Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

A

History

of

Muslim Philosophy

With short accounts of other

Disciplines and the Modern

Renaissance in the Muslim Lands

Edited and Introduced by

M. M. SHARIF

Director of the Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore Pakistan

Published by

Pakistan Philosophical Congress

WWW.ALHASSANAIN.ORG/ENGLISH

A History of Muslim Philosophy

A Compendium of articles on the History of Muslim Philosophy. In this book: Pre-Islamic Philosophical Thought

Publisher(s): Pakistan Philosophical Congress

Miscellaneous information:

With short accounts of other Disciplines and the Modern Renaissance in the Muslim Lands Edited and Introduced by M. M. SHARIF Director of the Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore Pakistan. Published by Pakistan Philosophical Congress http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/hmp/index.html

The Setting of Volumes and Books with the Name of Writers of each Chapters and … is as following:

Volume 1

Book One

Pre-Islamic Philosophical thought

Part 1

Chapter 1: Pre -Islamic Indian Thought, by: C. A. Qadir

Chapter 2: Pre-Islamic Chinese Thought, by: Howard F. Didsbury

Chapter 3: Pre-Islamic Iranian Thought, by: Alessandro Bausani

Chapter 4: Greek Thought by M. M. Sharif

Chapter 5: Alexandrio-Syriac Thought by C. A. Qadir

Part 2

Chapter 6: Pre-Islamic Arabian Thought by: Shaikh Inayatullah

Book Two

Advent of Islam

Fundamental Teachings of the Qur'an

Chapter 7: Philosophical Teachings of the Qur'an by M. M. Sharif

Chapter 8: Ethical Teachings of the Qur'an by B. A. Dar

Chapter 9: Economic and Political Teachings of the Qur'an by Abul Ala Maudoodi

Book Three

Early Centuries (From the First/Seventh Century to the fall of Baghdad)

Part 1: Theologico-Philosophical Movements

Chapter 10: Mu'tazlilism by Mir Valiuddin

Chapter 11: Ash'arism by M. Abdul Hye

Chapter 12: Tahawism by A. K. M. Ayyub Ali

Chapter 13: Maturdism by A. K. M. Ayyub Ali

Chapter 14: Zahirism by Omar A. Farrukh

Chapter 15: Ikhawan al-Safa by Omar A. Farrukh

Part 2: The Sufis

Chapter 16: Early Sufis: Doctrine by M. Hamiduddin

Chapter 17: Early Sufis: (Continued):

Sufis before Hallaj by B. A. Dar

Al-Hallaj by Louis Massignon

Chapter 18: 'Abd al-Qadir Jilani and Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi by B. A. Dar

Chapter 19: Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi al-Maqtul by Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Chapter 20: Ibn 'Arabi by A. E. Affifi

Part 3: The "Philosophers"

Chapter 21: Al-Kindi by Ahmed Fouad El-Ehwany

Chapter 22: Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi by Abdurrahman Badawi

Chapter 23: Al-Farabi by Ibrahim Madkour

Chapter 24: Miskawaih by Abdurrahman Badawi

Chapter 25: Ibn Sina by Fazulr Rahman

Chapter 26: Ibn Bajjah by Muhammad Saghir Hasan al-Ma'sumi

Chapter 27: Ibn Tufail by Bakhtyar Husain Siddiqi

Chapter 28: Ibn Rushd by Ahmed Fouad El-Ehwany

Chapter 29: Nasir al-Din Tusi by Bakhtyar Husain Siddiqi

Part 4: The Middle-Roaders

Chapter 30: Al-Ghazali: Metaphysics by: M. Saeed Sheikh

Chapter 31: Al-Ghazali: (continued

Mysticism by: M. Saeed Sheikh

Ethics by Abdul Khaliq

Influence by: M. Saeed Sheikh

Chapter 32: Fakhr al-Din Razi by Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Part 5: Political thinkers

Chapter 33: Political Thought in Early Islam by Abul Ala Maudoodi

Chapter 34: Abu Hanifah and Abu Yusuf by Abul Ala Maudoodi

Chapter 35: Al-Farabi by Muhammad Saghir Hasan al-Ma'sumi

Chapter 36: Al-Mawardi by Muhammad Qamaruddin Khan

Chapter 37: Political Theory of the Shi'ties by Syed Abid Ali Abid

Chapter 38: Nizam al-Mulk Tusi by M. Rukunuddin Hassan

Chapter 39: Al-Ghazali by Leonard binder

Volume 2

Book Four

LATER CENTURIES (From the Fall of Baghdad[656/1258] TO 1111/1700)

Part 1: The FALL OF BAGHDAD

Chapter 40: Fall of the 'Abbasid Caliphate by Abdul Shakoor Ahsan

Part 2: ThEOLOGICO-PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT

Chapter 41: Ibn Taimiyah by Serajul Haque

Part 3: The SUFIS

Chapter 42: Jalal al-Din Rumi by Khalifah Abdul Hakim

Chapter 43: Mahmud Shabistari, al-Jili and Jami by B. A. Dar

Chapter 44: Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi by Muhammad Farman

Part 4: The "PHILOSOPHERS"

Chapter 45: Jalal al-Din Dawwani by Bakhtyar Husain Siddiqi

Chapter 46: Ibn Khaldun by Muhsin Mahdi

Part 5: The MIDDLE-ROADERS

Chapter 47: The School of Ispahan by Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Chapter 48: Sadr al-Din Shirazi (Mulla Sadra) by Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Part 6: POLITICAL THOUGHT

Chapter 49: Ibn Khaldun by Muhsin Mahdi

Book Five

OTHER DISCIPLINES (Covering both the Early and the Later Centuries)

Part 1: LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Chapter 50: Arabic Literature: Poetic and Prose Forms by S. M. Yusuf

Chapter 51: Arabic Literature: Grammar and Lexicography by S. M. Yusuf

Chapter 52: Arabic Literature: Theories of Literary Criticism by M. Khalaf-allah

Chapter 53: Persian Literature by Sa'id Naficy

Chapter 54: Turkish literature by Meedut Mansuroglu

Part 2: FINE ARTS

Chapter 55: Architecture:

The First Three Centuries of Muslim Architecture by K. A. C. Creswell

Muslim Architecture in Later Centuries by S. Sibte Hasan and M. Abdullah Chaghatai

Chapter 56: Painting by M. Ajmal

Chapter 57: Music by H. G. Farmer

Chapter 58: Music (Continued) by H. G. Farmer

Chapter 59: Minor Arts by Syed Abid Ali Abid

Part 3: SOCIAL STUDIES

Chapter 60: Historiography by I. H. Qureshi

Chapter 61: Jurisprudence by M. Hamidullah

Part 4: THE SCIENCES:

Chapter 62: Geography by Nafis Ahmad

Chapter 63: Mathematics and Astronomy by M. R. Siddiqi

Chapter 64: Physics and Mineralogy by Muhammad Abdur Rahman Khan

Chapter 65: Chemistry by Salimuzzaman Siddiqi and S. Mahdihassan

Chapter 66: Natural History by Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Chapter 67: Medicine by K. S. Shah

Book Six

INFLUENCE OF MUSLIM THOUGHT

Chapter 68: Influence of Muslim Thought on the West:

Western Thinkers on Islam in General

Theological Influence

Philosophical Influence before Descartes by H. Z. Ulken

Philosophical Influence from Descartes to Kant by M. M. Sharif

Philosophical Influence in the Post Kantian period by H. Z. Ulken

Chapter 69: Influence of Muslim Thought on the East by C. A. Qadir

Book Seven

THE DARK AGE: (1111/1700-1266/1850)

Chapter 70: Decline in the Muslim World by C. A. Qadir

Chapter 71: The Silver Lining: Development of the Urdu Language, Grammar, and Literature by S. M. Abdullah

Book Eight

Modern Renaissance (Covering both the Early and the Later Centuries)

Part 1: renaissance in the near and middle east

Chapter 72: Renaissance in Arabia, Yemen, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon: Muhammad Bin 'Abd al-Wahhab and His Movement by Abdul Hamid Siddiqi

Chapter 73: Renaissance in North Africa: The Sanusiyah Movement by Muhammad Khalil

Chapter 74: Jamal al-Din al-Afghani by Osman Amin

Chapter 75: Renaissance in Egypt: Muhammad Abdu and His School by Osman Amin

Chapter 76: Renaissance in Turkey: Zia Gokalp and His School by Niazie Berkes

Chapter 77: Renaissance in Iran: General by Abdul Shakoor Ahsan

Chapter 78: Renaissance in Iran: (Continued) Haji Mulla Hadi Sabziwari by Seyyed Hossein Nasr

Part 2: renaissance in south and south-east asia

Chapter 79: Renaissance in Indo-Pakistan: Shah Wali Allah Dihlawi by Abdul Hamid Siddiqi

Chapter 80: Renaissance in Indo-Pakistan (Continued): Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan as a Politician, Historian and Reformist by Abdul Hamid

Chapter 81: Renaissance in Indo-Pakistan (Continued): Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan as a Religio-Philosopical Thinker by B. A. Dar

Chapter 82: Renaissance in Indo-Pakistan (Continued): Iqbal by KhalifiahAbdul Hakim

Chapter 83: Renaissance in Indonesia by Shaikh Abdur Rashid

CONCLUSION by the Editor, M. M. Sharif

Table of Contents

A History of Muslim Philosophy Volume 1, Book 1: Pre-Islamic Philosophical Thought20

Preface21

Introduction 23

A 23

B 23

C 29

D 31

E 31

F 34

Note36

Chapter 1:Pre-Islamic Indian Thought37

The Vedas37

Vedic Conception of God 38

1. Celestial Gods39

2. Atmospheric Gods39

3. Terrestrial Gods40

Vedic Eschatology 41

Brahmanas41

Upanisads42

The Heterodox Systems48

1. The Carvaka48

2. Jainism 49

3. Buddhism 52

The Philosophical Schools of Buddhism 54

Systems of Indian Philosophy 55

The Influence of Islam on Hinduism 63

Bibliography 64

Notes66

Chapter 2: Pre-Islamic Chinese Thought68

General Works76

Primary Sources77

Confucianism 77

Taoism 77

Mohism 77

Chinese Epicureanism 77

Legalism 77

Notes78

Chapter 3: Pre-Islamic Iranian Thought79

1. The Concept of Myth 82

2. Angelism 84

3. The Double Dualism 89

4. Time and Cycle91

5. Conclusion 95

Bibliography 96

Notes97

Chapter 4: Greek Thought99

The Early Beginnings99

Greek Philosophy in the Mainland and the Islands of Asia Minor100

Ionic Philosophy 100

Thales100

Anaximander100

Anaximenes101

Heraclitus101

Greek Philosophy in South Italy and Sicily 102

1. Pythagoras102

2. The Eleatic School103

3. Empedocles106

Greek Philosophy back to Asia Minor108

1. Anaxagoras and Diogenes of Apollonia108

2. The Atomists110

Lucippus110

Democritus110

Philosophy at Athens112

1. Early Record 112

2. The Sophists112

The Problem of Knowledge and the Study of Man 113

3. Socrates114

4. Plato 116

5. Aristotle122

6. The Decline129

Bibliography 133

Notes133

Chapter 5: Alexandrio Syriac Thought135

The Neo ‑Pythagoreans135

The Jewish‑Alexandrian Philosophy 139

Neo‑Platonism 141

Plotinus141

Porphyry 145

Iamblichus145

Early Christianity 146

References149

Notes149

Chapter 6: Pre Islamic Arabian Thought150

References158

Notes159

A History of Muslim Philosophy Volume 1, Book 2: Advent Of Islam, Fundamental Teachings Of The Qur'an164

Chapter 7: Philosophical Teachings of the Qur’an 165

The Qur'an 165

Ultimate Beauty: God and His Attributes165

He is the One and not one in a trinity 166

God and the World ‑ God is omnipotent167

God's Relation to Man 170

Soul170

Theory of Knowledge170

Man's Power173

Free Will173

Death 173

Life after Death 174

Notes176

Chapter 8: Ethical Teachings of the Qur’an 184

Values184

Life184

Eternity 184

Unity 184

Power186

Truth or Wisdom 187

Justice188

Love188

Goodness189

Beauty 189

Disvalues189

Destruction of Life190

Scandal‑mongering and backbiting 190

Things Momentary 190

Lack of Unity 190

Inertia191

Error192

Hypocrisy 192

Injustice193

Hatred and Unkindness193

Moral Discipline194

Repentance194

Taqwa195

Notes197

Chapter 9: Economic and Political Teachings of the Qur’an 206

Economic Teachings206

Political Teachings214

Notes221

Bibliography 226

A History of Muslim Philosophy Volume 1, Book 3: Early Centuries (From The First/Seventh Century To The Fall Of Baghdad)233

Part 1: Theologico-Philosophical Movements234

Chapter 10: Mu’tazalism 235

The General Mu’tazilite Position 235

Some leading Mu’tazilites239

1. Wasil ibn ` Ata240

2. Abu al‑Hudhail `Allaf242

3. Al‑Nazzam 243

4. Bishr ibn al‑Mu'tamir246

5. Mu'ammar247

Hafiz has expressed the same idea in his own words thus248

6. Thamamah 249

7. Al‑Jahiz249

8. Al‑Jubba'i250

9. Abu Hashim 252

The End 253

Bibliography 253

Notes254

Chapter 11: Ash’arism 255

Al-Ashari’s Life and Work 255

Ash’arite Theology 258

Fundamental Principles Of The Ash'arite Theology 260

1. Conception of God and the Nature of His Attributes260

2. Free will263

3. The Problem of Reason and Revelation and the Criterion of Good and Evil264

4. The Problem of the Eternity of the Qur'an 266

5. The Problem of the Beatific Vision 267

Ash’arite Metaphysics270

Ash'arite Atomism 273

Bibliography 276

Notes277

Chapter 12: Tahawism 279

Tahawi’s Life and Works279

Nature of Faith 281

God’s Essence and Attributes283

Throne of Allah 285

Beatific Vision 285

Speech of God and the Qur'an 286

Divine Will and Human Freedom 288

Conclusion 289

Bibliography 290

Notes290

Chapter 13: Maturidism 294

Life and Works of Maturidi294

Method 296

Criticism of the Mu’taziltes298

Maturidi’s System 299

Relation between God and Man 300

Divine Attributes302

Beatific Vision 304

Conclusion 305

Bibliography 306

Notes307

Chapter 14: Zahirism 310

Background 310

Dawid ibn ‘Ali, His Doctrine and His School311

The Zahirite School in Muslim Spain 314

1. Al-Balluti314

2. Ibn Hazm 314

Life and Works314

Ibn Hazm's Rationalism 315

Philosophy and Science316

Zahirism after Ibn Hazm 320

Bibliography 321

Notes322

Chapter 15: Ikhwan al-Safa325

Introduction 325

System and Theories327

1. Classification of the Sciences327

2. Theory of Knowledge327

3. Metaphysics328

Form and Matter328

Space and Time328

Motion 328

Causality 328

Number329

Being and Emanation 329

Macrocosm and Microcosm 331

The Individual Soul (al‑Nafs al‑Juz'iyyah) and Its Fall331

Lesser and Greater Resurrections, Paradise and Hell333

4. Nature and the Sciences333

5. Psychology 337

6. Politics337

7. Ethics338

8. Education 339

9. Religion 340

Final Note341

Bibliography 341

Notes344

Part 2: The Sufis347

Chapter 16: Early Sufis Doctrine348

A 348

B 350

C 352

Notes369

Chapter 17: Early Sufis (Continued)371

Sufis Before Al Hallaj371

By B.A. Dar371

Al-Hallaj379

By Louis Massignon 379

Bibliography 382

Early Sufis382

Al-Hallaj382

Notes383

Chapter 18: ’Abd Al-Qadir Jilani and Shihab Al-Din Suhrawardi385

Abd Al-Qadir Jilani385

Shihab Al-Din Suhrawardi388

Origin of Sufism 389

What is Sufism?389

Psychology: Soul, Appetitive Self, Heart395

Mystery (Sirr)397

Reason ('Aql)397

State and Station (Hal wa Maqam)398

Love399

Nearness (Qurb)399

Bashfulness (Haya')400

Union (Ittisal)400

Contraction and Expansion (Qabd wa Bast)401

Annihilation and Abiding (Fana' wa Baqa')402

Union and Separation (Jam' wa Tafriqah)403

Process of Self-Purification 403

Bibliography 405

Notes405

Chapter 19: Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul408

Life, Works and Sources of Doctrines408

The Meaning of Ishraq 411

The Orient and Occident in Sacred Geography 413

Hikmat al-Ishraq 415

Vegetative soul (al-nafs al-nabatiyyah):422

Animal soul (al-nafs al-hayawaniyyah):422

The Initiatory Narratives424

The Ishraqi Tradition 425

Bibliography 425

Notes426

Chapter 20: Ibn `Arabi432

Life And Works432

Pattern Of Thought And Style435

Controversy About His Orthodoxy 438

Influence On Future Sufism 440

From Throne to Carpet, all that is doth seem 441

Doctrines441

Unity of All Being 441

Notion of Deity 445

God and Man 446

Ethical and Religious Implications448

Conclusion 451

Bibliography 451

Notes452

Part 3: The Philosophers453

Chapter 21: Al-Kindi454

Life454

Works455

Philosophy 455

Harmony Between Philosophy And Religion 457

God 459

Infinity 461

Soul And Intellect462

Bibliography 464

Notes465

Chapter 22 : Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Al-Razi467

Life467

Al-Razi's Masters and Opponents468

Works469

Philosophy 470

1. Method 470

2. Metaphysics470

(i) God 472

(ii) Soul473

(iii) Matter473

(iv) Space474

(v) Time475

Theology 475

Moral Philosophy 476

Conclusion 478

Bibliography 478

A. Ancient Sources478

B. Modern Studies478

C. Editions of Philosophical Works479

Notes480

Chapter 23: Al-Farabi482

Life482

Works483

Philosophy 485

1. Logic485

2. The Unity of Philosophy 487

3. Theory of the Ten Intelligences488

4. Theory of the Intellect490

5. Theory of Prophecy 492

6. Interpretation of the Qur'an 495

Conclusion 496

Bibliography 497

A. Life497

B. Works497

C. Philosophy 498

Notes498

Chapter 24: Miskawaih 500

Life500

Works500

Miskawaih's Personality 501

Philosophy 501

First Philosophy 501

Psychology 503

Moral Philosophy 504

Spiritual Medicine507

Philosophy of History 508

Bibliography 509

A. Works509

B. Studies509

Notes509

Chapter 25: Ibn Sina511

The Doctrine Of Being 512

The Body-Mind Relationship 517

Theory Of Knowledge522

God And The World 530

Influence On The East And The West532

Bibliography 534

Notes535

Chapter 26: Ibn Bajjah 536

His Predecessors537

His Contemporaries538

Works539

Philosophy 539

Matter And Form 540

Psychology 541

Intellect And Knowledge546

God, The Fountain-Head Of Knowledge550

Political Philosophy 550

Ethics551

Mysticism 552

Bibliography 553

Notes553

Chapter 27: Ibn Tufail555

Life And Works555

Creed Of The Muwahhids556

Hayy Bin Yaqzan 556

Summary 556

Sources557

Object of the Treatise559

Doctrines560

World 560

God 560

Light Cosmology 561

Epistemology 561

Ethics563

Philosophy and Religion 563

Influence564

Bibliography 565

Notes566

Chapter 28: Ibn Rushd 569

Introduction 569

Philosophy And Religion 571

The Way To God 574

The Way To Knowledge577

The Way To Science581

The Way To Being 584

Notes589

Chapter 29: Nasir Al-Din Tusi592

Life592

The Maraghah Observatory 592

Works593

Akhlaq-I Nasiri594

Ethics594

Domestic Science597

Politics598

Source Of Practical Philosophy 599

Psychology 600

Nature of the Soul600

Faeulties of the Soul600

Metaphysics601

God 601

Creatio ex nihilo 602

Prophethood 603

Good And Evil603

Logic604

Review 604

Bibliography 605

Notes606

Part 4: The Middle-Roaders608

Chapter 30: Al-Ghazali Part 1 - Metaphysics609

A. Introduction 609

B. Life609

C. Method 613

D. Attack On The Philosophers616

1. Introduction 616

2. Method and Problems of Tahafut618

2) denial of God’s knowledge of the particulars, and 619

3. Eternity of the World 621

4. Theory of Emanation 623

5. God’s Knowledge of the Particulars629

6. Causality 635

Notes637

Chapter 31: Al-Ghazali Part 2 643

A. Mysticism 643

1. Introduction 643

2. God 644

3. Soul645

4. Religious Experience and Moral and Intellectual Values646

5. Pantheism 647

B. Ethics648

C. Influence660

Bibliography 662

Notes662

Chapter 32: Fakhr Al-Razi667

A. Life, Signficance Of Thought And Works667

C. Philosophy 671

D. The Sciences672

E. Commentaries Upon The Qur’an 673

G. Dialectic, Rhetoric, And Poetry 674

H. Sufism 675

I. The Significance And Influence Of Imam Razi676

Bibliography 676

Notes677

Part 5: Political Thinkers680

Chapter 33: Political Thought In Early Islam 681

A. Principles of Islamic Polity 681

B. Early Caliphate and its Characteristic Features681

Elective Caliphate682

Government by Consultation 683

The Exchequer, a Trust683

Ideal Government684

Rule of Law 685

Absence of Bias685

C. Theological Differences and Schisms686

The Shi‘ah 687

The Khawarij689

The Murji’ah 690

The Mu‘tazilah 691

The Major Section 692

Bibliography 692

Notes694

Chapter 34: Abu Hanifah and Abu Yusuf697

Life697

Abu Hanifah’s Pronouncements and Opinions699

Al-Fiqh al-Akbar699

Abu Hanifah on State and Caliphate703

The Problem of Sovereignty and Legislation 703

Establishment of the Caliphate704

A Caliph’s Qualifications705

The Exchequer and the Public’s Right of Ownership 707

Separation of the Judiciary from the Executive707

Freedom of Expression: A Right and a Duty 709

The Question of Rebellion against Tyrannical Rule709

Private Council and Codification of Islamic Law 710

B. Abu Yusuf713

Brief Life Sketch 714

Kitab al-Kharaj716

Reversion to the “Right-guided” Caliphate717

Spirit of Democracy 718

Duties of the Caliph 718

Duties of Muslim Citizens718

The Exchequer718

Principles of Taxation 719

Rights of non-Muslim Subjects719

Land Settlement720

Redress of Wrong 720

The Judiciary 720

Personal Liberty 720

Jail Reforms721

Bibliography 722

Notes723

Chapter 35: Al-Farabi727

A. Society And Its Goal727

The City State727

Necessity of Society 727

How to Achieve Happiness728

B. Human Nature730

C. Education 731

The Imaginative Virtue732

D. The Chief732

E. Characteristics Of The Chief Of The Ideal State733

F. The Ideal State735

G. Arts And Blessings735

H. Inhabitants Of The Ideal State736

I. Imperfect States736

J. Conclusion 737

Bibliography 738

Notes738

Chapter 36: Al-Mawardi740

A. Life And Works740

B. Political Theory 741

C. Succession 743

D. Designation And Privileges746

E. Duties And Functions Of The Imam 746

F. Deposition Of The Imam 748

G. Conclusion 750

Bibliography 751

Notes751

Chapter 37: Political Theory Of The Shiites753

Political Theory Of The Ismailites756

Bibliography 763

Note765

Chapter 38: Nizam Al-Mulk Tusi766

Bibliogrraphy 786

Notes788

Chapter 39: Al-Ghazali792

Bibliography 802

Notes803