition, destruction; returning," the level within ashuddha maya of physical and near-physical existence, conscious, subconscious and sub-subconscious mind. See: tattva.

kala64 (chatuh shashti kala): (Sanskrit) "Sixty-four arts." A classical curriculum of sacred sciences, studies, arts and skills of cultured living listed in various Hindu shastras. Its most well-known appearance is in the Kama Sutra, an extensive manual devoted to sensual pleasures. The Kama Sutra details as its primary subject matter the 64 secret arts, abhyantara kala, of erotic love. In addition to these it lists 64 bahya kalas, or practical arts, as required study for cultured persons. They are: 1) singing, 2) instrumental music, 3) dancing, 4) painting, 5) forehead adornments, 6) making decorative floral and grain designs on the floor, 7) home and temple flower arranging, 8) personal grooming, 9) mosaic tiling, 10) bedroom arrangements, 11)creating music with water, 12) splashing and squirting with water, 13) secret mantras, 14) making flower garlands, 15) head adornments, 16) dressing, 17) costume decorations, 18) perfumery, 19) jewelry making, 20) magic and illusions, 21) ointments for charm and virility, 22) manual dexterity, 23) skills of cooking, eating and drinking, 24) beverage and dessert preparation, 25) sewing (making and mending garments), 26) embroidery, 27) playing vina and drum, 28) riddles and rhymes, 29) poetry games, 30)tongue twisters and difficult recitation, 31) literary recitation, 32) drama and story telling, 33) verse composition game, 34) furniture caning, 35)erotic devices and knowledge of sexual arts, 36) crafting wooden furniture, 37)architecture and house construction, 38) distinguishing between ordinary and precious stones and metals, 39) metal-working, 40) gems and mining, 41) gardening and horticulture, 42) games of wager involving animals, 43) training parrots and mynas to speak, 44) hairdressing, 45) coding messages, 46) speaking in code, 47) knowledge of foreign languages and dialects, 48) making flower carriages, 49) spells, charms and omens, 50)making simple mechanical devices, 51) memory training, 52) game of reciting verses from hearing, 53) decoding messages, 54) the meanings of words, 55) dictionary studies, 56) prosody and rhetoric, 57) impersonation, 58) artful dressing, 59) games of dice, 60) the game of akarsha (a dice game played on a board), 61) making dolls and toys for children, 62) personal etiquette and animal training, 63) knowledge of dharmic warfare and victory, and 64) physical culture.

These are among the skills traditionally taught to both genders, while emphasizing masculinity in men and femininity in women. Their subject matter draws on such texts as the Vedangas and Upavedas, and the Shilpa Shastras, or craft manuals. Through the centuries, writers have prescribed many more skills and accomplishments. These include sculpture, pottery, weaving, astronomy and astrology, mathematics, weights and measures, philosophy, scriptural study, agriculture, navigation, trade and shipping, knowledge of time, logic, psychology and ayurveda. In modern times, two unique sets of 64 kalas have been developed, one for girls and one for boys. See: hereditary, Shilpa Shastra.

Kalamukha: (Sanskrit) "Black-faced"(probably for a black mark of renunciation worn on the forehead). A Saiva sect issued from Pashupata Saivism at its height (ca 6001000). As no Kalamukha religious texts exist today, this sect is known only indirectly. They were said to be well organized in temple construction and worship, as well as eccentric and unsocial: eating from human skulls, smearing their bodies with ashes from the cremation ground, carrying a club, wearing matted hair, etc. See: left-handed, Pashupata Saivism, Tantrism.

kalasha: (Sanskrit) "Water pot; pitcher; jar." In temple rites, a pot of water, kalasha, topped with mango leaves and a husked coconut represents the Deity during special pujas. Kalasha also names the pot-like spires that adorn temple roofs.

Kali: (Sanskrit) "Black." Goddess. A form of Shakti in Her fierce aspect worshiped by various sects within Shaktism. She is dark, nude, primordial and fiercely powerful, as of a naked energy untamed. But from the perspective of devotees, She is the incomparable protectress, champion of sadhana and mother of liberation. The Goddess Durga, seated on a tiger, has similar characteristics and is often identified with Kali. See: Shakti, Shaktism.

Kali Yuga: (Sanskrit) "Dark Age." The Kali Yuga is the last age in the repetitive cycle of four phases of time the universe passes through. It is comparable to the darkest part of the night, as the forces of ignorance are in full power and many of the subtle faculties of the soul are obscured. See: cosmic cycle, mahapralaya, yuga.

Kallata: (Sanskrit) An exponent of Kashmir Saivism (ca 875) who wrote the Spanda Karikas. Kallata was a disciple of Vasugupta. See: Kashmir Saivism.

kalpa: (Sanskrit) From krlip, "arranged, ordered." 1) Rules for ceremony or sacred living, as in the Kalpa Vedanga. 2) Determination or resolve, as in sankalpa. 3) A vast period of time also known as a day of Brahma, equaling 994 mahayugas, or 4,294,080,000 years. See: cosmic cycle, Kalpa Vedanga, sankalpa, yuga.

Kalpa Vedanga: (Sanskrit) "Procedural or ceremonial Veda-limb." Also known as the Kalpa Sutras--a body of three groups of auxiliary Vedic texts: 1) the Shrauta Sutras and Shulba Sutras, on public Vedic rites (yajna), 2) the Grihya Sutras (or Shastras), on domestic rites and social custom, and 3) the Dharma Shastras (or Sutras), on religious law. There are numerous sets of Kalpa Sutras, composed by various rishis. Each set is associated with one of the four Vedas. See: Dharma Shastra, Grihya Sutras, Shulba Shastras, Shrauta Sutras, Vedangas.

Kalyana: (Sanskrit) A town in Karnataka, South India.

kama: (Sanskrit) "Pleasure, love; desire." Cultural, intellectual and sexual fulfillment. One of four human goals, purushartha. See: Kama Sutras, purushartha.

kamandalu: (Sanskrit) "Vessel, water jar." Traditionally earthen or wooden, carried by sannyasins, it symbolizes the renunciate's simple, self-contained life. The tree from which kamandalus are traditionally made is the kamandalutaru. See: sannyasa dharma, sannyasin.

Kama Sutra(s): (Sanskrit) "Aphorisms on pleasure." A fifth-century text by Vatsyayana on erotics. The Kama Shutra and other Kama Shastras are sometimes classed as an Upaveda. See: Upaveda.

Kamika Agama: (Sanskrit) An important scripture among the 28 Saiva Siddhanta Agamas, widely available today. The verses from its kriya pada, on ritual and temple construction, are a crucial reference for South Indian priests. See: Saiva Agamas.

Kanada: (Sanskrit) Founder of the Vaisheshika Darshana, author of the Vaisheshika Sutras. See: shad darshana.

Kandar Anubhuti: (Tamil) A highly mystical 51-verse poem in praise of Lord Karttikeya-Murugan composed by the Tamil saint, Arunagirinathar (ca 1500). It describes the narrator's arduous path to Ultimate Reality.

Kannada: One of four modern Dravidian languages, and principal medium for Vira Saivism. It is spoken by 20 million people, mostly in Karnataka.

Kanphati: (Sanskrit) (Hindi.) "Split eared," from the custom of splitting the cartilage of the ear to insert large earrings. The name of the ascetic order of men and women founded by Gorakshanatha (ca 950), proponents of kundalini-hatha yoga still today. See: earrings, Gorakshanatha, Siddha Siddhanta.

Kapalika: (Sanskrit) An ascetic sect which developed out of the Pashupatas around 500 ce and largely vanished around 1400. They earned a reputation for extreme practices. Possible predecessors of Gorakshanatha Siddha Siddhanta yogis. See: Pashupata Saivism.

kapha: (Sanskrit) "Biological water." One of the three bodily humors, called dosha, kapha is known as the water humor. Principle of cohesion. Kapha gives bodily structure and stability, lubricates, heals and bestows immunity. See: ayurveda, dosha.

Kapila: (Sanskrit) Founder (ca 500 bce) of the Sankhya philosophy, one of the six darshanas of Hinduism. See: shad darshana.

Karana Agama: (Sanskrit) One of the 28 Saiva Siddhanta Agamas widely available today. Its kriya pada forms the basis for temple rituals performed in nearly all South Indian Siva temples. See: Saiva Agamas.

karana chitta: (Sanskrit) "Causal mind." The intuitive-superconscious mind of the soul. It corresponds to the anandamaya kosha, bliss sheath, also called karana sharira, causal body. See: kosha, mind (five states), soul.

Karana Hasuge: (Sanskrit) A central Vira Saiva scripture authored by Chennabasavanna. See: Chennabasavanna.

karana sharira: (Sanskrit) "Causal body," the actinic body or soul body. See: actinic, actinodic, kosha, odic, soul, subtle body.

Karavana Mahatmya: (Sanskrit) See: Pashupata Saivism.

karma: (Sanskrit) "Action, deed." One of the most important principles in Hindu thought, karma refers to 1) any act or deed; 2) the principle of cause and effect; 3) a consequence or "fruit of action" (karmaphala) or "after effect" (uttaraphala), which sooner or later returns upon the doer. What we sow, we shall reap in this or future lives. Selfish, hateful acts (papakarma or kukarma) will bring suffering. Benevolent actions (punyakarma or sukarma) will bring loving reactions. Karma is a neutral, self-perpetuating law of the inner cosmos, much as gravity is an impersonal law of the outer cosmos. In fact, it has been said that gravity is a small, external expression of the greater law of karma. The impelling, unseen power of one's past actions is called adrishta.

The law of karma acts impersonally, yet we may meaningfully interpret its results as either positive (punya) or negative (papa)--terms describing actions leading the soul either toward or away from the spiritual goal. Karma is further graded as: white (shukla), black (krishna), mixed (shukla-krishna) or neither white nor black (ashukla-akrishna). The latter term describes the karma of the jnani, who, as Rishi Patanjali says, is established in kaivalya, freedom from prakriti through realization of the Self. Similarly, one's karma must be in a condition of ashukla-akrishna, quiescent balance, in order for liberation to be attained. This equivalence of karma is called karmasamya, and is a factor that brings malaparipaka, or maturity of anava mala. It is this state of resolution in preparation for samadhi at death that all Hindus seek through making amends and settling differences.

Karma is threefold: sanchita, prarabdha and kriyamana. --sanchita karma: "Accumulated actions." The sum of all karmas of this life and past lives. --prarabdha karma: "Actions begun; set in motion." That portion of sanchita karma that is bearing fruit and shaping the events and conditions of the current life, including the nature of one's bodies, personal tendencies and associations.--kriyamana karma: "Being made." The karma being created and added to sanchita in this life by one's thoughts, words and actions, or in the inner worlds between lives. Kriyamana karma is also called agami, "coming, arriving," and vartamana, "living, set in motion." While some kriyamana karmas bear fruit in the current life, others are stored for future births. Each of these types can be divided into two categories: arabdha (literally, "begun, undertaken;" karma that is "sprouting"), and anarabdha ("not commenced; dormant"), or "seed karma."

In a famed analogy, karma is compared to rice in its various stages. Sanchita karma, the residue of one's total accumulated actions, is likened to rice that has been harvested and stored in a granary. From the stored rice, a small portion has been removed, husked and readied for cooking and eating. This is prarabdha karma, past actions that are shaping the events of the present. Meanwhile, new rice, mainly from the most recent harvest of prarabdha karma, is being planted in the field that will yield a future crop and be added to the store of rice. This is kriyamana karma, the consequences of current actions.

In Saivism, karma is one of three principal bonds of the soul, along with anava and maya. Karma is the driving force that brings the soul back again and again into human birth in the evolutionary cycle of transmigration called samsara. When all earthly karmas are resolved and the Self has been realized, the soul is liberated from rebirth. This is the goal of all Hindus.

For each of the three kinds of karma there is a different method of resolution. Nonattachment to the fruits of action, along with daily rites of worship and strict adherence to the codes of dharma, stops the accumulation of kriyamana. Prarabdha karma is resolved only through being experienced and lived through. Sanchita karma, normally inaccessible, is burned away only through the grace and diksha of the satguru, who prescribes sadhana and tapas for the benefit of the shishya. Through the sustained kundalini heat of this extreme penance, the seeds of unsprouted karmas are fried, and therefore will never sprout in this or future lives. See: diksha, grace.

Like the four-fold edict of dharma, the three-fold edict of karma has both individual and impersonal dimensions. Personal karma is thus influenced by broader contexts, sometimes known as family karma, community karma, national karma, global karma and universal karma. See: anava, fate, maya, moksha, papa, pasha, punya, sin, soul.

karmasamya: (Sanskrit) "Balance or equipoise of karma." See: karma.

karmashaya: (Sanskrit) "Holder of karma." Describes the body of the soul, or anandamaya kosha. See: karma, kosha.

karma yoga: (Sanskrit) "Union through action." The path of selfless service. See: yoga.

Karnataka: (Sanskrit) Southwest state of modern India, where Vijayanagara flourished. Vira Saivism is centered here. Population 25 million, area 74,043 square miles.

karnavedha: (Sanskrit) "Ear-piercing." See: samskaras of childhood.

Karttikeya: (Sanskrit) Child of the Pleiades, from Krittika, "Pleiades." Second son of Siva, the brother of Ganesha. A great Mahadeva worshiped in all parts of India and the world. Also known as Murugan, Kumara, Skanda, Shanmukhanatha, Subramanya and more, He is the God who guides that part of evolution which is religion, the transformation of the instinctive into a divine wisdom through the practice of yoga. He holds the holy vel of jnana shakti, which is His Power to vanquish darkness or ignorance.

Karttikeya Stotram: (Sanskrit) A subdivision (Rudrayamala Tantra) of the Shakta Tantras dedicated to God Karttikeya. See: Karttikeya.

karuna: (Sanskrit) "Compassionate; loving, full of grace."

Karuna Agama: (Sanskrit) One of the 28 Agamas of Saiva Siddhanta. See: Saiva Agamas.

Karunakarak Kadavul: (Tamil) Hymn by the Tamil saint, Tayumanavar (17051742), in praise of Lord Siva. See: Tayumanavar.

karunya: (Sanskrit) "Compassion, kindness, love." In Saivism, an alternate term for Siva's revealing grace, anugraha shakti. See: anugraha shakti, grace.

kashaya: (Sanskrit) "Brownish-red." The color of sannyasins' robes. See: kavi.

Kashmir (Kashmira): (Sanskrit) The Northernmost area of India, part of the present-day state of Jammu and Kashmir. It figures prominently in the history of Saivism. Area 115,000 square miles, under dispute between India and Pakistan. Population is six million in the Indian sector.

Kashmir Saivism: (Sanskrit) In this mildly theistic and intensely monistic school founded by Vasugupta around 850, Siva is immanent and transcendent. Purification and yoga are strongly emphasized. Kashmir Saivism provides an extremely rich and detailed understanding of the human psyche, and a clear and distinct path of kundalini-siddha yoga to the goal of Self Realization. The Kashmir Saivite is not so much concerned with worshiping a personal God as he is with attaining the transcendental state of Siva consciousness. Sadhana leads to the assimilation of the object (world) in the subject (I) until the Self (Siva) stands revealed as one with the universe. The goal--liberation--is sustained recognition (pratyabhijna) of one's true Self as nothing but Siva. There are three upaya, or stages of attainment of God consciousness: anavopaya (yoga), shaktopaya (spiritual discrimination), shambhavopaya (attainment through the guru's instruction) and anupaya, or "no means" (spontaneous realization without effort). Kashmir Saivite literature is in three broad divisions: Agama Shastras, Spanda Shastras and Pratyabhijna Shastras. Today various organizations promulgate the esoteric teachings. While the number of Kashmir Saivite formal followers is uncertain, the school remains an important influence in India. See: Saivism, upaya.

katha: (Sanskrit) "Story; discussion." Also, the literary form involving the telling of stories. Kathakas are bards, storytellers. See: folk-narratives, mythology.

Katha Upanishad: (Sanskrit) One of the major Upanishads, belonging to the Taittiriya Brahmana of the Yajur Veda. This scripture contains the famous story of Nachiketas who extracts from Yama, Lord of Death, the knowledge of liberation to be had through realization of the Supreme.

Kathirgama Purana: (Sanskrit) A secondary scripture regarding the famous central Sri Lankan abode of Lord Murugan (Karttikeya).

Kaundinya: (Sanskrit) Author of a commentary on the Pashupata Sutras (ca 500). See: Pashupata Saivism, Pashupata Sutras.

Kaurusha: (Sanskrit) One of four known disciples of Lakulisha. See: Lakulisha, Pashupata Saivism.

Kaushitaki Upanishad: (Sanskrit) A major Upanishad belonging to the Rig Veda. It discusses: 1) the course of souls after death, 2) the doctrine of prana as related to the atman and 3) the attainment of moksha.

kavadi: (Tamil) A penance offered to Lord Murugan-Karttikeya, especially during Tai Pusam, consisting of carrying in procession a heavy, beautifully decorated, wooden object from which pots of milk hang which are to be used for His abhisheka. The penitent's tongue and other parts of the body are often pierced with small silver spears or hooks. See: penance.

kavi: (Tamil) "Ocher-saffron color." A Tamil term referring to the color taken on by robes of sadhus who sit, meditate or live on the banks of the Ganges. Names the color of the sannyasin's robes. The Sanskrit equivalent is kashaya.

Kayavarohana: (Sanskrit) Birthplace of Lakulisha, most prominent guru of Pashupata Saivism, in India's present-day state of Baroda. See: Lakulisha.

kaya siddhi: (Sanskrit) In Siddha Siddhanta, as well as Saiva Siddhanta and other yoga traditions, the process by which a yogi transforms his body from physical to spiritual substance to attain deathlessness. See: siddhi.

Kedareshvara Temple: (Sanskrit) A temple in Karnataka which belonged to the Kalamukha sect of Saivism. Inscriptions upon it (1162) are a main source of knowledge about this now nearly extinct sect. See: Kalamukha.

Kena Upanishad: (Sanskrit) Belongs to the Talavakara Brahmana of the Sama Veda. It is a discourse upon Brahman, Absolute Reality and His worship as personal God. See: Upanishad.

Kerala: (Sanskrit) The small Indian state, formerly called Konkan, along the southwestern tip of India. Area 15,000 square miles, population 25 million.

keshanta: (Sanskrit) "Beard-shaving." See: samskaras of adulthood.

kindred: Family, relatives, kin. See: joint family, extended family.

kirtana: (Sanskrit) "Praising." Devotional singing and dancing in celebration of God, Gods and guru. An important form of congregational worship in many Hindu sects. See: congregational worship, bhajana.

knower: One who knows. In philosophy, that within conscious beings which understands or is conscious. See: awareness, jnana, sakshin, chit.

konrai: (Tamil) The Golden Shower tree, Cassia fistula; symbol of Siva's cascading, abundant, golden grace.

Koran: The Islamic religion's sacred book, God's word transmitted through the angel Gabriel to Mohammed, the prophet of Islam. Its official version appeared around 650, 18 years after Mohammed's death. See: Mohammed.

kosha: (Sanskrit) "Sheath; vessel, container; layer." Philosophically, five sheaths through which the soul functions simultaneously in the various planes or levels of existence. They are sometimes compared to the layers of an onion. The koshas, in order of increasing subtlety, are as follows.--annamaya kosha: "Sheath composed of food." The physical or odic body, coarsest of sheaths in comparison to the faculties of the soul, yet indispensable for evolution and Self Realization, because only within it can all fourteen chakras fully function. See: chakra.--pranamaya kosha: "Sheath composed of prana (vital force)." Also known as the pranic or health body, or the etheric body or etheric double, it coexists within the physical body as its source of life, breath and vitality, and is its connection with the astral body. Prana moves in the pranamaya kosha as five primary currents or vayus, "vital airs or winds." Pranamaya kosha disintegrates at death along with the physical body. See: prana--manomaya kosha: "Mind-formed sheath." The lower astral body, from manas, "thought, will, wish." The instinctive-intellectual sheath of ordinary thought, desire and emotion. It is the seat of the indriyas, sensory and motor organs, respectively called jnanendriyas and karmendriyas. The manomaya kosha takes form as the physical body develops and is discarded in the inner worlds before rebirth. It is understood in two layers: 1) the odic-causal sheath (buddhi) and 2) the odic-astral sheath (manas). See: indriya, manas.--vijnanamaya kosha: "Sheath of cognition." The mental or cognitive-intuitive sheath, also called the actinodic sheath. It is the vehicle of higher thought, vijnana--understanding, knowing, direct cognition, wisdom, intuition and creativity.--anandamaya kosha: "Body of bliss." The intuitive-superconscious sheath or actinic-causal body. This inmost soul form (svarupa) is the ultimate foundation of all life, intelligence and higher faculties. Its essence is Parashakti (Pure Consciousness) and Parasiva (the Absolute). Anandamaya kosha is not a sheath in the same sense as the four outer koshas. It is the soul itself, a body of light, also called karana sharira, causal body, and karmashaya, holder of karmas of this and all past lives. Karana chitta, "causal mind," names the soul's superconscious mind, of which Parashakti (or Satchidananda) is the rarified substratum. Anandamaya kosha is that which evolves through all incarnations and beyond until the soul's ultimate, fulfilled merger, vishvagrasa, in the Primal Soul, Parameshvara. Then anandamaya kosha becomes Sivamayakosha, the body of God Siva.

The physical body (annamaya kosha) is also called sthula sharira, "gross body." The soul body (anandamaya kosha) is also called karana sharira, "causal body." The pranamaya, manomaya and vijnanamaya koshas together comprise the sukshma sharira, "subtle body," with the pranamaya shell disintegrating at death. See: actinic, actinodic, manomaya kosha, niyati, odic, sharira, soul, subtle body.

Krishna: (Sanskrit) "Black." Also related to krishtih, meaning "drawing, attracting." One of the most popular Gods of the Hindu pantheon. He is worshiped by Vaishnavas as the eighth avatara, incarnation, of Vishnu. He is best known as the Supreme Personage depicted in the Mahabharata, and specifically in the Bhagavad Gita. For Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Krishna is the Godhead.

Krittika Dipa: (Sanskrit) A joyous one-day festival on the Krittika nakshatra (Pleiades constellation), in November-December, when God Siva is worshiped as an infinite pillar of light. Great bonfires are lit at night on hills and in villages in India and elsewhere to represent the divine, all-permeating light of Parashakti. See: festival.

kriya: (Sanskrit) "Action." In a general sense, kriya can refer to doing of any kind. Specifically, it names religious action, especially rites or ceremonies. In yoga terminology, kriya names involuntary physical movements caused by the arousal of the kundalini. See: pada.

Kriyakramadyotika: (Sanskrit) A manual by Aghorasiva (ca 1050) detailing Agamic Saiva ritual. It is used widely by South Indian priests today.

kriyamana karma: (Sanskrit) "Actions being made." See: karma.

kriya pada: (Sanskrit) "Stage of religious action; worship." The stage of worship and devotion, second of four progressive stages of maturation on the Saiva Siddhanta path of attainment. See: pada.

kriya shakti: (Sanskrit) "Action power." The universal force of doing. See: Shakti, trishula.

kshama: (Sanskrit) "Patience." See: yama-niyama.

kshatriya: (Sanskrit) "Governing; sovereign." The social class of lawmakers, law-enforcers and the military. See: varna dharma.

Kudala Sangamadeva: (Sanskrit) A name of Siva meaning "Lord of rivers' confluence."

kula: (Sanskrit) "Family; home; group of families." See: extended family, joint family.

kula guru: (Sanskrit) The spiritual preceptor of the family or extended family.

Kularnava Tantra: (Sanskrit) A leading scripture of the Kaula school of Shaktism. It comprises 17 chapters totaling 2,058 verses which focus on ways to liberation, with notable chapters on the guru-shishya relationship.

Kumara: (Sanskrit) "Virgin youth; ever-youthful." A name of Lord Karttikeya as a perpetual bachelor. See: Karttikeya.

kumbha: (Sanskrit) "Jar or pot;" "water vessel."

kundalini: (Sanskrit) "She who is coiled; serpent power." The primordial cosmic energy in every individual which, at first, lies coiled like a serpent at the base of the spine and eventually, through the practice of yoga, rises up the sushumna nadi. As it rises, the kundalini awakens each successive chakra. Nirvikalpa samadhi, enlightenment, comes as it pierces through the door of Brahman at the core of the sahasrara and enters! Kundalini shakti then returns to rest in any one of the seven chakras. Sivasayujya is complete when the kundalini arrives back in the sahasrara and remains coiled in this crown chakra. See: chakra, door of Brahman, samadhi, nadi, tantrism.

kunkuma: (Sanskrit) "Saffron; red." The red powder, made of turmeric and lime, worn by Hindus as the pottu, dot, at the point of the third eye on the forehead. Names the saffron plant, Crocus sativus, and its pollen.

Kurma Purana: (Sanskrit) "Tortoise story." One of the six Siva Puranas, it glorifies the worship of Siva and Durga.

Kurukshetra: (Sanskrit) An extensive plain near Delhi, scene of the great war between the Kauravas and Pandavas. See: Mahabharata, Bhagavad Gita.

Kushika: (Sanskrit) One of four known disciples of Lakulisha.

kuttuvilaku: (Tamil) A standing lamp found in the temple, shrine room or home. It is made of metal, with several wicks fed by ghee or special oils. Used to light the home and used in puja. Part of temple and shrine altars, the standing lamp is sometimes worshiped as the divine light, Parashakti or Parajyoti. Returning from the temple and lighting one's kuttuvilaku courts the accompanying devas to remain in the home and channels the vibration of the temple sanctum sanctorum into the home shrine. Called dipastambha in Sanskrit.

kutumba: (Sanskrit) "Joint family." See: extended family, joint family.

L

Lakshmi: (Sanskrit) "Mark or sign," often of success or prosperity. Shakti, the Universal Mother, as Goddess of wealth. The mythological consort of Vishnu. Usually depicted on a lotus flower. Prayers are offered to Lakshmi for wealth, beauty and peace. See: Goddess, Shakti.

Lakulisha: (Sanskrit) The most prominent guru (ca 200) of the ancient Pashupata school of Saivism. The Pashupata Sutras are attributed to him. See: Saivism.

Lalla: (Lalasa (Sanskrit) in Sanskrit.) (Sanskrit) A woman Kashmir Saivite saint (ca 1300) whose intensely mystical poems, Lalla Vakyani, describe her inner experiences of oneness with Siva. See: Kashmir Saivism.

lance: A spear. See: vel, Karttikeya.

larder: Pantry; room in a house where food supplies are kept.

laud: To praise. To sing, chant or speak the qualities or glories of.

lavish: Very abundant or generous in giving or spending.

left-handed: Vama marga. A term describing certain tantric practices where the instincts and intellect are transcended, and detachment is sought through practices and behavior contrary to orthodox social norms. See: tantra, tantrika, tantrism.

legend: A story of uncertain historical basis, transmitted from generation to generation. See: folk narratives, katha, mythology.

legislate: To make or pass laws.

legitimate: According to the rules or the law. Authentic; reasonable.

lekhaprartha havana: (Sanskrit) "Written-prayer-burning rite." A coined term for the ancient practice of sending written prayers to the Gods by burning them in a sanctified fire in a temple or shrine. Alternately this rite can be performed at other appropriate sites, with four persons sitting around a fire and chanting to create a temporary temple. Prayers can be written in any language, but should be clearly legible, in black ink on white paper. The devas have provided a special script, called Tyaf, especially for this purpose.

lest: For fear that a thing might happen.

liberal Hinduism: A synonym for Smartism and the closely related neo-Indian religion. See: neo-Indian religion, Smartism, universalist.

liberation: Moksha, release from the bonds of pasha, after which the soul is liberated from samsara (the round of births and deaths). In Saiva Siddhanta, pasha is the three-fold bondage of anava, karma and maya, which limit and confine the soul to the reincarnational cycle so that it may evolve. Moksha is freedom from the fettering power of these bonds, which do not cease to exist, but no longer have the power to fetter or bind the soul. See: mala, jivanmukti, moksha, pasha, reincarnation, satguru, Self Realization, soul.

licentious: Morally unrestrained, especially in sexual behavior.

light: In an ordinary sense, a form of energy which makes physical objects visible to the eye. In a religious-mystical sense, light also illumines inner objects (i.e., mental images).--inner light: light perceived inside the head and body, of which there are varying intensities. When the karmas have been sufficiently quieted, the meditator can see and enjoy inner light independently of mental images.--moon-like inner light: Inner light perceived at a first level of intensity, glowing softly, much like the moon. The meditator's first experience of it is an important milestone in unfoldment.--clear white light: Inner light at a high level of intensity, very clear and pure. When experienced fully, it is seen to be permeating all of existence, the universal substance of all form, inner and outer, pure consciousness, Satchidananda. This experience, repeated at regular intervals, can yield "a knowing greater than you could acquire at any university or institute of higher learning." See: Siva consciousness, tattva.

Linga: (Sanskrit) "Mark." See: Sivalinga, svayambhu Linga.

Lingachara: (Sanskrit) Daily worship of the Sivalinga. One of the five essential codes of conduct for Vira Saivites. See: Panchachara, Vira Saivism.

Linga Diksha: (Sanskrit) The Vira Saiva initiation ceremony in which the guru ties a small Sivalinga (Ishtalinga) around the neck of the devotee and enjoins him-her to worship it twice daily. This initiation replaces the sacred thread ceremony, upanayana. See: Vira Saivism.

Linga Purana: (Sanskrit) One of the six principal Siva Puranas. This text explains the purusharthas (the four goals of life) and the significance of Sivalinga worship. See: Purana.

Lingashtakam: (Sanskrit) A short hymn of eight verses in praise of the Sivalinga.

Lingavanta: (Sanskrit) "Wearer of the Linga." (Hindi: Lingayat.) Alternate term for Vira Saivite. See: Vira Saivism.

liturgy: The proper, prescribed forms of ritual.

livelihood: Subsistence, or the means of obtaining it. One's profession, trade or employment. See: dharma, caste.

loka: (Sanskrit) "World, habitat, realm, or plane of existence." From loc, "to shine, be bright, visible." A dimension of manifest existence; cosmic region. Each loka reflects or involves a particular range of consciousness. The three primary lokas are 1)--Bhuloka: "Earth world." The world perceived through the five senses, also called the gross plane, as it is the most dense of the worlds. 2)--Antarloka: "Inner or in-between world." Known in English as the subtle or astral plane, the intermediate dimension between the physical and causal worlds, where souls in their astral bodies sojourn between incarnations and when they sleep. 3)--Sivaloka: "World of Siva," and of the Gods and highly evolved souls. The causal plane, also called Karanaloka, existing deep within the Antarloka at a higher level of vibration, it is a world of superconsciousness and extremely refined energy. It is the plane of creativity and intuition, the quantum level of the universe, where souls exists in self-effulgent bodies made of actinic particles of light. It is here that God and Gods move and lovingly guide the evolution of all the worlds and shed their ever-flowing grace. Its vibratory rate is that of the vishuddha, ajna and sahasrara chakras and those above. From the perspective of the seven worlds, the Sivaloka is of three levels: Janaloka, "creative plane" (vishuddha chakra); Tapoloka, "plane of austerity" (ajna chakra); and Satyaloka, "plane of reality" (sahasrara chakra); also called Brahmaloka.

The Antarloka and Sivaloka are the ever-present substratum of physical existence, most frequently experienced by humans during sleep and deep meditation. Each loka is a microcosm of the next higher world, which is its macrocosm, e.g., the physical plane is a microcosm (a smaller and less-refined version) of the Antarloka. See: three worlds.

lotus asana: The most famous of hatha yoga poses and the optimum position for meditation. It is known as the padmasana (lotus pose), as the legs are crossed, turning the soles of the feet up, which then resemble a lotus flower. See: asana, hatha yoga.

lute: A stringed instrument of highly pleasant sound.