Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Nicknames Of Imam Ali

A nickname is the name that is given to or acquired by somebody in the course of his life to express his characteristics or to confer honor upon him. In the light of this definition, Imam Ali (‘a) was given many nicknames as an honor and an expression of his distinctive characteristics.

Hereinafter, let us refer to a number of these nicknames:

Siddiq (Veracious)

Given to him by the Holy Prophet (S),1 this nickname demonstrates the fact that Imam Ali (‘a) was the first to believe and have faith in the Holy Prophet (S) in all of what he conveyed from Almighty Allah. Imam Ali (‘a) embraced Islam before everyone else had done. In this regard, he declared,

I am the greatest veracious one who confirmed to the truth. I believed in Allah before Abu-Bakr had believed and I embraced Islam before he had embraced it.2

During his lifetime, Imam Ali (‘a) was famously known of this nickname. Addressing Imam Ali (‘a), Malik Al-Ashtar said,

You are the greatest veracious one.

Wasi (Successor Of The Prophet)

Amongst the noblest nicknames given to Imam Ali (‘a) is Wasi , which entails that he is the successor and the entrusted trustee of the Prophet (S). In many of his discourses some of which will be cited hereinafter, the Holy Prophet (S) addressed this nickname to Imam Ali (‘a):

Referring to Imam Ali (‘a), the Holy Prophet (S) said,

This is my successor, the keeper of my secrets, and the best one I may leave behind me.3

On another occasion, the Holy Prophet (S) said,

Ali ibn Abi Talibis my successor, the keeper of my secrets, the best one I may leave behind me, and the fulfiller of my promises.4

One day, Salman Al-Farisi asked the Holy Prophet (S) to name his successor. ‘Who was the successor of Moses?’ Asked the Holy Prophet (S). ‘He was Joshua the son of Nun,’ answered Salman. The Prophet (S) then declared,

Verily, my successor and inheritor who will settle my debts and fulfill my promises is Ali ibn Abi Talib.5

Having learnt it from the Holy Prophet (S), the people over ages of the Islamic history called this nickname to Imam Ali (‘a). Among such ones were poets of different ages like Khuzaymah ibn Thabit, Abd Al-Rahman Al-Jamahi, Jarir ibn Abdullah Al-Bujali, Sa’id ibn Qays, Hujr ibn ‘Adi, Al-Nu’man ibn ‘Ajlan, Abu’l-Aswad Al-Du'ali, Al-Fasl ibn ‘Abbas, Al-Kumayt, Al-Mutanabbi, Abu- Tammam Al-ta’i, and Di’bil Al-Khuza’i.

Faruq (Distinguisher)

Meaning the discriminating between the right and the wrong, the nickname of Faruq was given to Imam Ali (‘a) as derived from many Prophetic sayings some of which are as follows:

Abu-Dharr Al-Ghifari and Salman Al-Farisi reported that the Holy Prophet (S) took Imam Ali (‘a) from the hand and declared,

This is the first to have believed in me and the first to shake hands with me on the Resurrection Day. This is the greatest veracious one (who confirmed to my truthfulness) and this is the distinguisher (Faruq) of this nation who discriminates the right from the wrong.6

Abu-Dharr has reported that he heard the Holy Prophet (S) saying to Imam Ali (‘a),

You are the greatest veracious one and you are the distinguisher who discriminates the right from the wrong.7

Abu-Layla Al-Ghifari has reported that he heard the Holy Prophet (S) saying,

After my departure, a seditious matter will come to pass. When this takes place, you should abide by Ali ibn Abi Talib, for he is the first to have believed in me, the first to shake hands with me on the Resurrection Day, the greatest veracious one, and the distinguisher of this nation.8

Ya’sub Al-Din (The Chief Of The Religion)

In Arabic language, the word ya’sub denotes the chief of the bees. However, this word is used to express the chief of a people. The Holy Prophet (S) gave this nickname to Imam Ali (‘a) and called him so on many occasions, such as the following:

He (S) is reported to have said,

This (Ali) is the chief of the believers while money is the chief of the wrongdoers.9

On another occasion, the Holy Prophet (S) said,

Ali is the chief of the believers.

Abu-Sa’d has reported that he once visited Imam Ali (‘a) and found some gold in front of him. Imam Ali (‘a) thus referred to the gold and said,

I am the chief of the believers and this (gold) is the chief of the hypocrites. To me do the believers resort while to this do the hypocrites resort.10

Wali (Guardian)

Another elevated nickname that Almighty Allah has given to Imam Ali (‘a) is Wali, which is a polysemous word meaning guardian, most preferred, friend, leader, and many others. Declaring Imam Ali (‘a) as the guardian, or chief, of the believers, the Holy Quran states,

Exclusively, your guardian is Allah, His messenger, and those who believe, who establish worship and pay the poor-due, and bow down in prayer. (5:55)

This holy Quranic verse was revealed in praise of Imam Ali (‘a) when he gave his ring as alms to a needy while he was bowing in a prayer. It has also restricted the general authority over all people to Almighty Allah, His Messenger, and the divinely designated Imam. It has also come in the plural form to express the great standing and the high rank of this authority; namely, the Imam.

Laying more stress on the significance of this restriction of authority, the verse has come in the form of a nominal clause rather than verbal. In addition, the verse begins with an article of restriction in Arabic, which is the article innama (only, or exclusively).

From his side, the Holy Prophet (S) imparted the name Wali to Imam Ali (‘a) in a big number of his sayings, some of which are the following:

Ibn ‘Abbas has reported the Holy Prophet (S) as saying to Imam Ali (‘a):

You are verily the Wali (authority) over all believers after me.11

Imam Ali (‘a) is reported to have quoted the Holy Prophet (S) as saying to him:

I have beseeched Allah to grant me five things with regard to you; He has thus granted me four and rejected one: You will be the first to come out of your grave on the Resurrection Day, you will always be with me, the Standard of Praise will be held and carried by you, and you will be the Wali of the believers after me.12

Al-Nasa'i has reported through a chain of authority that some people complained to the Holy Prophet (S) against Imam Ali (‘a). Agonized and deeply infuriated, the Holy Prophet (S) said,

What do you want from Ali? Verily, Ali is part of me and I am part of him. He is the Wali of all believers after me.13

In brief, Wali is the person who has authority over everyone and the one who has the right to manage the affairs of those who are under his authority.

Amir Al-Mu' Minin (The Leader Of The Believers)

This nickname is attributed to Imam Ali (‘a) so commonly that whenever it is said, it must refer to him.

Dr. Zaki Mubarak says,

Amir Al-Mu'minin is the terminological nickname of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Whenever a reader of an ancient book finds this nickname unattached to a certain person, it must be known that the intended in Ali (‘a).

This nickname was given to Imam Ali (‘a) by the Holy Prophet (S) too:

Abu-Na’im has reported through a chain of authority that the Holy Prophet (S) once said to Anas,

The first to enter from this door is the Leader of the Believers (Amir Al- Mu'minin ), the master of the Muslims, the leader of the marked and white-forehead ones, and the seal of the Prophets’ successors.14

Anas said: At that moment, I prayed Allah, covertly, to make him one of the Ansar (the people of Yathrib to which Anas belonged). Immediately after that, Ali entered. ‘Who is it, Anas?’ asked the Prophet (S). ‘It is Ali,’ answered I.

Once he heard this answer, the Prophet (S) stood up with glad mien, embraced Ali, and rubbed the sweat of his face over Ali’s face and the sweat of Ali’s face over his face.

Upon this situation, Imam Ali (‘a) said, ‘O Allah’s Messenger, you are doing to me a thing that you have not done before.’

The Holy Prophet (S), answering him, said, ‘Why should I not do it when you are the one who will represent me? You are the only one who conveys to them my sayings and explains for them what they will disagree about after me.’15

Amin (Trustee)

Because Imam Ali (‘a) was entrusted with the affairs of the religion and the secrets of the Holy Prophet (S), he was given this name by the Holy Prophet (S) who is reported to have said to him,

O Ali, you are my choicest and trustee.16

Hadi (Guide)

Imam Ali (‘a) was the guide of all Muslims, the director of the pious, and the guardian of the believers. He was therefore given the nickname Hadi, which is derived from the Holy Prophet’s saying to him,

I am the warner and Ali is the guide (Hadi). By your guidance, O Ali, those who follow the true guidance shall be guided.17

This tradition has been always attached to the exegesis of the following holy verse:

You are only a warner and there is a guide for every people. (13:7)

Udhun Wa’iyah (Retaining Ear)

One of the honorable nicknames of Imam Ali (‘a) is the Retaining Ear, because he retained all that which was revealed from the Heavens to the Holy Prophet (S).

A reference has been made to the Retaining Ear in the Holy Quran that reads:

The retaining ear might retain it. (69:12)

Upon receiving this holy verse, the Holy Prophet (S) said,

I have asked my Lord to make this retaining ear to be Ali’s ear.

After that, Imam Ali (‘a) used to say,

I have never forgotten anything after this imploration of the Holy Prophet (S) although it is improper for me to forget.18

Al-Murtadha (The Well-Pleased)

Imam Ali (‘a) has been given the nickname of Al-Murtadha, because Almighty Allah has accepted him pleasingly to be the Holy Prophet’s successor and vicegerent, or because Almighty Allah has accepted him pleasingly to be the husband of Lady Fatimah Al-Zahra', the doyenne of the women of the world.19

Al-Anza’ Al-Batin (The Corpulent Baldhead)

Among his physical features, Imam Ali (‘a) lacked hair on the front part of his scalp and he had big abdomen that was not on account of gluttony.

One day, a man asked Abdullah ibn ‘Abbas, saying, ‘Please, tell me about the corpulent baldheaded man about whom the people of this nation disputed.’

Abdullah answered:

O man! You have asked me about a man better than whom no other man, except the Messenger of Allah, has ever trodden the pebbles of this earth. He was unquestionably the brother of Allah’s Messenger, his cousin, his successor, and his vicegerent among the individuals of his nation.

He was totally free from (i.e. Anza ‘) polytheism and well-versed (i.e. batin) in knowledge. I did hear the Messenger of Allah saying, ‘He that desires for deliverance in the morrow, must show full obedience to this baldheaded man (i.e. Imam Ali).’20

According to this tradition, the word Anza’ stands for freedom from polytheism and the word batin well-versedness in knowledge.

Al-Sharif (The Honorable)

Imam Ali (‘a) was the most honorable in lineage, ideality, abstinence from violating Almighty Allah’s prohibitions, and piety. Even his enemies and opponents testified to his most honorableness. Historicists have related that when the army of the ‘Abbasids besieged Marwan, the last of the Umayyad rulers, he said to one of his viziers, ‘This army needs Ali.’

Objecting to this, the vizier said, ‘How come! Ali alone is an army!’ Marwan explained, ‘You have not understood what I meant. I mean that they need Ali’s honorableness and nobility. If they seize us, they will annihilate our women, children, and old people. They will leave no single one of us alive. If Ali were the commander of this army, he would never do such things to us, because his honor and nobility would prevent him from so.’21

Marwan’s words were totally true. When the ‘Abbasids came to power, they annihilated all the individuals of the Umayyad dynasty, including the bodies of the dead among them.

Baydat Al-Balad (The Unique Person)

Like his father who was nicknamed Baydat Makkah because he was the source of its dignity and honor, Imam Ali (‘a) was nicknamed Baydat Al- Balad for the same reasons.22

Khayr Al-Bashar (The Best Of Humankind)

This nickname was given to Imam Ali (‘a) by the Holy Prophet (S) through a big number of Prophetic traditions some of which are as follows:

Jabir ibn Abdullah reported the Holy Prophet (S) to have said,

Ali is the best of all human beings. He who doubts about it has in fact lost faith in Islam.23

Ali is the best of all human beings. He who suspects has in fact lost faith in Islam.24

Imam Ali (‘a) reported the Holy Prophet (S) to have said,

Whoever refrains from confessing that Ali is the best of all human beings has in fact had no faith in Islam.25

Sayyid Al-’Arab (The Master Of All Arabs)

Sayyid Al-Arab is another nickname of Imam Ali (‘a) that was given to him by the Holy Prophet (S) who is reported to have said,

I am the master of the descendants of Adam while Ali is the master of all Arabs.26

‘A'ishah reported that the Holy Prophet (S), once, said, ‘Summon the master of the Arabs.’ ‘Is it not that you, O Allah’s Messenger, are the master of the Arabs?’ asked ‘A'ishah. The Holy Prophet (S) answered,

I am the master of the descendants of Adam while Ali is the master of all Arabs.27

Salamah ibn Kuhayl has reported that Ali ibn Abi Talib (‘a), once, passed by the Holy Prophet (S) next to him ‘A'ishah was sitting. The Holy Prophet (S) then said to ‘A'ishah,

If it pleases you to see the master of the Arabs, you may look at Ali ibn Abi Talib.

‘A'ishah answered, ‘O Allah’s Prophet! Is it not that you are the master of the Arabs?’

The Holy Prophet (S) answered,

I am the leader of the Muslims and the master of the pious ones. But if it pleases you to see the master of the Arabs, you may look at Ali ibn Abi- Talibb.28

Hujjat Allah (The Argument Of God)

One of the greatest nicknames of Imam Ali (‘a) is Hujjat Allah, because he is the argument of Almighty Allah against His creatures in the sense that he guides the creatures to the straightest path of God and illuminates the paths of true guidance before them. This nickname was also given to him by the Holy Prophet (S) who is reported to have said,

Ali and I are the arguments of Allah against His creatures.29

Anas ibn Malik has reported that he was once in the presence of the Holy Prophet (S) who, upon seeing Ali ibn Abi Talib coming, said to him (i.e. Anas),

This coming man is my argument against my people on the Resurrection Day.30

Notes

1.Al-Diyarbakri, Tarikh Al-Khamis 2:275.

2.Ahmad ibn Abdullah At-Tabari, Dhakha’ir Al-’Uqba fi Manaqib Dhawi’l-Qurba, pp. 58; Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Ma’arif, pp. 73; Muhibb Al-Din At-Tabari, Al-Riyad Al-Nasirah fi Fada’il Al-’Asharah 2:257.

3.Ibn kajar, Tahdhib Al-Tahdhib 3:106.

4.Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi, Kanz Al-’Ummal 6:154.

5.Muhibb Al-Din At-Tabari, Al-Riyad Al-Nasirah fi Fada’il Al-’Asharah 2:178.

6.Nur Al-Din Al-Haythami, Majma’ Al-Zawa'id wa Manba’ Al-Fawa'id 9:102; Al-Mannawi, Fays Al-Qadir 4:358; Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi, Kanz Al-’Ummal 6:156; Al-Nasa'i, Fada’il Al- Sahabah 1:296.

7.Muhibb Al-Din At-Tabari, Al-Riyad Al-Nasirah fi Fada’il Al-’Asharah 2:655.

8.Ibn kajar Al-’Asqalani, Al-Isabah fi Tamyiz Al-Sahabah 7:167; Ibn Al-Athir, Usd Al- Ghabah fi Ma’rifat Al-Sahabah 5:287; Ibn Abd Al-Barr, Al-Istiab 2:657.

9.Al-Haythami, Majma’ Al-Zawa'id 9:102.

10.Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi, Kanz Al-’Ummal 6:394; Ibn kajar, Al-Sawa’iq Al-Muhriqah, pp. 75. The author of Tarikh Al-Khamis states in 2:375, ‘Imam Ali was nicknamed the chief of the Imams.’

11.Sunan Abi-Dawud 1:360.

12.Al-Khatib Al-Baghdadi, Tarikh Baghdad 4:339.

13.Al-Nasa'i, Khasa'is Amir Al-Mu'minin, pp. 19: Muhibb Al-Din At-Tabari, Al-Riyad Al- Nasirah fi Fada’il Al-’Asharah 2:171; Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi, Kanz Al-’Ummal 6:194; Abu- Na’im, Ma’rifat Al-Sahabah 1:296.

14.Zaki Mubarak, ‘Abqariyyat Al-Sharif Al-Rasi 2:228.

15.Abu-Na’im, Hilyat Al-Awliya' 1:63.

16.Ahmad ibn Abdullah At-Tabari, Dhakha’ir Al-’Uqba fi Manaqib Dhawi’l-Qurba, pp. 57; Al-Diyarbakri, Tarikh Al-Khamis 2:375.

17.Al-Hakim Al-Nayshaburi, Al-Mustadrak ‘Ala Al-Sahihayn 3:129; Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi,

Kanz Al-’Ummal 6:157.

18.Tafsir At-Tabari 29:35; Al-Zamakhshari, Tafsir Al-Kashshaf 4:600 (Exegesis of verse 13 of Surah (Chapter) Al-kaqqah; Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi, Kanz Al-’Ummal 6:108; Al-Suyuti, Al- Durr Al-Manthur 8:267.

19.Ahmad ibn Abdullah At-Tabari, Dhakha’ir Al-’Uqba fi Manaqib Dhawi’l-Qurba, pp. 32;

Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi, Kanz Al-’Ummal 6:152.

20.Hayat Amir Al-Mu'minin, pp. 45.

21.Baqir Sharif Al-Qarashi, Hayat Al-Imam Musa ibn Ja’far (The Life of Imam Musa ibn

Ja’far) 1:336.

22.Al-Diyarbakri, Tarikh Al-Khamis 5:375; Abu-Na’im, Ma’rifat Al-Sahabah 1:297; Al- Jahis, Hayat Al-Hayawan 2:336.

23.Al-Khatib Al-Baghdadi, Tarikh Baghdad 7:421.

24.Al-Mannawi, Kunuz Al-Haqa'iq, pp. 92.

25.Al-Hakim Al-Nayshaburi, Al-Mustadrak ‘Ala Al-Sahihayn 3:124; Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi,

Kanz Al-’Ummal 6:157, Abu-Na’im, Hilyat Al-Awliya' 1:63.

26.Al-Muttaqi Al-Hindi, Kanz Al-’Ummal 6:157; Abu-Na’im, Hilyat Al-Awliya' 1:63.

27.Al-Hakim Al-Nayshaburi, Al-Mustadrak ‘Ala Al-Sahihayn 3:124.

28.Al-Khatib Al-Baghdadi, Tarikh Baghdad 11:89.

29.Al-Mannawi, Kunuz Al-Haqa'iq, pp. 43.

30.Muhibb Al-Din At-Tabari, Al-Riyad Al-Nasirah fi Fada’il Al-’Asharah 2:193.

Lesson 2: The Ways of Knowing God

Before embarking on the discussion about the proofs of the existence of God and an examination of the Divine Attributes, it is necessary to answer this important and key question: can the human being know God or not? And in case he can, what is the way of doing so? This is because if the answer to this question is negative, any sort of discussion and discourse about theology is vain and useless.

Here, two general outlooks have been put forth, i.e. those of the affirmatives and the negatives. The rationalists and intuitionists regard God as knowable and the way of knowing Him as open to mankind. The sensationalists and literalists give a negative reply, however, to the above question and consider mankind incapable of knowing God. Now, we shall examine and elucidate these outlooks.

The Rationalists

The rationalists refer to the group of thinkers who have accepted the authority and credibility of reason or intellect (‘aql ) in knowledge [or the process of knowing], regarding the rational principles and fundamentals as the foundations of knowledge. They are of the opinion that without formally acknowledging the intellect and rational principles, no knowledge can be attained about the human being and even sensory and external pieces of knowledge are based on rational foundations, let alone empirical scientific pieces of knowledge and those pieces of information which are substantiated by the text and outward meanings of the revelation (wahy ).

Aristotle1 and his followers in Ancient Greece, Descartes2 and his followers in the West, Fārābī,3 Ibn Sīnā,4 and all Imāmiyyah and Mu‘tazilite theologians (mutakallimīn ) have been proponents of this outlook. Reason also occupies a high position in Māturīdiyyah theology. For the Ash‘arites,5 however, reason (‘aql ) is theoretically valid to some extent but not so in practice.6

At any rate, the philosophers and theologians in the Muslim world believe that God can be known through rational thinking, although there is a difference of opinions on the limit of the intellect’s capability. For example, the proofs presented to prove the existence of God and the methods adopted to discuss the Attributes of God are not the same.

The proponents of this viewpoint have emphasized that adopting the rational way of attaining knowledge about God and understanding metaphysical truths is not an easy job and it requires special skill, talent and ability; otherwise, the desirable result will not be obtained and in many instances, it may even lead to deviation.

In this regard,Shahīd Muṭahharī7 has said:

“The limitedness of the meanings of words and expressions, on one hand, and the minds’ familiarity with tangible and physical concepts, on the other hand, make it difficult to think and reflect on metahphysical issues. In order to be prepared for metaphysical reflections, the mind gradually undergoes certain processes… No doubt, when the meanings and concepts of the Divine wisdom want to manifest in the realm of philosophical intellects, it requires a particular mental acumen and intellectual capacity which is totally

different from literary, technological, natural or mathematical acumen. The mind must develop in a particular dimension or aspect so as to acquire acumen for such ideas.”8

The Holy Qur’an and traditions (aḥādīth ) endorse this method, and the proofs and pieces of evidence in criticizing the viewpoint of the literalists will be stated. Here, we suffice ourselves with quoting the following verse which regards reflection (tafakkur ) on the system of creation as one of the characteristics of those who possess intellects (ūli’l-albāb ) for which they are praised:

﴿ إِنَّ فِي خَلْقِ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأَرْضِ وَاخْتِلاَفِ اللَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ لآيَاتٍ لِّأُوْلِي الألْبَابِ ٭ الَّذِينَ يَذْكُرُونَ اللّهَ قِيَامًا وَقُعُودًا وَعَلَىَ جُنُوبِهِمْ وَيَتَفَكَّرُونَ فِي خَلْقِ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأَرْضِ رَبَّنَا مَا خَلَقْتَ هَذا بَاطِلاً سُبْحَانَكَ فَقِنَا عَذَابَ النَّارِ ﴾

“Indeed in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of night and day, there are signs for those who possess intellects. Those who remember Allah standing, sitting, and lying on their sides, and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth [and say] ‘Our Lord, You have not created this in vain! Immaculate are You. Save us from the punishment of the Fire.” 9

The Intuitionists

The intuitionists are of the opinion that the existence of God and metaphysical realities are knowable by the human being, but not through the agency of reason and the method of reflection (tafakkur ) and intellection (ta‘aqqul ); rather, through the agency of the heart and the method of illumination (ishrāq ) and inner intuition or witnessing (shuhūd-e durūnī ).

Some intuitionists have regarded reason as totally incapable of knowing God, but other intuitionists do not consider it sufficient although they have stressed its being essential and they have also acknowledged its ability to some extent. Muslim and non-Muslim mystics advocate the method of mystical intuition (shuhūd-e ‘irfānī ) in knowing God. Some modern Western philosophers and religious psychologists and psychoanalysts have also opted for this method.

Assessment

Although it is acceptable in knowing God and has an important function, this method still needs the rational method. Firstly, in intuitive perceptions, there is always the possibility of satanic tricks and insinuations, and to detect them would require rational principles and rules. Secondly, intuitive method is personal in nature and incapable of being proved to others, except through rational method and philosophical principles.

For this reason, great mystics and philosophers have highlighted the mystical method’s need for rational and philosophical method which has a higher and more perfect state. Regarding mysticism’s need for intellection (ta‘aqqul) and reasoning (istidlāl ), Ḥakīm Lāhījī has said:

“The human being has two ways to [know] God, the Exalted. One is the outward way and the other is inward. The outward way is the path of reasoning (istidlāl) while the inward way is the path of spiritual wayfaring

(sulūk). The path of reasoning takes precedence over the path of spiritual wayfaring, for as long as one does not know what spiritual station (manzil ) is, he will not be able to seek the way leading to the spiritual station.” 10

Elsewhere, he has also said, “Prior to the stabilization of theosophy (ḥikmah) and scholastic theology (‘ilm al-kalām ), Sufi claims are [nothing but] demagoguery and fraud.” 11

The Sensualists

The sensualists are those who regard the way of knowing realities as limited to sensory observation and experiment. Sensualism has a long precedence in the history of human thought. The Skeptics of Ancient Greece upheld the primacy of experience and opposed rational philosophy. The new form of empiricism can be traced to the 17th century.

Scholars and philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes,12 Pierre Gassendi13 and David Hume14 were among the prominent proponents of sensualism. The notion that sensory perception is the fountainhead and criterion for knowledge has been the ultimate product of their intellectual activity.15

Since perception and sensory experience are only through the five senses, the existence and Attributes of God cannot be proved or disproved on the basis of the foundations of sensualism. As such, they oppose both the theists and materialists, because according to them, there is no way of proving or disproving for mankind the metaphysical world.

Assessment

Sensory empiricism (primacy of the sensory perception) is unacceptable because there is a set of epistemological concepts and principles which cannot be understood by sensory perception and at the same time, they cannot be denied; that is, without them, sensory perceptions are also impossible. Of the concepts used in scientific and non-scientific discourses, the concepts of necessity or essential (ḍarūrah), refusal or abstention (imtinā‘ ) and probable (iḥtimāl ) play a vital role, and none of them can be perceived by the senses.

The law of causation (causality) is another principle which the sensualists have regarded as definite. This is so while the cause-and-effect relationship - as Hume has also acknowledged - is not something tangible or sensible. Causation means an existent’s dependence on another existent, and not succession (tawālī) or symmetry (taqārun ) of phenomena.

The principle of non-contradiction16 is one of the most fundamental intellectual principles of man, and no idea or opinion, no matter how likely it may be, cannot be formulated without this principle. The said principle can never be perceived by the senses. Felicien Robert Challaye,17 who is himself a prominent empiricist, has regarded two principles as the basis of inducement of empirical sciences:

1. Nature has order and law, and accident or chance does not happen in them (law of causation), and

2. Every cause always brings about the same effect given a unified set of conditions (the principle of harmony in nature or harmony between the cause and the effect).18

Moreover, it is true that every experiment depends on the observation of particular steps, which is discussed by the likes of Francis Bacon19 and Stuart Mill20 in a bid to know the real cause of every happening, but the element of experiment has not guaranteed the correctness or validity of those steps (methods). They thus have no option but to establish the correctness or validity of those steps through a sort of rational proof which they deny.21

The Literalists

A group of Muslim traditionists (muḥaddithūn) does not regard reason and rational thinking as authoritative and permissible bases in knowing the religion, and they are of the opinion that the only means of knowing religious facts - whether pertaining to the roots or branches of religion - are the scriptural texts.

The Ḥanbalīs andAhl al-Ḥadīth from among the Sunnīs and theAkhbarī s from among the Shī‘ah have subscribed to this idea, vehemently opposing rational (philosophical and theological) discussions of the issues on beliefs.

There is a well known story that someone asked Mālik ibn Anas (93-179 AH) about the meaning of “Allah’s settlement on the Throne” as mentioned in this verse:

﴿ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنُ عَلَى ٱلْعَرْشِ ٱسْتَوَىٰ ﴾

“The All-beneficent, settled on the Throne.” 22

In reply, Ibn Anas said:

اَلْاِسْتِواءُ مَعْلومٌ وَالْكِيْفِيَّةُ مَجْهولَةٌ وَالْايمانُ بِهِ واجِبٌ وَالسُّؤالُ عَنْهُ بِدْعَةٌ.

“The settlement is known; how God settles on the Throne is unknown; to believe in it is obligatory and to ask about it isbid‘ah (innovation in religion).” 23

Sufyān ibn ‘Uyaynah24 (died 198 AH) is reported to have said that the Attributes of God mentioned in the Qur’an must not be interpreted and a study about their meanings must not be done. Instead, they must be recited and one must keep silent about their meanings.

A group of the Akhbārīs from among the Shī‘ah who lived during the 10th and 11th centuries AH were also of the same belief. In his introduction toAl-Asfār al-Arba‘ah, Ṣadr al-Muta’allihīn (Mullā Ṣadrā) 25 expressed extreme regret for the way of thinking of these people, saying:

“Indeed we are afflicted by a group whose viewpoint fails to perceive the lights and secrets of wisdom. They have regarded as heresy to reflect on celestial matters, divine knowledge and the glorious verses [of the Qur’an]. They treat as deviation any opposition to common beliefs. It is as if they were traditionalist Ḥanbalīs for whom the questions of obligatory (wājib ) and possible (mumkin), eternal (qadīm ) and contingent (ḥādith ) are dubious. Their thinking does not go beyond what is tangible.” 26

After stating the beliefs of theAhl al-Ḥadīth and Ḥanbalīs, Professor Muṭahharī has said:

“The view of Ḥanbalī and the Ahl al-Ḥadīth has still gained following, and some Shī‘ahḥadīth scholars in the latter periods have explicitly stated that even the question of the Oneness of God is totally a heavenly

(devotional) issue and intellectually, there is no sufficient proof for it, and it is only through obedience to the dictate of religion that we are bound to believe that God is One.”27

Assessment

Firstly, even assuming that heavenly truths must be known through “heavenly means and power”, this principle has no contradiction with knowing these truths by means of reason because it (reason) is also a “heavenly element”. As mentioned in traditions (aḥādīth ), reason or intellect (‘aql ) is inward proof (ḥujjat-e bāṭinī ) of God for mankind while the prophets are His outward proofs (ḥujaj-e ẓāhirī ).28

It is true that reason cannot discern all religious truths, but it is not totally incapable of knowing religious truths. In this regard, Imām ‘Alī (‘a ) says:

لَمْ يُطْلِعِ الْعُقُولَ عَلَى تَحْدِيدِ صِفَتِهِ، ولَمْ يَحْجُبْهَا عَنْ وَاجِبِ مَعْرِفَتِهِ.

“He has not informed (human) wit about the limits of His qualities. Nevertheless, He has not prevented it from securing essential knowledge of Him.” 29

Secondly, by denying rational knowledge and its validity, there is no way of proving the [reality of]sharī‘ah . In such a case, there is no room for the Qur’an and Sunnah through which we could know the principles and branches of religion.

Thirdly, rational thinking has been encouraged and emphasized in the Holy Qur’an. The Qur’an has described those who do not use their minds as the worst of beasts:

﴿ إِنَّ شَرَّ الدَّوَابِّ عِندَ اللّهِ الصُّمُّ الْبُكْمُ الَّذِينَ لاَ يَعْقِلُونَ ﴾

“Indeed the worst of beasts in Allah’s sight are the deaf and the dumb who do not apply reason.” 30

﴿ وَيَجْعَلُ الرِّجْسَ عَلَى الَّذِينَ لا يَعْقِلُونَ ﴾

“And He lays defilement on those who do not apply reason.” 31

In many instances, the Holy Qur’an has made use of rational thinking, engaging in intellectual discussion and argumentation. For example, by means of two rational arguments, it has proved the Oneness of God, saying:

﴿ لَوْ كَانَ فِيهِمَا آلِهَةٌ إِلا اللَّهُ لَفَسَدَتَا ﴾

“Had there been gods in them other than Allah, they would surely have fallen apart.” 32

﴿ وَمَا كَانَ مَعَهُ مِنْ إِلَهٍ إِذًا لَذَهَبَ كُلُّ إِلَهٍ بِمَا خَلَقَ وَلَعَلا بَعْضُهُمْ عَلَى بَعْضٍ ﴾

“Neither is there any god besides Him, for then each god would take away what he created, and some of them would surely rise up against others.” 33

In refuting the notion of those who think that God has a son, it is thus stated:

﴿ وَقَالُوا اتَّخَذَ اللَّهُ وَلَدًا سُبْحَانَهُ بَلْ لَهُ مَا فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأرْضِ كُلٌّ لَهُ قَانِتُونَ ٭ بَدِيعُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأرْضِ وَإِذَا قَضَى أَمْرًا فَإِنَّمَا يَقُولُ لَهُ كُنْ فَيَكُونُ ﴾

“And they say, ‘Allah has taken a son.’ Immaculate is He! Rather to Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and the earth. All are obedient to Him, the Originator of the heavens and the earth; and when He decides on a matter, He just says to it, ‘Be!’ and it is.” 34

These two verses speak about two rational proofs in refuting the belief in God having an offspring. One is based on the essence oftawḥīd and God’s immunity from any similitude or partner, and the other is based on God’s immunity from change (taghyīr ) and quantization (tadrīj ).35

Fourthly, in theSunnah of the Holy Prophet (ṣ ) and the sayings and conduct of theAhl al-Bayt (‘a ), the credibility and authority of reason has been emphasized and actually utilized by them. By taking a glance atNahj al-Balaghah ,36 Usul al-Kafi ,37 Al-Ṭawḥid by Shaykh al-Ṣadūq,38 Al-Iḥtijāj by Ṭabarsī,39 and other Shī‘ah sources, one will clearly find out this fact. As we have said earlier, in the school of theAhl al-Bayt (‘a ) reason has been recognized as the inward proof of God. Imām al-Ṣādiq (‘a ) has regarded reason as the human being’s guide in knowing God as well as in knowing the principles of what is good and what is evil:

فَبِالْعَقلِ عَرَفَ الْعِبادُ خالِقَهُم وَأَنَّهُمْ مَخْلوقونَ، وَأَنَّهُ المُدَبِّرُ لَهُمْ وَأَنَّهُمْ المُدَبَّرونَ... وَعَرَفوا بِهِ الْحَسَنَ مِنَ القَبيحِ...

“By means of reason, the servants recognize their Creator and that they are creatures and that He is their Governor and that they are governed… and they distinguished the good from the evil…” 40

According to Imām ‘Alī (‘a ), one of the goals of the mission of the prophets is “to unveil before them (people) the hidden virtues of wisdom”:41

لِيُثيروا لَهُمْ دَفائِنَ العُقولِ

Fifthly, the Holy Qur’an and traditions (aḥādīth ) have a set of sublime knowledge which is beyond sensory perception and common understanding and comprehension. For example, God is the Dominant One (al-Ghālib ). He is the First and the Last (al-Awwal wa ’l-Ākhir ). He is the Inward and the Outward (al-Baṭin wa ’ẓ-Ẓāhir ).

He encompasses everything (al-Muḥīṭ ). His Unity is not numerical oneness. He is with everything without being parallel with it in time and space. He is outside everything but not in the sense of detachment and separation (infiṣāl ). Everything comes from Him and shall return to Him. His Word is identical with His Action, and so on and so forth.

Now, this question is raised: what is the reason behind mentioning these facts in the Book (Qur’an) and theSunnah ? Is it to lay down a set of lessons for reflection, intellection, understanding, and inspiration and to guide the minds while swimming in the boundless ocean of divine knowledge? Or, is it to present issues and problems without solution and beyond comprehension so as to persuade the minds to submission, silence and blind following?!

These pieces of knowledge are not instructions, commands or orders. There is no point in reasoning out, therefore, that “Our duty is to obey what is commanded and nothing else!” They are a set of theoretical issues. If they

are beyond comprehension and understanding, what is the benefit in mentioning them? It is a like a Grade One teacher who teaches a college level subject [such as calculus or statistics] to his pupils and tells them to accept whatever she tells them although they could not comprehend it!

God could be known, therefore, and at the same time, man can know Him through reason and reflection on the signs in the horizon and in himself, although

(1) his knowledge of the Divine Essence and Attributes is limited and his understanding of the Divine Essence and Attributes (as they are) is beyond the power of the human mind or intellect - “He has not informed (human) wit about the limits of His qualities”42 - and

(2) to follow this path is not that easy and simple as it needs special intellectual agility and efforts.

This is not to suggest, however, that it is possible for everybody to understand all levels of rational and philosophical discussions about all issues related to theology. Definitely, this is not so. And there are many limitations, prerequisites and impediments along the way. The point is that this way is open for the human being, and there have always been people who have been able to examine metaphysical issues pertaining to theology through the correct use of reason and rational thinking.

In conclusion, let us state once again that the point is not to limit the way of knowing God to the rational means and method, because one can also know God through mystical intuition (shuhūd ). And after proving [the genuineness of] revelation (waḥyi ), one can also know issues pertaining to the Unseen through revelation. But even these two are based on rational knowledge, and denial of reason and rational knowledge is tantamount to the denial of both intuition and revelation.

Review Questions

1. Who are the rationalists? Write their viewpoint about knowing God.

2. Write the statement of Professor Muṭahharī about knowing God through the intellect.

3. As far as knowing God through the intellect is concerned, state the pieces of evidence about this from the Holy Qur’an.

4. Write the view of the intuitionists about knowing God and the objection to it.

5. Write the view of the sensualists about knowing God and the objection to it.

6. Write the summary of the sensualists’ view about knowing God and the objection to it.

References

1. Aristotle (384-322 BCE): a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato’s teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. [Trans.]

2. René Descartes (1596-1650): French mathematician and the founding father of modern philosophy. His theory of knowledge starts with the quest for certainty, for an indubitable starting-point or foundation on the basis alone of which progress is possible. This is eventually found in his celebrated ‘Cogito ergo sum’ which means “I think therefore I am.” His main writings are Discourse on Method, The Meditations, Principles of Philosophy, The Passions of the Soul and Ruler for the Direction of the Mind. [Trans.]

3. Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī (known in the West as Alpharabius) (c. 872-950/951 CE): a Muslim polymath (in the fields of cosmology, logic, music, psychology, and sociology) and one of the greatest scientists and philosophers of the world during his time. [Trans.]

4. Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sīnā Balkhī, known as Abū ‘Alī Sīnā Balkhī or Ibn Sīnā and commonly known in English by his Latinized name “Avicenna” (c. 980-1037) was a Persian polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time. He was also an astronomer, chemist, geologist, logician, paleontologist, mathematician, physicist, poet, psychologist, scientist, and teacher. His important works include Al-Shifā’ (an encyclopedic work covering, among other things, logic, physics and metaphysics), Al-Najāt (a summary of Al-Shifā’), and Al-Ishārāt or in full, Al-Ishārāt wa ’t-Tanbīhāt (a latter work consisting of four parts, viz. logic, physics, metaphysics, and mysticism). [Trans.]

5. Ash‘arites (‘ashā‘irah): followers of Abū ’-Ḥasan al-Ash‘arī (died 330 AH).

6. For further information in this regard, see the book Darāmadī bar ‘Ilm-e Kalām (An Introduction to Scholastic Theology) by the author.

7. Murtada Mutahhari (1920-79) was a leading theoretician of the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran. As an accomplished scholar of Islamic sciences, he played a pivotal role in forming the modern Islamic discourse which served as the foundation of the revolution. With close to ninety works on different subjects to his credit, he is considered one of the leading thinkers of the global Islamic movement in the twentieth century.

8. Uṣūl-e Falsafeh wa Rawish-e Realism, vol. 5, pp. 33-34 (Introduction).

9. Sūrat Āl ‘Imrān 3:190-191.

10. Ḥakīm Lahījī, Gawhar-e Murād, p. 34.

11. Ibid., p. 38. In this regard, see Āyatullāh Jawādī ‘Āmulī, Shinākht dar Qur’ān (Knowledge in the Qur’an), pp. 379-380.

12. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): English philosopher, mathematician and linguist who was one of the main philosophers that founded materialism. [Trans.]

13. Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655): French Catholic priest, philosopher and astronomer. [Trans.]

14. David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish historian and philosopher, who influenced the development of skepticism and empiricism, is considered one of the greatest skeptics in the history of philosophy. Hume thought that one’s subjective perceptions never provide true knowledge of reality and one can know nothing outside of experience. Accordingly, even the law of cause and effect was an unjustified belief. [Trans.]

15. Paul Foulkes, Falsafeh-ye ‘Umūmī (General Philosophy), trans. Yaḥyā Mahdawī, pp. 130-131; Hans Reichenbach, Pidāyesh-ye Falsafeh-ye ‘Ilmī (The Rise of Scientific Philosophy), trans. Mūsā Akramī, pp. 106-107.

16. Principle or law of non-contradiction: the law of logic that it is not the case that p and not-p. Contradiction is the final logical stopping point in that if a contradiction can be derived from a set of premises, then at least one of them is false. [Trans.]

17. Felicien Robert Challaye (1875-1967): an anti-colonialist French philosopher and journalist. [Trans.]

18. Felicien Robert Challaye, Shinākht-e Rawishhā-ye ‘Ulūm (Knowledge of the Scientific Methods), trans. Yaḥyā Mahdawī, p. 116.

19. Francis Bacon (1561-1626): an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, and author who established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method or simply, the scientific method. [Trans.]

20. John Stuart Mill (1806-73): a British philosopher, civil servant and an influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy. [Trans.]

21. Murtaḍā Muṭahharī, Uṣūl-e Falsafeh wa Rawish-e Realism (The Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism), vol. 2, p. 97.

22. Sūrat Ṭā Hā 20:5.

23. Shahristānī, Al-Milal wa n-Nihal, vol. 1, p. 93.

24. Abū Muḥammad Sufyān ibn ‘Uyaynah ibn Maymūn al-Hilālī al-Kūfī (725-815 CE): a prominent Sunnī religious scholar in Makkah from the third generation of Muslims referred to as the Tābi‘u al-Tābi‘īn (the Followers of the Followers). [Trans.]

25. SadrṢadr al-Dīn Shīrāzī (1572-1641), better known as Mullā Ṣadrā or S al-Muta’allihīn: the foremost representative of the Illuminationist (ishrāqī) School of Islamic philosophy whose magnum opus is Al-Asfār al-Arba‘ah (The Four Journeys). [Trans.]

26. Ṣadr al-Muta’allihīn, Al-Asfār al-Arba‘ah, vol. 1, introduction.

27. Murtaḍā Muṭahharī, Uṣūl-e Falsafeh wa Rawish-e Realism, vol. 5, p. 11.

28. Uṣūl al-Kāfī, vol. 1, “Kitāb al-‘Aql wa ’l-Jahl,” ḥadīth 12.

29. Nahj al-Balāghah, Sermon 49.

30. Sūrat al-Anfāl 8:22.

31. Sūrat Yūnus 10:100.

32. Sūrat al-Anbiyā’ 21:22.

33. Sūrat al-Mu’minūn 23:91.

34. Sūrat al-Baqarah 2:116-117.

35. See Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn al-Ṭabāṭabā’ī, Al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qur’ān, vol. 11, p. 361.

36. Nahj al-Balāghah (The Peak of Eloquence) is a collection of speeches, sayings and letters of the Commander of the Faithful, Imām ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (‘a) compiled by Sharīf al-Raḍī Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥusayn (d. 406 AH/1016). Its contents concern the three essential topics of God, man and the universe, and include comments on scientific, literary, social, ethical, and political issues. [Trans.]

37. Al-Kāfi: more fully, Al-Kāfi fī ’l-Hadīth, one of the most important Shī‘ah collections of hadīth, compiled by Shaykh Abū Ja‘far Muḥammad ibn Ya‘qūb al-Kulaynī (d. 329 AH/941 CE) and divided into three sections: ah al-Kāfī consisting of 34 books, ūl al-Kāfī, Furū‘ al-Kāfī and Rawd Us 326 sections, and over 16,000 ahādīth that can be traced back to the Prophet and his family by an unbroken chain of transmission. [Trans.]

38. Shaykh aṣ-Ṣadūq: also known as Ibn Babūyah, one of the most important of the early Shī‘ah scholars who died in 381 AH/991 CE. For his short biography and works, see the introduction of Shaykh aṣ-Ṣadūq, I’tiqādātu ’l-Imāmiyyah: A Shī‘ite Creed, 3rd Ed., trans. Asaf A. A. Fyzee (Tehran: World Organization for Islamic Services, 1999), pp. 6-23. [Trans.]

39. Aḥmad ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib al-Ṭabarsī (d. circa 620 AH): a great Shī‘ah scholar, jurisprudent, traditionist (muḥaddith), and historian of the sixth and early seventh century AH. Among his works are Al-Iḥtijāj, Al-Kāfī fī ’l-Fiqh, Tārīkh al-A’immah and Kitāb al-Ṣalāh. [Trans.]

40. Uṣūl al-Kāfī, vol. 1, “Kitāb al-‘Aql wa ’l-Jahl,” ḥadīth 35.

41. Nahj al-Balāghah, Sermon 1.

42. Nahj al-Balāghah, Sermon 49. [Trans.]