A History of Muslim Philosophy Volume 1

A History of Muslim Philosophy4%

A History of Muslim Philosophy Author:
Publisher: www.muslimphilosophy.com
Category: Islamic Philosophy

Volume 1 Volume 2
  • Start
  • Previous
  • 66 /
  • Next
  • End
  •  
  • Download HTML
  • Download Word
  • Download PDF
  • visits: 71772 / Download: 20886
Size Size Size
A History of Muslim Philosophy

A History of Muslim Philosophy Volume 1

Author:
Publisher: www.muslimphilosophy.com
English

This book is corrected and edited by Al-Hassanain (p) Institue for Islamic Heritage and Thought


1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Chapter 12: Tahawism

Tahawism by A.K.M Ayyub Ali, M.A, Ph.D, Principl Government Rajshahi Madrasah, Rajshahi (Pakistan)

Tahawi’s Life and Works

Abu Ja'far Ahmad b. Muhammad b. Salamah al‑Azdi, al‑Hajri, al‑Tahawi, was born at Taha, a village in Upper Egypt. His forefathers came from the Yemen to Egypt and settled there after it had come under the Muslim rule. There is a considerable difference of opinion as to the year of his birth. The years 229/843, 230/ 844, 238/852 and 239/853 are mentioned by different biographers. Al‑Sam'ani asserts that he was born in 229/843 and this is correct. He died in Egypt in 321/933.1

Al‑Tahawi was mainly interested in Hadith and Fiqh, and was regarded as one of the greatest Muhaddithin and fuqaha' of his time. According to Abu Ishaq al‑Shirazi, he was the last leader of Hanafi Fiqh in Egypt.2

He began to study Shafi'i Law under his maternal uncle abu Ibrahim Ismail al‑Muzani (d. 264/878), the most celebrated pupil of Imam al‑Shafi'i, and then leaving his school he took up the study of Hanafi Law under al‑Shaikh abu Jafar Ahmad b. abi ,`Imran (d. 285/898), who became the Chief Qadi of Egypt in 270/883. Different versions are given by his biographers of his conversion to Hanafi school, but the most probable reason seems to be that the system of Imam abu Hanifah appealed to his critical insight more than that of Imam Shafi`i.

Al‑Tahawi went to Syria in 268/882 for further studies in Hanafi Law and became a pupil of Qadi abu Khazim `Abd al‑Hamid b. Ja'far, the then Chief Justice of Syria.3 He learnt hadith from a large number of Shaikhs especially from those who visited Egypt at his time, and had also many pupils of distinc­tion.4

He is a distinguished author of many important works of which the following may be mentioned here: 1. Sharh Ma'ani al‑Athar, 2. Mushkil al­ Athar, 3. Ahkam al‑Qur'an, 4. Ikhtilaf al‑Ulama', 5. al‑Nawadir al‑Fiqhiyyah, 6. Kitab al‑Shurut al‑Kabir, 7. al‑Shurut al‑Ausat, 8. Sharh al‑Jami` al‑Saghir, 9. Sharh al‑Jami' al‑Kabir, 10. al‑Mukhtasar, 11. Manaqib Abi Hanifah, 12. Tarikh al‑Kabir, 13. al‑Radd `ala Kitab al‑Mudallisin, 14. al‑Radd `ala Abi `Ubaid, 15. al‑Radd `ala `Isa b. Abban, 16. Hukm `Aradi Makkah, etc.

His original contribution to Hadith literature, so far as we can estimate is that he introduced a new system of collecting legal traditions, developed a new method of interpreting and harmonizing the conflicting traditions, and adopted a new criterion for criticizing them. His predecessors and contem­poraries, the authors of al‑Sihah al‑Sittah (the Six Canonical Compilations) collecting traditions according to their own standards and principles, left out a large number of genuine traditions.

Al‑Tahawi made a strenuous effort to collect all the genuine legal traditions of the Prophet, narrated by different authorities on a particular subject, together with the opinions of the Companions of the Prophet, their Successors and the distinguished jurisprudents. He then scrutinized traditions (ahadith) and showed by evidence which of them were authentic, strong, weak, unknown, or such as might be supposed to have been repealed.

Thus, his collection provided for the scholars an un­precedented opportunity to judge for themselves the merits or demerits of a particular tradition. The criterion for judging the genuineness of a tradition, according to the Traditionists in general, was the isnad (chain of the nar­rators), and so they paid greater attention to the scrutiny of the isnad than to the scrutiny of the text (matn) of a tradition. But al‑Tahawi, while scrutiniz­ing a tradition, took into consideration the matn as well as the isnad of the tradition. He also aimed at a harmonizing interpretation in case of conflicting traditions.

Al‑Tahawi, like al‑Maturidi, was a follower of Imam Abu Hanifah (d. 150/ 767) in jurisprudence as well as in theology. He wrote a little treatise on theology named Bayan al‑Sunnah w‑al‑Jama'ah, generally known as al­`Aqidat al‑Tahawiyyah.5

In the introduction to this treatise he says he will give therein an account of the beliefs of the Ahl al‑sunnah w’al‑jama'ah according to the views of Imam Abu Hanifah, Abu Yusuf, and Muhammad al‑Shaibani ‑ the well‑known jurisprudents of the community. So the importance of his creed lies in the fact that it corroborates the views of Imam Abu Hanifah, the founder of the school, that have come down to us from different sources. Al‑Tahawi made no attempt to explain the views of the Imam or to solve the old theological problems by advancing any new arguments. His sole aim was to give a summary of the views of the Imam and to show indirectly that they were in conformity with the traditional views of the orthodox school.

The difference between him and al‑Maturidi the two celebrated authorities on the views of the Imam is quite evident. Al‑Maturidi was a thorough dialectician and his main endeavour was to find out a philosophical basis for the views of the leader and to support these views by scholastic reasoning, and thereby bring them closer to the views of the rationalists.

Al‑Tahawi, as a true traditionist, did not favour, as will be seen, any rational discussion or speculative thinking on the articles of faith, but preferred to believe and accept them without questioning. There is no reference in his creed to the critical examination of the method, sources, and means of knowledge, or the foundation on which his theological system is built. So his system may be termed as dogmatic, while that of al‑Maturidi as critical. The critical method followed by al‑Tahawi in Hadith is quite lacking in theology. Thus, though both of them belong to the same school and uphold faithfully the doctrines of their master, they differ from each other in temperament, attitude, and trends of thought.

In order to indicate the characteristics of the system of al‑Tahawi and to make an estimate of his contributions to theology, we propose to give in the following pages an outline of the views of Imam Abu Hanifah along with the views of both al‑Tahawi and al‑Maturidi on some of the most important theological problems that arose in Muslim theology.

Imam Abu Hanifah directed his movement against the Kharijites, Qadarites, Mu'tazilites, Shiites, Jabrites, the extreme Murji'ites, and the Hashwiyyah, the last being a group of the orthodox people who under the influence of the converted Jews, Christians, and Magians fell into gross anthropomorphism, and ascribed to God all the characteristics of a created being.6

He was the first theologian among the fuqaha' who adopted the principles and method of reasoning and applied them to a critical examination of the articles of faith and the laws of the Shariah. That is why he and his followers were called by the Traditionists the People of Reason and Opinion (ashab al‑ra'i w‑al‑qiyas). This rational spirit and philosophical attitude were more consistently main­tained by al‑Maturidi than by al‑Tahawi. Their views on the nature of faith, attributes of God, beatific vision, divine decree, and human freedom may be mentioned here to indicate the distinctive features of their methods.

Nature of Faith

Faith, according to the well‑known view of Imam Abu Hanifah, consists of three elements: knowledge, belief, and confession; knowledge alone or confession alone is not faith.7 Al‑Maturidi holds the same view and lays emphasis on knowledge (ma'rifah) and belief (tasdiq). But, according to his explanation, knowledge is the basis of faith and confession is not in reality an integral part of faith but only an indication (`alamah) of faith, a condition for enforcement of Islamic laws and enjoyment of the rights and privileges of the Muslim com­munity. So the belief based on the knowledge of God is the basis of faith.8

Al‑Tahawi excludes knowledge from his definition of faith and holds that it consists in believing by heart and confessing by tongue.9

As regards the relation between faith and action Imam Abu Hanifah main­tains that Islam demands from its followers two things: belief and practice, and both are essential for a perfect Muslim. The two are very closely related like back and belly, but they are not identical. Practice is distinct from faith and faith is distinct from practice, but both are essential elements of Islam. “Allah has ordained practice for the faithful, faith for the infidel, and sincerity for the hypocrite.” The term al‑din (religion) includes both faith and action.10

Faith, according to him, is a living conviction of the heart ‑ an absolute and indelible entity having its own existence independent of action. From this definition of faith he arrived at the following conclusions: (a) Faith is not liable to increase or decrease.11 (b) Faith is impaired by doubt.12 (c) The faith­ful are equal in faith but different in degree of superiority regarding practice.13 (d) No Muslim should be declared devoid of faith on account of any sin, if he does not declare it to be lawful. One may be a man of faith with bad be­haviour, but not an infidel.14 (e) A believer who dies unrepentant, even though guilty of mortal sins, will not remain in hell for ever. Allah may grant him for­giveness or punish him in accordance with his sins.15

Pointing out the differences between himself and the Murji'ites, Imam Abu Hanifah says: “We do not say that sins do not harm the faithful, nor do we say that he will not enter hell, nor do we say that he will remain there for ever, although he should be a man of evil practice (fasiq), after having departed from this world as a man of faith. And we do not say that our good actions are accepted and our sins are forgiven, as the Murji'ites say.

But we say that no one who performs a good action, fulfilling all its conditions and keep­ing it free of all defects, without nullifying it by infidelity, apostasy, or bad conduct during any part of his life, shall be neglected by God. God may punish in hell or grant complete forgiveness to a person who commits an evil deed (polytheism and infidelity excluded) and dies without repenting.16

The Kharijites and Mu'tazilites laid so much emphasis on the doctrine of threats (wa`id) that they led the believers to despair and take a depressing view of life; while the Murji'tes emphasized the doctrine of promise (wa'd) so much that they quite endangered the ethical basis of Islam. Imam Abu Hanifah endeavoured to strike a middle course between these two extremes.

Sins, according to him, are not without consequences; a sinner is always liable to blame or punishment, but to drive him out from the fold of Islam, to declare him an infidel, or to condemn him to eternal punishment is quite inconsistent with divine justice. His broad outlook and tolerant attitude were consistently continued by al-Maturidi and al‑Tahawi. The latter has summarized the views of his master on these questions in the following words:

“We do not declare anyone of the people of qiblah an infidel on account of a sin, so long as he does not deem it lawful. And we do not say that sin with faith does no harm to him who commits it. We entertain hope for the righteous among the faithful, but we have no certainty about them, and we do not certify that they will be in paradise. We ask forgiveness for their evil actions and we have fear for them, but we do not drive them into despair. Sense of security and despair both turn a man away from religion. The true way for the people of qiblah lies midway between these two. A faithful servant does not go out of the field of faith except by renouncing what had brought him into it.''17

Al‑Tahawi substituted the phrase ahl al‑qiblah for mu'min and Muslim, evidently to avoid the theological controversies regarding their identification, and to make the circle of the believers wider and at the same tune to give the question a practical bias. He also avoided the theoretical definition of a Muslim or mu'min, and instead described how one could be regarded as such. He says: “We give those who follow our qiblah the name Muslim or mu'min, so long as they acknowledge what the Prophet brought with him and believe in what he said and what he narrated.”18

Knowledge of God and belief in Him may save those who are guilty of mortal sins from eternal punishment, and they may entertain hope of deliverance from hell through divine mercy and the intercession of the righteous. “Those who are guilty of grievous sins will not remain eternally in hell, if they died as unitarians, even if they were not repentant. They are left to God's will and judgment; if He wills He will forgive them out of His kindness, as He has said: ‘Surely Allah will not forgive the setting up of other gods with Himself; other sins He may forgive if He pleases;’19 and if He wills He will punish them in hell in proportion to their sins as demanded by His justice. Then He will bring them out of it through His mercy and the intercession of His obedient people, and finally He will send them to paradise. This is because Allah is the Lord of those who know Him well, and He has not destined them in either world to be like those who denied Him, went astray from His guidance, and did not obtain His help and favour.”20

It may be noticed here that, although al‑Tahawi did not include knowledge in his definition of faith, he was fully conscious of the cognitive aspect of it.

As regards intercession, Imam Abu Hanifah seems to restrict it to the prophets in general and particularly to Prophet Muhammad,21 but al‑Tahawi extends this privilege to the righteous and the pious among the faithful.

As regards the independent character of faith and equality of the faithful, al‑Tahawi says: “Faith is one and the faithful are equal; their comparative eminence lies in fear22 (of Allah), in righteousness, in disobeying lust, and in pursuing what is best. All the believers are friends of the Merciful. The most honourable among them before God are those who are the most obedient and the best followers of the Holy Qur'an.”23

On the question whether it is obligatory for a man to know God before the advent of His messenger, and whether to follow precedence (taqlid)24 is allowed in matters of faith, al‑Tahawi does not express his opinion explicitly, though his master was quite outspoken on these questions. These questions pertain to the Mu'tazilites doctrine of promise and threat (al‑wa'd w’al‑wa'id), which gave rise to the discussion of the nature and value of reason and revelation.

They held that as God has endowed men with reason and they can easily perceive by proper use of this faculty that the world has a creator, it is obligatory on their part to know God even if the call of the Prophet does not reach them. But they were divided as to whether knowledge of God is acquired and a posteriori (kasabi) or necessary and a priori (daruri).25

Imam Abu Hanifah agreed with the Mu'tazilites on the original question and main­tained that “no one can have any excuse for ignorance about his creator, as he sees the creation of the heaven and the earth of his own as well as of others. So even if Allah should not have sent any messenger to the people, it was obligatory on them to know Him by means of their intellect.”

God’s Essence and Attributes

As to the relation between God's essence and attributes Imam Abu Hanifah is stated to have advised his pupils not to enter into discussion on this ques­tion, but to be content with ascribing to God the qualities which He Himself ascribed to Himself.26 He even once declined to discuss this problem with Jahm.27 In order to avoid the difficulties involved in affirming attributes, he simply declared that “they are neither He, nor other than He” (la huwa wa la ghairuhu).28 According to the explanation of al‑Maturidi, this phrase means that the attributes of God are neither identical with nor separate from His essence.29

Al‑Tahawi made no reference to the philosophical problem of the relation between God and His essence, nor did he make a clear distinction between the attributes of essence and those of actions. But he emphatically asserts the eternity of the attributes and says: “Allah has eternally been with His attributes before He created the world and nothing has been added to His qualities after the creation, and as He has been from eternity with His qualities, He will remain with these to eternity . .”30

Expressing his vigorous attitude against the Anthropomorphists he declared “Whosoever attributes to Allah any of the human senses (ma'ani), he becomes an infidel.” The true path lies, he asserts, between tashbih and ta'til. “He who does not guard against denial (of attributes) and assimilation, slips and does not attain tanzih. Verily our Lord the High and Exalted has been attributed with the attribute of oneness and has been qualified with the quality of uniqueness. No one of the creation possesses His qualities. Allah is most high and praise be to Him. He is without limits, ends, elements, limbs, and instru­ments. The six directions do not encompass Him as they do the created things.”31

It may be inferred from the above statement and the similar one in the `Aqidah, that al‑Tahawi is against the literal interpretations of the anthropo­morphic expressions of the Qur'an, such as the face of Allah, His eyes and hands, etc. But he does not indicate what these terms signify. Abu Hanifah clearly states that these terms denote His qualities. Even then he also is not in favour of giving any rational interpretation of them, as he fears that this may lead to the denial of His qualities.

He says: “He has hand, face, and soul as mentioned in the Qur’an, and whatever Allah mentioned in the Qur'an as face, hand, or soul is unquestionably His quality. It should not be said with the Qadarites and the Mu'tazilites that by His hand is meant His power or His bounty, because this leads to the rejection of certain attributes. Nay, His hand is His attribute without description.”32

The Imam had also adopted the principle of leaving the judgment to God (tafwid)33 regarding the interpretation of the ambiguous verses of the Qur'an; al‑Tahawi stuck to this principle very consistently.

He says: “The foot of Islam does not stand firm but on the back of submission and surrender. Who­soever wishes to attain that knowledge which was forbidden for him and whose intelligence does not remain content with submission, his desire certainly hinders him from access to pure concept of unity (tawhid), clear knowledge, and correct faith, and he then wavers between faith and infidelity, belief and disbelief, confession and denial as a sceptic, distracted, eccentric, and fugitive person without being a faithful believer or a faithless disbeliever.”34

The attitude of al‑Maturidi on this question is more rational and liberal than that of al‑Tahawi. According to the former, leaving judgment to God and passing an interpretative judgment for oneself are both allowed; and he is in favour of interpreting them in the light of explicit verses of the Qur'an.35

Throne of Allah

Regarding the Throne of Allah (‘arsh) as mentioned in the Qur'an,36 Abu Hanifah maintains that the expression should not be taken in the literal sense to mean a particular place. God being the creator of place cannot be thought of to be limited by place. He is where He has been before the creation of place. Abu Muti` al‑Balkhi, one of the disciples of the Imam, asked him, “What will you say if anyone asks: `Where is Allah the Exalted?”' He replied: “He should be told that Allah has been existing while there was no place before He created the universe; He has been existing while there was no `where (aina), no created being, nor anything else. He is the creator of everything.”37

Refuting the idea of the Anthropomorphists that God is in a particular place, he declared: “ We confess that Allah has seated Himself on the Throne without any necessity on His part, and without being fixed on it. If He had been under any necessity, He would not have been able to create the world and would have governed it like the created beings; and if He should feel any necessity to sit down and remain seated, where then was He before the creation of the Throne? God is exalted and high far above such ideas.”38

It is evident that, according to Abu Hanifah, God, being eternal and in­corporeal, cannot be conceived as being encompassed by direction and place. Al‑Tahawi, as has been quoted above, firmly holds this view. “God is without limits, ends, elements, limbs, and instruments. The six directions do not encompass Him as they encompass the created things.”39 Referring to the Throne and the Chair, he states: “The Throne and the Chair are realities as Allah described them in His honoured Book. But He is not in need of the Throne nor of what is besides the Throne. He encompasses everything and is above everything.40

Al‑Maturidi went a step further to allow rational interpretation of those verses, the apparent sense of which created an impression of His being in a place. He refuted the view of those who thought that the Throne was a par­ticular place and God was on it, in it, or encompassed by it, as well as the views of those who thought that He was in every place.

According to him, God being eternal, infinite, and incorporeal is free of time and space which imply rest, change, motion, and movement. Explaining the verses41 which were interpreted to prove His being in a particular place or in every place by the champions of these views, he asserts that these verses refer to His creative function, controlling power, absolute authority, sovereignty, eternity, and infinitude and indirectly prove that He is above the limitations of time and space.42

Beatific Vision

This question was discussed with much fervour by the Companions of the Prophet. Besides their intense love of God and an ardent desire to enjoy the happiness of seeing their Lord in the next world, the accounts of Ascension (mi'raj), and the prayer of Moses to have a vision of his Lord as referred to in the Qur'an,43 aroused in them fervent zeal for a discussion of this topic. It seems quite certain that as a result of this discus­sion they arrived at the following conclusions: (a) God is invisible in this world; no human being saw Him or will ever see Him in this world44 except the Prophet Muhammad who, according to some of them, saw Him on the night of mi'raj; (b) God will be seen by the faithful in paradise.45

The eager inquiries of the Companions of the Prophet whether he saw his Lord46 or whether believers will see Him in the next world47 and the vehement opposition of a group of leading Companions, including `A'ishah, to the common belief that the Prophet saw his Lord,48 all clearly indicate that the Companions were fully conscious of the difficulties involved in answering these questions.

Their standpoint on this question, like that on the problem of essence and attributes was just to believe and refrain from a detailed discussion of such matters as cannot be comprehended by human reason. The seeing of God in paradise was regarded by them as the highest blessing and happiness for the believers and the summum bonum of their life. They believed in it without description (wasf) or rational explanation. (ta'wil).

The Anthropomorphists, in the subsequent period, found in this belief a strong basis for their gross and crude anthropomorphic conception of God. As God will be seen in paradise He must have body and form and may be seen in this world, nay, He may even assume the form of a beautiful man.49

It was Jahm who, in order to oppose tashbih, laid great emphasis on tanzih and quite consistently with his idea of abstract God denied for the first time, according to our present information, the vision of God in paradise.50 The Mu'tazilites adopted this view and interpreted the beatific vision allegorically. Imam Abu Hanifah upheld the view of the Companions and discarded both anthropomorphic and allegorical interpretation of “seeing God.”

God will be seen by the faithful in paradise, he maintains, with their bodily eyes, but without any idea of place, direction, distance, comparison, or modality and without any description.51 Al‑Tahawi maintains the same position and em­phasizes that beatific vision is an article of faith and it must be accepted with­out any doubt, without any rational interpretation, and without any idea of anthropomorphism. Any attempt to interpret it by reason will amount, according to him, to the denial of this tenet.52

Al‑Maturidi also supported this orthodox view and opposed tashbih and ta'wil and showed by elaborate discussion that the verses of the Qur'an and the traditions of the Prophet on this question do not allow any allegorical interpretation. His main argument, as we have already seen, is that the conditions of seeing a physical object in this world should not be applied to seeing God who has no body and no form and is not limited by time and space, and that too in the next world where nature of things and state of affairs would be quite different from what pre­vails here.53

Speech of God and the Qur'an

Speech (kalam), according to Abu Hanifah, is an attribute of God pertaining to His essence and is eternal like all other divine attributes, and God speaks by virtue of this eternal speech.54 As regards the relation between kalam of Allah and the Qur'an, he says: “We confess that the Qur'an is the uncreated speech of Allah; inspiration or revelation from Him is neither He nor other than He, but His quality in reality, written in the copies, recited by the tongues, and preserved in the breasts. The ink, the paper, the writing are created, for they are works of men.

The speech of Allah, on the other hand, is uncreated; the writings, the letters, the words, and the verses are signs (dalalat)55 of the Qur'an for the sake of human needs. The speech of Allah is self‑existing and its meaning is understood by means of these symbols. Whosoever says that the speech of Allah is created, he is an infidel: His speech, though recited, written, and retained in the hearts, is yet never dissociated from Him.”56

Abu Hanifah thus refutes the ideas of the Mu'tazilah who denied the attribute of speech being identical with divine essence and declared the Qur'an to have been created, as well as the ideas of those Mushabbihah and Hashwiyyah (extreme orthodox) who thought that divine speech, like human speech, con­sists of words and sounds and that the script in which the Qur'an was written was as eternal as the Qur'an itself.57

Kalam of Allah, according to him, is not identical with His Being, for this will make His Being complex and lead to the plurality of Godhead; nor can it be something other than Himself, for this will mean that He acquired a new quality and became what He was not before. This also implies imperfection and change in the divine nature; hence absurd. Divine speech, therefore, must be eternal, and as the Qur'an is uni­versally accepted to be the speech of Allah, it is necessarily uncreated.

Al‑Tahawi treated this subject with great caution and condemned controversies about the Qur'an and practically declined to enter into a philosophical discussion on the nature of divine speech. He says: “Verily the Qur'an ‑ the kalam of Allah ‑ originated (bada`) from Him as words without description (bila kaifiyyah) and He sent it down to His Prophet as revelation; and the faithful believed it to be truly as such, and they knew for certain that it was in reality the kalam of Allah, the Exalted, not created like the speech of the created beings. So whoever supposes it to be human speech is an infidel.”58

The main point of controversy, it may be mentioned here, between the Jahmiyyah and Mu'tazilah, on the one hand, and the orthodox, on the other, was on the nature of the divine word and its relation to the Qur'an, after they had all agreed that the Qur'an was the revealed book of Allah. So al‑Tahawi, in fact, bypassed the main point at issue. He also made no reference to the relation of the speeches of created beings or that of Allah's word addressed to them such as to the Prophet Moses, as mentioned in the Qur'an, with the eternal speech‑a problem, which evidently bewildered the minds of Ja'd, Jahm, and their followers. Abu Hanifah sought to remove this doubt with reference to the eternal divine attributes of knowing and creating. “Allah had indeed been speaking before He spoke to Moses, as Allah had indeed been creating from eternity before creating any creatures.

So, when He spoke to Moses, He spoke to him with His speech which is one of His eternal attributes.” Similarly, “whatever Allah mentions in the Qur'an, quoting from Moses and other prophets and from Pharaoh and Iblis, is the eternal speech of Allah about them. The speech of Allah is uncreated, but the speech of Moses and other created beings is created. The Qur'an is the speech of Allah and not their speech; therefore, it is eternal.”59

Divine Will and Human Freedom

The all‑pervading will of God, His eternal decree (qadar) and infinite power, on the one hand, and freedom of the human will and action, on the other, are equally stressed in the Qur'an.60

According to the Qur'an, divine will, decree, and power are not inconsistent with human freedom. These problems were discussed by the Prophet and his Companions. Belief in qadar was declared by the Prophet as an article of faith, but at the same time he asserted that qadar does not deprive a man of his freedom in his limited sphere.

Thus, according to the Qur'an and the Tradition, God is the creator of all things including their nature, and nothing can go against this nature. He is the creator of the human soul and its nature and He has created in it free­will and bestowed upon it the faculty of knowing, thinking, and distinguishing and the power of judging, choosing, and selecting. God, being the omniscient creator, knows from eternity what His creatures will do in future ‑ this is the “writing of the destiny” and “the eternal divine decree.”61

That the Prophet laid stress both on qadar and human freedom and on the possibility of human action side by side with divine action, is also evident from his famous saying on natural religion (din al‑fitrah): “Every child at birth is born in the fitrah, then it is his parents who make of him a Jew, a Christian, or a Magian.” This is testified by the Qur'anic verse, “The fitrah of Allah in which He hath created mankind, there is no change.”62

The sayings of the Prophet that divine decree comprises all human care and precautions for life, that prayer can change destiny,63 and that God has provided remedy for every disease,64 and similar other traditions also clearly indicate that the divine decree is not despotic or tyrannical in its nature and that it does not imply any compulsion, nor is it inconsistent with freedom and responsibility.

The Companions of the Prophet also believed both in qadar and human freedom and emphatically denied the idea of compulsion (jabr). Some promi­nent Companions explained qadar as foreknowledge. Abu Musa al‑Ash`ari said: “God decreed as He knew.”65 `Abd Allah b. `Amr (d. 63/682) used to say: “The Pen has dried up according to the knowledge of God.”66

`Ali (d. 40/661) gave a clear exposition of his view on the problem and said: “Perhaps you think that the judgment (qada') is binding and the decree (qadar) is final. Had it been so, then reward and punishment would be meaning­less and the promise and threat null and void, and no reproach then should have come from Allah against a sinner and no promise for a righteous person. This is the view of the brethren of Satan Verily Allah has enjoined discre­tion, issued prohibitions, and given warnings. He has not burdened (men) with compulsion, nor has He sent the prophets in vain . .”67

Imam Abu Hanifah made a bold attempt to harmonize the contradictory views of the self‑determinists and the predeterminists by explaining the nature of divine power, will, and decree and enunciating the doctrines of natural religion (din al‑fitrah), divine help, and guidance (taufiq), abandoning (khadh­lan) and acquisition (kasb). God had knowledge concerning things before they existed from eternity, and His will, decree, decision, and writing on the Pre­served Tablet are in accordance with this foreknowledge. So the eternal decree is of a descriptive nature and not of a decisive nature. God created men with natural dispositions (fitrah), endowed them with intellect, then addressed them and commanded them through His messenger to believe and abstain from unbelief.

Thereupon some people deviated from this natural religion, disavowed truth, and turned to unbelief. This unbelief is their own act, their own acquisition, preferred by their free‑will, which God created in them, and is not due to any compulsion from Him, but due to His leaving them to themselves. Those who clung to their nature received divine help and guidance. “Allah did not compel any of His creatures to be infidel or faithful, and He did not create them either as faithful or infidel, but He created them as individuals, and faith and unbelief are acts of men All the acts of man, his moving as well as his resting, are truly his own acquisition, but Allah creates them and they are caused by His will, His knowledge, His decision, and His decree.” But while good actions are according to His desire, pleasure, judgment, command, and guidance, evil actions are not in accordance with these.68

Al‑Maturidi, as we have already noticed, explained this view quite elaborately and laid emphasis on the freedom of acquisition and choice. Al‑Tahawi dis­courages all speculative thought on the subtle and mysterious question of predestination (taqdir), because this may lead one to despair and disobedience.69 But he asserts that all human actions are creations in relation, to God and acquisition an relation to men, and God is never unjust to them so as to burden them beyond their power and capacity.70

Conclusion

It will be noticed from what has been said in the foregoing pages that al­-Tahawi did not introduce any new doctrine or system in theology, but sum­marized faithfully and honestly the views of his master on important theological questions, in his own language. So “Tahawism,” in fact, does sot imply a new school of thought in Islamic theology; it is only another version of Imam Abu Hanifah's theological system. The importance of al‑Tahawi’s creed, mainly consists in the fact that it makes the position of his master quite clear. Imam Abu Hanifah occupied so important a place in theology and law and his system exerted so much influence on the educated mind that the Mu'tazil­ites, the Murji'iites, and the orthodox equally claimed him for themselves. The Mu'tazilites for this reason even denied his authorship of any book in theology.71

Prominent pupils of Imam Abu Hanifah and his followers mainly engaged themselves in a close study of the problems of practical life, and generally it was they who occupied the posts of judges and legal advisers during the reign of the `Abbasids and even afterwards. By virtue of their work they could get little time for a detailed study of speculative theology.72

Their trends of mind also, it appears, were not in favour of pure speculation. Their time, energy, and genius were devoted to legal studies, and theological speculation was left for others. Thus, their contribution to theology is negli­gible in contrast to their contributions to law and jurisprudence. A few of them, like Hammad and Isma'il, the son and grandson of Abu Hanifah, Bishr al‑Marisi, Hafs al‑Fard, Bishr b. Walid, Muhammad b. Shuja', and others who took some interest in theology, could not quite consistently explain and expand the views of their leader.

During the reign of al‑Mamun and his immediate successors, the Hanafi judges openly supported the Mu'tazilites' stand on some of the controversial questions and co‑operated with the rulers in suppressing the views of the extreme orthodox. Besides the Mu'tazilites and the Murji'ites, the followers of Imam Abu Hanifah themselves were divided in interpreting his views.

Al‑Tahawi, like al‑Maturidi, rendered valuable services in removing the doubts and confusions and making the position of the Imam quite clear. The influence of al‑Tahawi on theology can easily be estimated from the nume­rous commentaries written on his creed. In short, al‑Tahawi's credit lies in the fact that he very nicely and elegantly presented the summaries of the views of Imam Abu Hanifah, the first founder of the theological school of Ahl al-sunnah ‑ summaries for which he must have relied, besides the latter's works, on other reliable sources which had already received recognition from a large number of orthodox people.

Bibliography

Al‑Sam'ani, al‑Ansab, Leiden, 1912; Ibn Qutlubugha, Taj al‑Tarajim, 1862; Ibn al‑Nadim, al‑Fihrist, Cairo, 1348/1929; 'Abd al‑Qadir al‑Qarashi, al‑Jawahir at‑Mud'iyyah, Hyderabad, 1332/1913; Jalal al‑Din Suyuti, Husn al‑Muhadarah; Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al‑A'yan; al‑Dhahabi, Tadhkirat al‑Huffaz, Hyderabad, 1334/1915; 'Abd al‑Hayy Lakhnawi, al‑Fawa'id al‑Bahiyyah, Cairo, 1324/1906; Muhammad Zahid al‑Kauthari, al‑Hawi, Cairo, 1368/1948; Sadr al‑Din 'Ali b. Muhammad al‑Adhra'yi, Kitab Sharh al‑Tahawiyyah fi al‑'Aqidat al‑Salafiyyah. Mecca, 1349/1930;

Abu Hanifah, al‑'alim w‑al‑Muta'allim, ed. Muhammad Zahid al‑Kauthari; al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, Hyderabad; al‑Qari, Sharh al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar; Sharh al‑Wafiyyah, Hyderabad; ibn 'Abd al‑Barr, al‑Intiqa. Cairo, 1350/1931; al‑Ash'ari, Maqalat, Cairo, 1950; Maturidi, Kitab al‑Tauhid, MS. Cambridge; Sharh al‑Taha­wiyyah, Mecca, 1349/ 1930; al‑Taftazani, Sharh al‑'Aqa'id al‑Nasafiyyah, Cawnpore. 1347/1928; al‑Tahawi, Bayan al‑Sunnah w‑al‑Jama'ah, Halab, 1344/1925; al ­Biyadi, Isharat; al‑Makki, al‑Manaqib; Bukhari and Muslim, “Kitab al‑Qadar”; Wali al‑Din, Mishkat al‑Masabih, Delhi; ibn Hajar, Lisan al Mizan; Yaqut, Mu'jam; Yafi'i, Mir'at; Haji Khalifah, Kashf al‑Zunun; al‑Murtada al‑Zabidi, al‑Munyat w‑al‑'Amal, Hyderabad; Tash Kubrazadah, Miftah al‑Sa'adah, Hyderabad.

Notes

1. Al‑Sam'ani, al‑Ansab, Leiden, 1912, fol. 368; Ibn Qutlubugha, Taj al‑Tarajim, ed. G. Flugel, Leipzig, 1862, p. 6; Ibn al‑Nadim, al‑Fihrist, Cairo, 1348/1929, p. 292; `Abd al‑Qadir al‑Qarashi, al‑Jawahir al‑Mud'iyyah, Hyderabad, 1332/1913, Vol. I, pp. 102‑05; Jalal al‑Din, al‑Suynti, Husn al‑Muhaddrah,Vol. I, p. 147; Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al‑A'yan,Vol. I, p. 19; al‑Dhahabi, Tadhkirat al‑Huffaz, Hyderabad, 1334/1915, Vol. III, p. 28; `Abd al‑Hayy Lakhnawi, al‑Fawa'id al‑Bahiyyah, Cairo, 1324/1906, pp. 31‑34.

2. Al‑Dhahabi, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 28; al‑Suyuti, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 147.

3. Cf. authorities cited above.

4. Muhammad Zahid al‑Kauthari, al‑Hawi, Cairo, 1368/ 1948, pp. 6‑11; al‑Qarashi, op. cit.; Lisan al‑Mizan.

5. The `Aqidah was published in Halab in 1344/1925. Several commentaries were written on this creed (cf. Kashf al‑Zunun, Istanbul, II, 1143) one of which named Kitab Sharh al‑Tahawiyyah fi al‑`Aqidat al‑Salafiyyah was published at Makkah in 1349/1930, and was ascribed to Sadr al‑Din 'Ali b. Muhammad al‑Adhra'yi.

6. It was `Abd Allah ibn Saba, a convert from Judaism, who introduced and propagated anthropomorphic ideas among the Muslims during the caliphate of 'Ali. The foreign influence is traceable at the background of all sorts of ideas of tashbih, tajsim, and hulul (cf., al. Shahrastani, al‑Baghdadi). The anthropomorphic expressions in the Qur'an were never understood by the Prophet or his Com­panions in the strict literal sense.

7. Abu Hanifah, Al‑'alim w‑al‑Muta'allim, ed. Muhammad Zahid al‑Kauthari, pp. 13, 29, idem, al‑Wasiyyah, MS. Cairo, pp. 1, 2; al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, Hyderabad, p. 11; al‑Qari, Sharh Fiqh al‑Akbar, pp. 76 et sqq.; Sharh Wasiyyah, Hyderabad, p. 75; ibn Abd al‑Barr al‑Intiqa, Cairo, 1350/1931, p. 168; al‑Ash'ari, Maqalat, Cairo, 1950, Vol. I. p. 202.

8. Maturidi, Kitab al‑Tauhid, MS. Cambridge, pp. 193 et sqq.; al‑Makki, Manaqib Abi Hanifah, Vol. I, p. 148; Sharh al‑Tahawiyyah, Makkah, 1349/1930, p. 261; al‑Taftazani, Sharh al‑`Aqa'id al‑Nusafiyyah, Cawnpore, 1347/1928, p. 91.

9. Al‑Tahawi, Bayan al‑Sunnah w‑al‑Jama'ah, Halab, 1344/ 1925, p. 7.

10. Al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, pp. 10‑11; al‑Wasiyyah, MS. Cairo, p. 2; Sharh al‑Wasiyyah. p. 78 ; al‑`Alim w-al Muta'allim, pp. 12 et sqq.; Risalat Abi Hanifah, ed. al‑Kauthari, pp. 35 et sqq.

11. Al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, p. 10; al‑Wasiyyah, p. 2; al‑`Alim w‑al Muta'allim. pp. 14 et sqq.; Sharh al‑ Wasitiyyah, p. 76; al Qari, Sharh al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, pp. 78 et sqq.; Abu al‑Muntaha, Sharh al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, Hyderabad, pp. 58 et sqq.

12. Al‑Wasiyyah, p. 2; Sharh al‑Wasiyyah, p. 77 ; al‑Fiqh al‑Absat ed. al‑Kauthari, pp. 45 et sqq.; Musnad al‑Imam al‑A'zam, ed. Muhammad `Abid al‑Sindhi, Lucknow, 1316/1898, p. 12.

13. Al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, p. 10; al‑`Alim w‑al‑Muta'allim, pp. 14, et sqq.; Sharh al­-Wasiyyah, p. 76.

14. Al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, p. 9; al‑Fiqh al Absat, pp. 41 et sqq.; Risalat Abi Hanifah, p. 37; al‑`Alim w‑al‑Muta'allim, pp. 25 et sqq.; al‑Makki, op. cit.,Vol. I, pp. 78et a'qq.; Musnad al‑Imam al A'zam, p. 10.

15. Musnad al‑Imam al‑A'zam. pp. 11 et sqq.

16. Abu Hanifah, al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar.

17. Al‑Tahawi, al‑'Aqidah, p. 7.

18. Ibid., p. 7 .

19. Qur'an, iv, 48.

20. Al‑Tahawi, al‑'Aqidah, p. 8.

21. Al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, p. 11.

22. In the printed text the word is al‑Haqiqah which most probably is al ­Khashiyyah, cf.Sharh al‑Tahawiayah, p. 261.

23. Al‑`Aqidah, pp. 7‑8.

24. To act or believe on the authority of others.

25. Cf. the views of the Mu`tazilites, especially of `Allaf and al‑Nazzam, in al­-Badghadi's al‑Farq and Usul al‑Din, and al‑Shahrastani's Milal. This question was discussed by the Mu'tazilites, by Ghailan al‑Dimashqi (prose­cuted by Hisham b. `Abd al‑Malik [d. 125/743]),who taught that knowledge is of two kinds: natural or instinctive (fitri)and acquired (muktasab). Faith, according to him, is the rational knowledge, not the instinctive knowledge. (Milal,Vol. I, p. 274; al‑Farq, p. 125; Maqalat,Vol. I, p. 200.)

26. Al‑Biyadi, Isharat, p. 149.

27. Al‑Makki, al‑Manaqib, Vol. I, p. 145.

28. Al‑Wasiyyah, p. 4; al‑Biyadi, op. cit., p. 118.

29. Al‑Isharat, p. 118; Sharh al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, ascribed to al‑Maturidi, Hyder­abad, p. 19.

30. al‑`Aqidah, p. 4.

31. Ibid., p. 5.

32. Al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, p. 6.

33. Leaving the true meaning to the knowledge of Allah.

34. Al‑`Aqidah, p. 4.

35. See the chapter on al‑Maturidi.

36. Qur’an, vii, 54; xx, 5; xxx, 75; lix, 17, etc.

37. Al‑Fiqh al‑Absat, p. 57.

38. Al‑Wasiyyah, pp. 3‑4; Sharh al‑Wasiyyah, p. 81; Isharat, p. 195.

39. al‑`Aqidah, p. 5.

40. This translation is according to the text given in the Sharh al‑Tahaiyyah, p. 213.

41. Such verses of the Qur'an as vii, 54; xx, 5; xliii, 84; lix,17; 1, 16; ivi, 58; lviii, 7.

42. Kitab al‑Tawhid, pp. 32‑37; Ta'wilat, Surah vii, 54; xx, 5.

43. Qur'an, vii, 143.

44. “None among you will ever see his Lord till he dies” is a saying of the Prophet, Isharat, p. 65.

45. Traditions on this point have been narrated by more or less thirty Companions: Sharh al‑Tahawiyyah, p. 24; Isharat, p. 205.

46. Ibn Kathir, Tafsir, Vol. III, p. 9; al‑Nawawi, Sharh Muslim, Cairo, 1929, Vol. III, p. 12.

47. Al‑Nawawi, op. cit., Vol. III, pp. 17 et sqq.

48. Ibid., pp. 8, et sqq.; Isharat, p. 317; Ibn Kathir, Tafsir,Vol. II, pp. 161 et sqq.; Vol. IV, pp. 247 et sqq.

49. Al‑Ash'ari, Maqalat, Vol. I, p. 263.

50. Shahrastani, Milal, Vol. I, p. 137

51. Al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, p. 10; al‑Wasiyyah, p. 7 ; Sharh al‑Wasiyyah, p. 97 ; Isharat, p. 201.

52. Al‑'Aqidah, p. 4.

53. Cf. the chapter on Maturidism.

54. Al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, p. 5.

55. In one MS. the word. is alah. (instrument).

56. Al‑W'asiyyah, p. 4; Sharh al‑W'asiyyah, pp. 82‑83.

57. Al‑Ash'ari, Al‑Irshad, pp. 128‑29.

58. Al‑`Aqidah, p. 3; cf. p. 7.

59. Abu Hanifah, al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, pp. 5‑6.

60. Qur'an, vi, 39, 125, 149; xxii, 14; lxxxv, 16; lxxxvi, 30; liv, 49 and other verses referring to the divine will and decree. And the verses: iv, 111; x, 44, 108; xi, 101; xiii, 11; xvii, 15‑17; 84; xviii, 29; xli. 46: x1v. 15, and many others refer to freedom.

61. Cf. also verses of the Qur'an, 1, 4, 16.

62. Bukhari and Muslim, “Kitab al‑Qadar”; also Qur'an, xxx, 30.

63. Tirmidhi, “Kitab al‑Qadar.”

64. Mishkat, “Kitab al‑Tibb.”

65. Al‑Biyadi, op. cit., p. 33. This sentence has been chosen by Bukhari as the heading of a section of “Kitab al‑Qadar” in his Sahih.

66. Wali al‑Din, Mishkat al‑Masabih, Delhi, Ch. “Qadar,” p. 22.

67. Al‑Murtada al‑Zabidi, al‑Munyat al‑`Amal. Hyderabad, 1920, p. 7.

68. Al‑Fiqh al‑Akbar, pp. 7‑8; al‑Wasiyyah, pp. 3, 5‑6; Sharh al‑Wasiyyah, pp. 79‑80, 84‑85; cf. al‑Makki, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 104; al Bazzazi, al‑Manaqib, Vol. II, p. 84; ibn `Abd al‑Barr, al‑Insab, pp. 164‑65.

69. Al‑`Aqidah, p. 5.

70. Ibid., p. 11.

71. Al‑Bazzazi, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 107; Tash Kubrazadah, Miftah al Sa’adah, Hyderabad, 1328/1910, Vol. II, p. 29.

72. Some books on theology were written by Muhammad al‑Shaibani, al‑Hasan b. Ziyad and Zufar b. Hudhail‑all pupils of Abu Hanifah.

Chapter 7: Philosophical Teachings of the Qur’an

Philosophical Teachings of the Qur’an by M.M Sharif

The Qur'an

Although the Scriptures revealed to the earlier prophets, especially those of the Christians and the Jews, are regarded by the Muslims as holy, yet the Book (al‑Qur'an) revealed to the last Prophet, Muhammad, is their chief sacred Book. The doctrine propounded by the Qur'an is not a new doctrine, for it is similar to the Scriptures of the earlier apostles.1 It lays down the same way of faith as was enjoined on Noah and Abraham.2

It con­firms in the Arabic tongue what went before it, the Book of Moses and the Gospel of Jesus‑in being a guide to mankind, admonishing the unjust and giving glad tidings to the righteous.3 God never abrogates or causes to be for­gotten any of His revelations, but according to the needs and exigencies of the times, He confirms them or substitutes for them something similar or better.4

The Qur'an is a book essentially religious, not philosophical, but it deals with all those problems which religion and philosophy have in common. Both have to say something about problems related to the significance of such ex­pressions as God, the world, the individual soul, and the inter‑relations of these; good and evil, free‑will, and life after death.

While dealing with these problems it also throws light on such conceptions as appearance and reality, existence and attributes, human origin and destiny, truth and error, space and time, permanence and change, eternity and immortality.

The Qur'an claims to give an exposition of universal truths with regard to these problems ­an exposition couched in a language (and a terminology) which the people immediately addressed, the Arabs, with the intellectual background they had at the time of its revelation, could easily understand, and which the people of other lands, and other times, speaking other languages, with their own intel­lectual background could easily interpret. It makes free use of similitude to give a workable idea of what is incomprehensible in its essence.

It is a book of wisdom,5 parts of which relate to its basic principles, (umm al‑kitab) and explain and illustrate them in detail, others relate to matters explained alle­gorically. It would be a folly to ignore the fundamentals and wrangle about the allegorical, for none knows their hidden meanings, except God.6 In what follows, a brief account is given of the Qur'anic teaching with regard to the religio‑philosophical problems mentioned above.

Ultimate Beauty: God and His Attributes

The Ultimate Being or Reality is God.7 God, as described by the Qur'an for the understanding of man, is the sole self‑subsisting, all‑pervading, eternal, and Absolute Reality.8 He is the first and the last, the seen and the unseen.9 He is transcendent in the sense that He in His full glory cannot be known or experienced by us finite beings‑­beings that can know only what can be experienced through the senses or otherwise and what is inherent in the nature of thought or is implied by it. No vision can grasp Him. He is above all comprehension.10

He is transcendent also because He is beyond the limitations of time, space, and sense‑content. He was before time, space, and the world of sense came into existence. He is also immanent both in the souls (anfus) and the spatio‑temporal order (afaq). Of the exact nature of God we can know nothing. But, in order that we may apprehend what we cannot comprehend, He uses similitudes from our expe­rience.11

He “is the light of the heavens and the earth. The parable of His light is as if there were a niche and within it a lamp, the lamp enclosed in glass; the glass as if it were a brilliant star lit from a blessed tree, an olive, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil is well‑nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: light upon light !”12 .

Likewise for our understanding, He describes through revelation His attributes by similitude from what is loft­iest in the heavens and the earth13 and in our own experience14 (our highest ideals).

This He does in a language and an idiom which the people addressed to may easily understand.15 These attributes are many and are connoted by His names,16 but they can all be summarized under a few essential heads: Life,17 Eternity,18 Unity,19 Power,20 Truth,21 Beauty,22 Justice,23 Love,24 and Goodness.25

As compared to the essence of God, these attributes are only finite approaches, symbols or pointers to Reality and serve as the ultimate human ideals, but though signs and symbols, they are not arbitrary symbols. God has Himself implanted them in our being. For that reason they must, in some sense, be faithful representations of the divine essence. They must at least be in tune with it, so that in pursuing them we human beings are truly in pursuit of what is at least in harmony with the essence of God, for they are grounded in that essence.

God is, thus; a living, self‑subsisting,26 eternal, and absolutely free creative reality which is one, all‑powerful, all‑knowing, all‑beauty, most just, most loving, and all good.

As a living reality God desires intercourse with His creatures and makes it possible for them to enter into fellowship with Him through prayer, contemplation, and mystic gnosis, and lights with His light the houses of those who do not divert from His remembrance, nor from prayer nor from the prac­tice of regular charity.27

His life expresses itself also through His eternal activity and creativeness. God is one and there is no god but He.28 He is the only one29 and there is none like Him.30 He is too high to have any partners.31 If there were other gods besides Him, some of them would have lorded over others.32

He is the One and not one in a trinity

Those who attribute sons and daughters to Him and those who say Christ is the son of God and is himself God only blaspheme God.33 He has begotten neither sons nor daughters34 nor is He Himself be­gotten.35 And how could He be said to have sons and daughters when He has no consort?36 And yet the unbelievers have taken besides Him gods that create nothing, but are themselves created, who have no power to hurt or do good to themselves and can control neither death, nor life, nor resurrection.37

Therefore no god should be associated with God.38 Setting up of gods is nothing but anthropomorphism. The gods that people set up are nothing but names of conjectures and what their own souls desire.39 They do blaspheme who say, “God is Christ the son of Mary”; for said Christ, “O children of Israel, wor­ship God my Lord and your Lord.”40 They regard the angels as females, as if they had witnessed their creation.41

God and the World‑ God is omnipotent

To Him is due the primal origin of everything.42 It is He, the Creator,43 who began the process of creation44 and adds to creation as He pleases.45 To begin with He created the heavens and the earth, joined them together as one unit of smoky or nebulous substance,46 and then clove them asunder.47

The heavens and the earth, as separate existents with ail their produce; were created by Him in six days48 (six great epochs of evolution). Serially considered, a divine day signifies a very long period, say, one thousand years of our reckoning49 or even fifty thousand years.50

Non‑serially considered, His decisions are executed in the twinkling of an eye51 or even quicker,52 for there is nothing to oppose His will. When he says, “Be,” behold' it is.53 His decree is absolute;54 no one can change it.55 He draws the night as a veil over the day, each seeking the other in rapid succession. He created the sun, the moon, and the stars, all governed by the laws ordained by Him56 and under His command.57 Every creature in the heavens and the earth willingly submits to His laws.58

The sun runs its course for a determined period; so does the moon.59 The growth of a seed into a plant bearing flowers and fruit, the constellations in the sky, the succession of day and night‑these and all other things show proportion, measure, order, and law.60 He it is who is the creator, evolver, and restorer of all forms.61 He it is who sends down water from the sky in due measure, causes it to soak in the soil, raises to life the land that is dead,62 and then drains it off with ease.63

God is the Lord of all the worlds,64 and of all mysteries.65 He has power over all things,66 and to Him belong all forces of the heavens and the earth.67 He is the Lord of the Throne of Honour68 and the Throne of Glory Supreme, the Lord of the dawn69 and all the ways of ascent.70

It is He who spreads out the earth71 like a carpet,72 sends down water from the sky in due measure73 to revive it74 with fruit, corn, and plants,75 and has created pairs of plants, each separate from the others,76 and pairs of all other things.77

He gives the heavens' canopy its order and perfection78 and night its darkness and splendour,79 the expanse of the earth its moisture, pastures, and mountains;80 springs,81 streams,82 and seas83 ships84 and cattle;85 pearls and coral;86 sun and shadow;87 wind and rain;88 night and day;89 and things we humans do not know. It is He who gives life to dead land and slakes the thirst of His creatures90 and causes the trees to grow into orchards full of beauty and delight.91

To God belong the dominions of the heavens and the earth and everything between them.92 To Him belong the east and the west. Withers ever you turn, there is His presence, for He is all‑pervading.93 Neither slumber can seize Him, nor sleep.

His Throne extends over the heavens and the earth, and He feels no fatigue in guarding and preserving His creatures, for He is the most high and supreme in glory,94 exalted in might; and wise.95 It is He who gives life and death and has power over all things.

God is not only the creator, but also the cherisher,96 sustainer,97 protector,98 helper,99 guide,100 and reliever of distress and suffering101 of all His creatures, and is most merciful, most kind, and most forgiving.

God has not created the world for idle sport.102 It is created with a purpose, for an appointed term,103 and according to a plan, however hidden these may be from us humans. “God is the best of planners.”104 He it is who ordains laws and grants guidance,105 creates everything and ordains for it a proportion and measure,106 and gives it guidance.107

There is not a thing but with Him are the treasures of it, but He sends them down in a known measure.108

The world is not without a purpose or a goal; it is throughout teleological and to this universal teleology human beings are no exception. To every one of them there is a goal109 and that goal is God Himself.110

God is all knowledge. He is the Truth.111 With Him are the keys of the un­seen, the treasures that none knows but He.112 He witnesses all things,113 for every single thing is before His sight in due proportion.114 Verily, nothing on the earth or in the heavens is hidden from Him, not even as much as the weight of an atom. Neither the smallest nor the greatest of things are but recorded in a clear record.115

On the earth and in the sea not even a leaf does fall without His knowledge.116 Should not He that created everything know His own handiwork? He is full of wisdom.117 He understands the finest of mysteries.118 He knows what enters the earth and what comes forth out of it; what comes down from heaven and all that ascends to it.119 He knows every word spoken.120

No secrets of the heart are hidden from Him,121 for He has full knowledge of all things, open or secret.122 He knows and would call us to account for what is in our minds, whether we reveal it or conceal it.123 Two other attributes of God and our basic values are always mentioned together in the Qur'an. These are justice and love, the latter including among other attributes the attributes of munificence, mercy, and forgiveness.

God is the best to judge124 and is never unjust,125 He does not deal unjustly with man; it is man that wrongs his own soul.126 On the Day of Judgment, He will set up the scales of justice and even the smallest action will be taken into account.127 He is swift in taking account,128 and punishes with exemplary punish­ment.129 He commands people to be just130 and loves those who are just.131

For those who refrain from wrong and do what is right there is great re­ward,132 and God suffers no reward to be lost.133 People's good deeds are in­scribed to their credit so that they may be requited with the best possible award.134

Divine punishment is equal to the evil done. It may be less, for, besides being most just, God is most loving, most merciful, and forgiver of all sins,135 but it is never more.136 Such is not, however, the case with His reward. He is most munificent and bountiful and, therefore, multiplies rewards for good deeds manifold.137 These rewards are both of this life and the life hereafter.138

Islam, no less than Christianity, lays emphasis on the basic value of love. Whenever the Qur'an speaks of good Christians, it recalls their love and mercy.139 God is loving,140 and He exercises His love in creating, sustaining, nourishing, sheltering, helping, and guiding His creatures; in attending to their needs, in showing them grace, kindness, compassion, mercy, and forgive­ness, when having done some wrong, they turn to Him for that; and in ex­tending the benefits of His unlimited bounty to the sinners no less than to the virtuous.141

It is, therefore, befitting for man to be overflowing in his love for God142 and be thankful to Him for His loving care.143

God is all good, free from all evil (quddus).144 He is also the source of all good145 and worthy of all praise.146

The Qur'an uses synonymous words for beauty and goodness (husn wa khair).The word radiance or light (Nur) is also used to signify beauty. God is the beauty (Nur) of the heavens and the earth147 and His names (attributes) are also most beautiful (asma al‑husna).148 He is the creator possessed of the highest excellence.149 He creates all forms and evolves them stage by stage (al‑bari al‑musawwir).150

Everything created by Him is harmonious and of great beauty.151 Notice the beauty of trees and fields and the starry, heaven.152 He is the best bestower of divine colour to man153 who has been made in the best of moulds154 and has been given the most beautiful shape.155 How lovable is the beauty of animals whom you take out for grazing at dawn and bring home at eventime.156

Throughout history God has sent messages of great excellence,157 and given the best of explanations in His revealed books.158 Therefore, people must follow the best revealed book (ahsan al‑kitab).159 How beautiful is the story of Joseph given in the Scripture.160

God's judgment is of the highest excellence,161 and belief in the Day of Judgment of extreme beauty. Of great excellence is the speech of the righteous that call to God,162 for they invite people to Him by beautiful preaching163 and say only those things which are of supreme excellence.164

The Qur'an lays the greatest stress on the beauty of action. It exhorts mankind to do the deeds of high value,165 for God loves those who do excellent deeds. It wants men to return greetings with greetings of great excellence166 and repel evil with what is best,167 for in so doing they enhance the excellence of their own souls.168

Patience is graceful (sabr‑i jamil)169 and so is forgiveness.170 Excellence of conduct shall not be wasted.171 Those whose deeds are beautiful shall be given the highest reward172 in this world and better still in the next.173 They shall be given in paradise the most beautiful abodes and places for repose174 , and excellent provisions shall be made for them.175

God's Relation to Man

God created man's spirit out of nothing176 and created mankind from this single spirit. He created his mate of the same kind and from the twain produced men and women in large numbers.177

From the point of view of personal history and perhaps also from the point of view of the evolutionary process, man is created for an appointed term178 as a being growing gradually from the earth,179 from an extract of certain elements of the earth,180 then by receiving nourishment from the objects of sustenance,181 and being endowed with life.

Like all other living beings,182 taking the form of water183 or watery clay or adhesive mud184 moulded into shape in due proportions185 as a life‑germ, a leech‑like Clot186 of congealed blood,187 growing into a lump of flesh, further developing into bones clothed with flesh, and finally emerging as a new creation,188 a human being in two sexes,189 gifted with hearing and sight, intelligence, and‑affection,190 destined to become God's vicegerent on earth,191 decreed to die one day,192 and destined to be raised again on the Day of Resurrection.193

The form in which he will be raised again he does not know.194 The whole of mankind is one family, because it is the progeny of a single pair.195

In reality, man is the highest of all that is created, for God has created him in the most beautiful of moulds.196 He is born with the divine spirit breathed into him,197 even as for the Hindu, Greek, and Christian sages he is made in the image of God.

Human perfection, therefore, consists in being dyed in divine colour198 ‑ in the fullest achievement and assimilation of divine attributes, for God desires nothing but the perfection of His light,199 the perfection of these attributes in man.

The sole aim of man, therefore, is a progressive achievement of all divine attributes‑all intrinsic values. God encompasses200 and cherishes201 mankind. He is always near man202 nearer than his jugular vein.203 He is with him wheresoever he may be and sees all that he does.204 Whithersoever he turns, there is the presence of God, for He is all‑pervading.205 He listens to the prayer of every suppliant when he calls on Him.206

Soul

The soul of man is of divine origin, for God has breathed a bit of His own spirit into him.207 It is an unfathomable mystery, a command of God, of the knowledge of which only a little has been communicated to man.208 The conscious self or mind is of three degrees.

In the first degree it is the impulsive mind (nafs ammarah) which man shares with animals; in the second degree it is the conscientious or morally conscious mind (nafs lawwamah) struggling between good and evil and repenting for the evil done; in the third degree it is the mind perfectly in tune with the divine will, the mind in peace (nafs mutma'innah).209

Theory of Knowledge

Man alone has been given the capacity to use names for things210 and so has been given the knowledge which even the angels do not possess.211 Among men those who are granted wisdom are indeed granted great good.212

Understanding raises a man's dignity.213 Those who do not use the intellect are like a herd of goats, deaf, dumb, and blind214 no better than the lowest of beasts.215 The ideal of the intellect is to know truth from error. As an ideal or basic value for man wisdom means the knowledge of facts, ideals, and values.

There are three degrees of knowledge in the ascending scale of certitude (i) knowledge by inference (`ilm al‑yaqin),216 (ii)knowledge by perception and reported perception or observation (`ain al‑yaqin),217 and (iii) knowledge by personal experience or intuition (haqq al‑yaqan)218 ‑a distinction which may be exemplified by my certitude of (1) fire always burns, (2) it has burnt John's fingers, and (3) it has burnt my fingers. Likewise, there are three types of errors: (i) the errors of reasoning, (ii) the errors of observation, and (iii) the errors of intuition.

The first type of knowledge depends either on the truth of its presupposi­tion as in deduction, or it is only probable as in induction. There is greater certitude about our knowledge based on actual experience (observation or experiment) of phenomena.

The second type of knowledge is either scientific knowledge based on ex­perience (observation and experiment) or historical knowledge based on reports and descriptions of actual experiences. Not all reports are trustworthy. There­fore, special attention should be paid to the character of the reporter. If he is a man of shady character, his report should be carefully checked.219

Scientific knowledge comes from the study of natural phenomena. These natural phenomena are the signs of God220 symbols of the Ultimate Reality or expressions of the Truth, as human behaviour is the expression of the human mind.

Natural laws are the set ways of God in which there is no change.221 The study of nature, of the heavens and the earth, is enlightening for the men of understanding.222 The alternation of day and night enables them to measure serial time.223

They can know the ways of God, the laws of nature, by observing all things of varying colours‑mountains, rivers, fields of corn, or other forms of vegetation, gardens of olives, date‑palms, grapes, and fruit of all kinds, though watered with the same water, yet varying in quahty;224 by studying the birds poised under the sky and thinking how they are so held up225 and likewise by observing the clouds and wondering how they are made.226

Those who think can know God and can conquer all that is in the heavens and the earth227 night and day, and the sun the moon, and the stars.228 Knowledge of the phenomenal world which the senses yield is not an illusion, but a blessing for which we must be thankful.229

No less important for individuals and nations is the study of history. There is a measure and law in human society as much as in the whole cosmos.230 The life of every nation as a collective body moves in time and passes through rises and falls, successes and reverses,231 till its appointed period comes to an end.232 For every living nation there are lessons in the history of the peoples that have lived in the past.

It should, therefore, study the “days of God,” the momentous periods of history, the periods of divine favour and punish­ment, the periods of nations glory and decline.233 People should traverse the earth to see what had been the end of those who neglected the laws of nature, the signs of God.234 Those who do not guide others with truth and so do not act rightly, even though their days are lengthened, are gradually brought down by such means as they do not know.235

God never changes the condition of a people until they change it themselves, but once He wills it, there can be no turning it back.236 Therefore, it is all the more important to take lessons from the past. In the stories about the past there are instructions for men of understanding.237 Even the bare outlines of the rise and fall of nations, of great events of history, and their consequences provide object lessons for their guidance and warning.

Let them remember momentous events of the lives of such peoples and societies as the Israelites,238 the Magians,239 the Sabians,240 the Romans,241 the Christians,242 the people of Saba,243 the people of Madyan,244 of `Ad,245 of Thamud,246 of Lot,247 Companions of the Cave, the Seven Sleepers,248 the Companions of al‑Rass,249 the Companions of the Rocky Tract,250 and those of the Inscription,251 and Gog and Magog;252 prophets like Noah,253 Abraham,254 Isma`il,255 Isaac,256 Jacob,257 David,258 Solomon,259 Joseph,260 Moses,261 Aaron,262 Elisha,263 Jonah,264 Jesus;265 and other personages great for their piety, power or wisdom, e.g., Mary,266 the Queen of Saba,267 Dhu al‑Qarnain268 (probably Cyrus of Iran), and the Pharaoh269 (Thothmes I of Egypt), and Aesop.270

So much importance has been given to history that fifteen chapters of the Qur'an have been given the titles bearing historical significance.271 Nor indeed has the study of contemporary history been ignored. The Qur'an refers to contemporaneous events such as the battle of Badr,272 the battle of Tabuk,273 the trade and commerce of the Quraish,274 the hypocrisy of those who were enemies pretending to have embraced Islam, and the animosity of persons like abu Lahab and his wife.275

God reveals His signs not only in the experience of the outer world (afaq) and its historical vistas, but also through the inner experience of minds (anfus). Thus, the inner or personal experience is the third source of know­ledge. Experience from this source gives the highest degree of certitude. Divine guidance276 comes to His creatures in the first instance from this source. The forms of knowledge that come through this source are:

(1) divinely‑determined movement‑movement determined by natural causes, as in the earth,277 and the heavens,278

(2) instinct, e.g., in the bee to build its cell,279

(3) intuition or knowledge by the heart,280

(4) inspiration as in the case of Moses mother when she cast her tenderly suckled child into the river,281 and

(5) revelation as in the case of all true prophets,282 God's messengers.

Man's Power

God has subjected for the use of man, His vicegerent on the earth,283 everything in the heavens and the earth, the sun and the moon; day and night; winds and rain; the rivers and the seas and the ships that sail; pearls and corals; springs and streams, mountains, moisture, and pastures; and animals to ride and grain and fruit to eat.284

Free Will

God has given man the will to choose, decide, and resolve to do good or evil. He has endowed him with reason and various impulses so that by his own efforts he may strive and explore possibilities. He has also given him a just bias, a natural bias towards good.285 Besides this He has given him guidance through revelation and inspiration, and has advised him to return evil with good,286 to repel it with what is best (ahsan).287 Hence if a man chooses to do good, it is because in giving him these benefits God has willed him to do so.

He never changes the gracious benefits which He has bestowed on a people until they change themselves.288 Therefore, whatever good come from man or to man is ultimately from God.289 On the other hand, his nature has a bias against evil, his reason is opposed to it, and he has been given a warning against it through the revealed books; therefore, whatever evil comes from him or to him is from his own soul.290

If God had willed He would have destroyed evil or would not have allowed it to exist, and if it were His will, the whole of mankind would have had faith, but that is not His plan?291 His plan envisages man's free use of the divine attribute of power or freedom to choose292 and take all judicious and precautionary measures to suit different situations.293

In the providential scheme man's role is not that of a blind, deaf, dumb and driven herd of goats.294 So even his free choice of evil is a part of the scheme of things and no one will choose a way unto God, unless it fits into that scheme or is willed by God.295

There is no compulsion in faith. God's guidance is open to all who have the will to profit by it.296 Whosoever wills, let him take the straight path to his Lord.297 Truth is from God, then whosoever wills, let him believe it; and whosoever wills, let him reject it.298 The prophets are sent to every nation299 for guiding the whole of mankind. Their duty is to preach, guide, and inspire by persuasion and not to drive or force people to anything, nor to watch over their doings or dispose of their affairs.300 They cannot compel mankind against their will to believe.301

Death

Death of the body has been decreed by God to be the common lot of mankind.302 Wherever a man is, death will overtake him even if he is in a tower strong and high.303 No soul can die except by God's leave, the term being fixed as if by writing,304 but every soul shall be given a taste of death305 and in the end brought back to God306 and duly judged on the Day of Judgment, and only he who is saved from fire will be admitted to paradise; it is then that he will have attained the goal of his life. As compared to that life, the life of this world is only a life of vainglory.307

Life after Death

There are some who think revival after death is far from their understanding308 and ask how they shall be raised up after they have been reduced to bones and dust.309

Let them recall to mind that they were created out of nothing; first as dust, then a sperm, then a leech‑like clot, then a piece of flesh, partly formed and partly unformed, kept in a womb for an appointed term, then brought out as babes and then fostered so that they reached an age of full strength; and further, let them ponder over the fact that the earth is first barren and lifeless but when God pours down rain, it is stirred to life, it swells, and puts forth every kind of beautiful growth in pairs.310

Let them understand that He who created the heavens and the earth is able to give life to the dead, for He has power over all things.311

God created man from the earth, into it shall he return and from it shall he be brought out again.312 For everyone after death there shall be an interval (Barzakh)lasting till the Day of Resurrection.313 On that day all the dead shall be raised up again.314 Even as God produced the first creation, so shall He produce this new one.315 We do not know in what form we shall be raised,316 but as a parable317 the Qur'an describes the Day of Resurrection as follows

On that day there shall be a dreadful commotion.318 The heaven shall be rent asunder319 and melted like molten brass.320 The sun folded up and the moon darkened shall be joined together,321 and the stars shall fall, losing their lustre.322 In terrible repeated convulsions,323 the earth shall be shaken to its depths and pounded into powder.324 The mountains shall crumble to atoms flying hither and thither325 like wool,326 the oceans shall boil over, there shall be a deafening noise, and the graves shall be turned upside down.327

A trumpet shall be blown,328 no more than a single mighty blast,329 and there shall come forth every individual soul330 and rush forth to the Lord331 ‑ the sinners as blackened,332 blinded,333 terror‑smitten334 with eyes cast down335 and hearts come right up to their throats to choke;336 and the virtuous, happy and rejoicing.337

Then all except such as it will please God to exempt shall fall into a swoon.338 Then a second trumpet shall be sounded, when, behold! they will all be standing and looking on. The earth will shine with the glory, of the Lord and the record of deeds shall be opened.339

All shall fully remember their past deeds.340 Anyone who will have done an atom of good shall see it and anyone who will have done an atom of evil shall see it.341 They shall also recognize one another,342 though each will have too much concern of his own to be able to be of help to others.343 They will have neither a protector, nor an intercessor except God344 or those whom permission is granted by Him and whose word is acceptable to Him.345

They shall all now meet their Lord.346 The scale of justice shall be set up, and not a soul shall be dealt with unjustly in the least; and if there be no more than the weight of a mustard seed, it will be brought to account,347 and all shall be repaid for their past deeds.348 There will be a sorting out of the sinners and the righteous.349 The sinners will meet a grievous penalty but it shall not be more than the retribution of the evil they will have wrought.350

All in proportion to their respective deeds and for a period longer and shorter shall go through a state of pain and remorse,351 designated in the Qur'an as hell, and the righteous saved from hell shall enter a state of perpetual peace, designated as paradise.

Paradise has been described in the Qur'an by similitude352 in terms of what average human beings value most: dignity, honour, virtue, beauty, luxury, sensuous pleasures, and social discourse‑and hell in terms of what they all detest. People shall be sorted out into three classes.353

(1) Those who will be fore­most and nearest to God, with whom God is well‑pleased and who are well­ pleased with God. They shall have no fear, no grief, no toil, no fatigue, no sense of injury,354 no vanity, and no untruth.355 They shall enjoy honour and dignity, and, dressed in fine silks and brocade and adorned with bracelets of gold and pearls,356 shall live forever in carpeted places. They will recline on thrones encrusted with gold and jewels facing one another for discourse.

They will be served by youths of perpetual freshness, handsome as pearls,357 with goblets, beakers, and cups filled out of clear fountains of crystal white and delicious drinks free from intoxication and after‑aches, which they will ex­change with one another free of frivolity and evil taint.358 They shall be given fruit and flesh of their own choice in dishes of gold to eat, and shall get more than all they desire.359

Their faces shall be beaming with the brightness of bliss.360 They shall have as companions chaste women, their wives,361 beautiful like pearls and corals.362 Those who believe and whose families follow them in faith, to them God shall join their families, their ancestors, their spouses, and their offspring.363 Rest, satisfaction, and peace will reign all round. This will be their great salvation;364 but their greatest reward, their supreme feli­city, will consist in being in the presence of God.365

(2) Companions of the right hand who shall have their abode in another garden. They will sit on thrones on high in the midst of trees, having flowers, pile upon pile, in cool, long‑extending shades by the side of constantly flowing water. They will recline on rich cushions and carpets of beauty,366 and so will their pretty and chaste companions,367 belonging to a special creation, pure and undefiled. They will greet one another with peace. They will also have all kinds of fruits, the supply of which will not be limited to seasons.368 These are parables of what the righteous shall receive.369

(3) Companions of the left hand who shall be in the midst of a fierce blast of fire with distorted faces and roasted skin, neither alive nor dead,370 under the shadows of black smoke. They shall have only boiling and fetid water to drink371 and distasteful plants (zaqqum)to eat.372 Nothing shall be there to refresh or to please.

The fire of hell shall, however, touch nobody except those most unfortunate ones who give the lie to truth.373

But for these similitudes, we cannot conceive the eternal, bliss and per­petual peace that awaits the righteous in the life hereafter,374 nor can we conceive the agony which the unrighteous will go through. They will, however, remain in their respective states only so long as it is the will of God and is in accordance with His plans.375

Neither is the bliss of paradise the final stage for the righteous, nor is the agony of hell the final stage for the unrighteous. Just as we experience the glowing sunset, then evening, and then the full moon at night one after another, even so shall everyone progress whether in paradise or in hell stage by stage towards his Lord, and thus shall be redeemed in the end.376

Notes

1. Abdullah Yusuf Ali's translation of the Qur'an has been mainly used for the purposes of this chapter. For references the same work may be consulted. - Qur'an, X1VI, 9‑10.

2. Ibid., X1II, 13.

3. Ibid., V, 49; XLVI, 12.

4. Ibid., II, 106; XIII, 39; XVI, 101.

5. Ibid., X, 1.

6. Ibid., III, 7.

7. Ibid., II, 186; XXXI, 30

8. Ibid., II, 115; VI,.62; XX, 111; XXXI, 30; XXXII, 2; LV, 27; CXII, 2

9. Ibid., LVII, 3.

10. Ibid., VI, 103.

11. Ibid., XXX,. 28.

12. Ibid., XXIV, 35.

13. Ibid., XXX, 27.

14. Ibid., XXX, 28.

15. Ibid.. XIV, 4; XLIII, 3.

16. Ibid., LIX, 24

17. Ibid., II, 255; XL, 65.

18. Ibid., 1VII, 3.

19. Ibid., II, 163; V, 75; VI, 19; XVI, 22, 51; XXIII, 91; XXXVII, 1‑5; XXXVIII, 65‑68; LVII, 3; CXII, 1‑4.

20. Ibid., II, 29, 117, 284: III, 29; VI, 12‑13, 65, 73; VII, 54; X, 55; XI, 6‑7; .XIII, 16‑17; XVI, 72‑81; XXI, 30‑33; XXV, 61‑62; XXIX, 60‑62; XXXII, 5; XLVIII, 7; LI, 58; LIII, 42‑54; LXVII, 2‑3; LXXXV, 12‑16.

21. Ibid., II, 284; III, 5‑29; IV, 26; VI, 3, 18, 115; X, 61; XIII, 8‑10; XVI, 23; XX, 114; XXI, 4; XXXI, 34; XXXIV, 2; LXIV, 4; LXVII, 14; XCV, 8.

22. Ibid., VII, 180; XVII, 110; XX, 8.

23. Ibid., IV, 40; V, 45; VII, 29, 167; X, 109; XIII, 6; XVI, 90; XXI, 47; XXIV, 39; LVII, 25.

24. Ibid., III, 150, 174; IV, 26‑28; 45; V, 77; VI 12, 17, 54, 63‑64, 88, 133, 162; VII, 151, 153; IX, 117‑18; X, 21, 32, 57; XII, 64, 92; XIV, 32‑34; XV, 49; XVI, 119; XVII, 20‑21; XIX, 96; XXI, 83; XXIII, 109, 118; XXIX, 60‑62; XXXV, 2‑3; XXXIX, 53;‑XL, 51; LII, 28; LV,. 27; LXXXV, 14; LXXXVII, 3; XCII, 12; XCIII, 6‑8; XCVI, 3.

25. Ibid., XVI, 53; XXXI, 26; LIX, 23.

26. Ibid., II, 255; XX, 111.

27. Ibid., XXIV, 36.

28. Ibid., II, 163; III, 18; VI, 19; XVI, 22, 51; XXIII, 91; XXXVII, 4; XL, 2; CXII, 2.

29. Ibid., CXII, 1.

30. Ibid., XVI, 51; CXII, 4.

31. Ibid., VI, 22‑24, 136‑37; XXIII, 92; LIX, 23.

32. Ibid., XXIII, 91‑92.

33. Ibid., V, 75‑76.

34. Ibid., II, 116; VI, 100; X, 68; XIX, 35; XXIII. 91; XXXVII, 151, 15'7.

35. Ibid., CXII, 3.

36. Ibid., VI, 100‑01.

37. Ibid., XXV, 3.

38. Ibid., XVII, 22, 39; XXI, 22; XXIII, 117; XXV, 68; XXVI, 213; XXXVII, 35‑36; LI, 51; LII, 43.

39. Ibid., LIII, 23.

40. Ibid., V, 75.

41. Ibid., XLIII, 19.

42. Ibid., X, 4; XXX, 11.

43. Ibid., XCVI, 1.

44. Ibid., XXX, 27.

45. Ibid., XXXV, 1.

46. Ibid., XLI, 11.

47. Ibid., XXI, 30.

48. Ibid., VII, 54; X, 3; XXXI, 10; XXXII, 4; LVII, 4.

49. Ibid., XXII, 47.

50. Ibid., LXX, 4.

51. Ibid., LIV, 50.

52. Ibid., XVI, 77.

53. Ibid., VI, 73; XIX, 35.

54. Ibid., VI, 34.

55. Ibid., VI, 115.

56. Ibid., VII, 54; LXXXVII, 2‑3.

57. Ibid., VII, 54; XVI, 12.

58. Ibid., III, 83; XIII, 15.

59. Ibid., XXXVI, 38‑39.

60. Ibid., X, 5; XXV, 2; XXXVI, 37‑40; LIV, 49; LXVII, 3; LXXX, 19.

61. Ibid., LIX, 24.

62. Ibid., XLIII, 11.

63. Ibid., XXIII, 18.

64. Ibid., I, 2.

65. Ibid., XVI, 77.

66. Ibid., LVII, 2.

67. Ibid., XLVIII, 4, 7.

68. Ibid., XXIII, 116; XXXVII, 180; XLIII, 82.

69. Ibid., CXIII, I.

70. Ibid., LXX, 3.

71. Ibid:, XIII, 3.

72. Ibid., XX, 53.

73. Ibid., XLIII, 11.

74. Ibid., XXIX, 63.

75. Ibid., XVI, 10‑11; LV, 10‑13.

76. Ibid., XX, 53.

77. Ibid., XLIII, 12.

78. Ibid., LXXIX, 28.

79. Ibid., 1XXIX, 29.

80. Ibid., LXXIX, 30‑33.

81. Ibid., XXXVI, 34.

82. Ibid., LXVII, 30.

83. Ibid., XVI, 14; XXV, 53; LV, 24.

84. Ibid., XVI, 14; LV, 24.

85. Ibid., XVI, 5 ; XXV, 49 ; XLIII, 12.

86. Ibid., LV, 22.

87. Ibid., XXV, 45‑46.

88. Ibid., XXV, 48‑50.

89. Ibid., XXV, 47.

90. Ibid., XXV, 49.

91. Ibid., XXVII, 60.

92. Ibid., II, 255; III, 2; XL, 65; XLIII, 85.

93. Ibid., II, 115; LV, 17; LXXIII,

94. Ibid., II, 255.

95. Ibid., III,

96. Ibid, I, 2; VI, 164; X, 32.

97. Ibid., VII, 54; XI, 6; XXVII, 64; XXIX, 60; LI, 58

98. Ibid., II, 257; III, 150; LXVI, 2; XCIII, 6.

99. Ibid., III, 150; IV, 45; XL, 51.

100. Ibid., VI, 71, 88; XXVI, 63; XCII, 12; XCIII, 7.

101. Ibid., XXVII, 62

102. Ibid., XXI, 16.

103. Ibid., XLVI, 3.

104. Ibid., III, 54.

105. Ibid., 1XXXVII, 3.

106. Ibid., XXV, 2; LIV, 49.

107. Ibid., XX, 50.

108. Ibid., XV, 21.

109. Ibid., II, 148.

110. Ibid., LIII, 42.

111. Ibid., X, 32; XXII, 6; XXIV, 25; XLIII, 84.

112. Ibid., VI, 59.

113. Ibid., X, 61.

114. Ibid., XIII, 8.

115. Ibid., III, 5; VI, 59; X, 61.

116. Ibid., VI, 59.

117. Ibid., XLIII, 84.

118. Ibid., LXVII, 14.

119. Ibid., XXXIV, 2; LVII, 4,

120. Ibid., XXI, 4.

121. Ibid., IVII, 6; LXIV, 4.

122. Ibid.. LIX, 22.

123. Ibid., II, 284; III, 29; VI, 3; XVI, 23.

124. Ibid., VI, 57; X, 109.

125. Ibid., IV, 40.

126. Ibid., X, 44.

127. Ibid., XXI, 47.

128. Ibid., VII, 167; XXIV, 39.

129. Ibid., XLI, 43.; LIX, 4.

130. Ibid., XVI, 90; LVII, 25.

131. Ibid.. V, 45.

132. Ibid., III, 172.

133. Ibid., IX, 120.

134. Ibid., IX, 121.

135. Ibid., XXXIX, 53.

136. Ibid., VI, 160; XXXVII, 39.

137. Ibid.,VI, 160.

138. Ibid., IV, 134.

139. Ibid., V, 85; LVII, 27.

140. Ibid., IV, 28, 45; VI, 17, 64, 77, 88, 122; X, 57; XVLI, 20, 21; XIX, 96; LXXXVII, 3; XCII, 12; XCIII, 7; XCVI, 3.

141. Ibid., III, 150, 174; IV, 26‑27, 45; V, 77 ; VI, 12, 17, 54, 63‑64, 133, 165; VII, 151; IX, 117‑18 ; X, 21, 32, 57 ; XII, 64, 92 ; XIV, 34, 36 ; XV, 49 ; XVI, 119 ; XVII, 20, 21; XXI, 83; XXIII, 109, 118; III, 28; IV, 27; XCVI, 3.

142. Ibid., II, 165.

143. Ibid., XVI, 114.

144. Ibid., LIX, 23.

145. Ibid., XVI, 53.

146. Ibid., XXXI, 26.

147. Ibid., XXIV, 35.

148. Ibid.,VII, 180; XVII, 110; XX. 8.

149. Ibid., XXXVII, 125.

150. Ibid., LIX, 24.

151. Ibid., XXXII, 7.

152. Ibid.,. XXXVII, 6.

153. Ibid., II, 138.

154. Ibid., XCV, 4.

155. Ibid., XL, 64.

156. Ibid., XVI, 5‑6.

157. Ibid., XXXIX, 23.

158. Ibid., XXV, 33.

159. Ibid., XXXIX, 55.

160. Ibid., XII, 3.

161. Ibid., V, 53.

162. Ibid., XLI, 33.

163. Ibid., XVI, 125.

164. Ibid., XVII, 53.

165. Ibid., II, 195; V, 96.

166. Ibid., IV, 86.

167. Ibid., XXIII, 96.

168. Ibid., XVII, 7.

169. Ibid., XII, 18; LXXIII, 10.

170. Ibid., XV, 85.

171. Ibid., XVIII, 30.

172. Ibid., XVI, 30.

173. Ibid., XXV, 24.

174. Ibid., III, 172; IX, 121; V, 26; VI, 96‑97; XIV, :3,I: XXIX, 7; XXXIX, 35,.70; XLVI, 16; LIII, 31.

175. Ibid., XVI, 96‑97; XXV, 75‑76.

176. Ibid., XIX, 67.

177. Ibid., IV, 1.

178. Ibid., VI, 2.

179. Ibid., XXXII, 7; LV, 14.

180. Ibid., VI, 2; XXII, 5.

181. Ibid., XVII, 70; LXXV, 36‑39,

182. Ibid., XXI, 30.

183. Ibid., XV, 26.

184. Ibid., XXXVII, 11.

185. Ibid., XV, 26.

186. Ibid., XCVI, 2.

187. Ibid.

188. Ibid., XXIII, 14.

189. Ibid., XXXVI, 36; XLIII, 12; LI, 49.

190. Ibid., XVL, 78.

191. Ibid., II, 30.

192. Ibid., XXIII15.

193. Ibid., XXIII, 16, 115; XXXVI. 79.

194. Ibid., LVI, 61

195. Ibid., IV, 1; XXXIX, 6; XLIX. 13

196. Ibid., XCV, 4.

197. Ibid., XXXVIII, 72.

198. Ibid., II, 138.

199. Ibid., IX, 32.

200. Ibid., XLI, 54.

201. Ibid., XCVI, 1.

202. Ibid., II, 186.

203. Ibid., L, 16.

204. Ibid., LVII, 4.

205. Ibid., II, 115.

206. Ibid., II, 186.

207. Ibid., XV, 29; XXXII, 9; XXXVIII, 72.

208. Ibid., XVII, 85.

209. Ibid., XII, 53; LXXV, 2; LXXXIX, 27.

210. Ibid., II, 31.

211. Ibid., II, 32.

212. Ibid., II, 269.

213. Ibid., XXXIX, 9.

214. Ibid., II, 171.

215. Ibid., VIII, 22.

216. Ibid., CII, 5.

217. Ibid., CII, 7.

218. Ibid., LXIX, 51.

219. Ibid., XLIX, 6.

220. Ibid., II, 164, 219; III, 190; VI, 95‑99; X, 3‑6; XIII, 2‑4; XVII, 12; XXX, 20‑27; XLV, 3‑6.

221. Ibid., XVII, 77.

222. Ibid., III, 190.

223. Ibid., III, 190; XVII, 12.

224. Ibid., XV I, 11, 13‑16.

225. Ibid., XZIV, 41; LXVII, 19.

226. Ibid., XXIV, 43.

227. Ibid., XVI, 14; XLV. 13.

228. Ibid., XVI, 12.

229. Ibid., XVI 78; XXXII. 9.

230. Ibid., XXV, 2; LIV, 49.

231. Ibid., III, 137‑39.

232. Ibid., VII, 34.

233. Ibid., XIV, 5.

234. Ibid., III, 137.

235. Ibid., VII, 182‑83.

236. Ibid., XIII, 11.

237. Ibid., XII, 111; XIV, 5, 15; XXX, 9; XXXIII, 62; XXXV, 44.

238. Ibid., II, 40‑86, 93, 100, 122, 246‑51; V, 13‑14, 73‑74; VII, 138‑41, 161‑71; XX, 80‑82; XXIX, 27; XXXII, 23‑25; XL, 53‑54; XLV, 16‑17.

239. Ibid., XXII, 17.

240. Ibid., II, 62; V, 72; XXII, 17.

241. Ibid., XXX, 2.

242. Ibid., II, 138; V, 15, 85‑88.

243. Ibid., XXVII, 22; XXXIV, 15‑21.

244. Ibid., VII, 85‑93; XI, 84‑95; XXIX, 36‑37.

245. Ibid., VII, 65‑72; XI, 50‑60; XXV, 38; XXVI, 123‑40; XXIX, 38; XLI, 15‑16; XLVI, 21‑26; LI, 41‑42; LIV, 18‑21; IXIX, 4‑8; LXXXIX, 6‑8.

246. Ibid., VII, 73‑79; XI, 61‑68; XXV, 38; XXVI, 141‑159; XXVII, 45‑53; XXIX, 38; XLI, 17; LI, 43‑‑45; LIV, 23‑31; LXIX, 4‑5; LXXXV, 17‑20; L=IX, 9‑14; XCI, 11‑15.

247. Ibid., VII, 80‑84; XI, 77‑83; XV, 57‑77; XXI, 74‑75; XXVI, 160‑75; XXVII, 54‑58; XXIX, 26, 28‑35; XXXVII, 133‑38; LI, 31‑37; LIV, 33‑39.

248. Ibid., XVIII, 9‑22.

249. Ibid., XXV, 38; 1, 12.

250. Ibid., XV, 80‑84.

251. Ibid., XVIII, 9.

252. Ibid., XVIII, 94.

253. Ibid., VI, 84; VII, 59‑64; X, 71‑73; XI, 25‑49; XXI, 76‑77; XXIII, 23‑30; XXV, 37 ; XXVI, 105‑22 ; XXIX, 14‑15 ; XXXVII, 7 5‑82 ; LI, 46 ; LIV, 9‑15 ; LXIX, 11‑12 ; LXXI, 1‑28.

254. Ibid., II, 124‑27, 130, 258, 260; III, 67, 95‑97; VI, 74‑83; XI, 69‑76; XIV, 35‑‑41; XV, 51‑56 ; XVI, 120‑23 ; XIX, 41‑50 ; XXI, 51‑71; XXVI, 70‑87 ; XXIX, 16‑18, 23‑25; XXXVII, 83‑111; LI, 24‑30; IIII, 37; LX, 4‑6; IXXXVII, 19.

255. Ibid., II, 125‑29; VI, 86; XIX, 54‑55; XXI, 85.

256. Ibid., VI, 84; XXI, 72; XXXVII, 112‑13.

257. Ibid., II, 132‑33; VI, 84; XIX, 49; XXI, 72.

258. Ibid., VI, 84; XXI, 78‑80; XXXIV, 10‑11; XXXVIII, 17‑26

259. Ibid., II, 102; VI, 84; XXI, 79, 81‑82; XXVII, 15‑44.

260. Ibid., VI, 84; XII, 4‑101.

261. Ibid., II, 51‑61; V, 22‑‑29; VI, 84; VII, 103‑62; X, 75‑92; XI, 96‑99, 110; XIV, 5‑8; XVII, 101‑03; XVIII, 60‑82; XIX, 51‑53; XX,9‑56, 70‑73, 86‑98; XXIII, 45‑49; XXV, 35‑36; XXVI, 10‑69; XXVII, 7‑14; XXVIII, 7‑42; XXXVII, 114‑22; XL, 23‑46; XLIII, 46‑56; LI, 38‑40; LIII, 36; IXI, 5; LXXIX, 15‑26; LXXXVII, 19.

262. Ibid., VI, 84; XX, 29‑‑36, 90‑94.

263. Ibid., VI, 86; XXXVIII. 48.

264. Ibid., IV, 163; VI, 86; X, 98; XXXVII, 139‑48.

265. Ibid., II, 136; III, 45‑47, 49‑59; IV, 157‑59, 171; V, 19, 20, 49, 75‑78, 113‑21; VI, 85; IX, 30; XIX, 22‑36; XLIII, 59‑61, 63‑64; LVII, 27; LXI, 6, 14.

266. Ibid., III, 35‑37, 42‑51; IV, 156; XIX, 16‑21; 23‑33; XXI, 91; LXVI, 12.

267. Ibid., XXVII, 22‑44; XXXIV, 15‑21.

268. Ibid., XVIII, 83‑98.

269. Ibid., II, 49, 50; VII, 103‑37; X, 75‑92; XL, 23‑37; IXVI. 11; LXIX, 9; LXXIII. 15‑16; LXXIX, 17‑26; IXXXV, 17‑20; IXXXIX, I0‑14.

270. Ibid., XXXI, 12‑19.

271. Ibid., III, X, XII, XIV, XV II, XVIII, XIX, XXI, XXX, XXXI, XXXIII, XXXIV, XLVIII, LXXI, EVI.

272. Ibid., III, 13.

273. Ibid., IX, 40‑42; 43‑59. 81‑99 120‑22.

274. Ibid., LXXXIII, 1‑3; CVI, 1‑4

275. Ibid., CXL, 1‑5.

276. Ibid., II, 38.

277. Ibid., 1, 7‑8; LI, 20.

278. Ibid., XLI, 12.

279. Ibid., XVI, 68.

280. Ibid., II, 97; XXVI, 193‑95; XLI, 30‑31; LIII, 10‑11.

281. Ibid., XXVIII, 7.

282. Ibid., IV, 163‑64; X1II, 15, ETC.

283. Ibid., XXXI, 20.

284. Ibid., XIV, 32‑33; XVI, 12‑13; XXI, 81; XXV, 45‑53; XXXL, 20; XXXVI, 33‑35 71‑73; XLV, 12‑13; IV, 22; LXVIII, 34; LXXIX, 30‑33

285. Ibid., LXXXII, 7.

286. Ibid., XIII, 22.

287. Ibid., XXIII, 96; X1I, 34.

288. Ibid., VIII, 53; XIII, 11.

289. Ibid., IV, 79.

290. Ibid.

291. Ibid., VI, 107.

292. Ibid., VI, 104; XVIII, 29; LXXVI, 29.

293. Ibid., IV, 71.

294. Ibid., II, 171; VII, 179.

295. Ibid.. LXXVI, 30; LXXXI, 29

296. Ibid., LXXXI, 28.

297. Ibid., LXXVI, 29.

298. Ibid., XVIII, 29.

299. Ibid., X, 47; XLII, 13

300. Ibid., VI, 107.

301. Ibid., X, 99.

302. Ibid., LVI, 60.

303. Ibid., IV, 7 8.

304. Ibid., III, 145.

305. Ibid., III, 145; XXI, 35

306. Ibid., XXIX, 57.

307. Ibid., III 185

308. Ibid., 1, 3.

309. Ibid., XVI, 38; XVII, 49; XIX, 66‑72; XXLI. :1: XLVI. 33; 1. 20‑22, 41‑44; LXXV, 1‑15; LXXIX, 6‑12; LXXXVI. 5‑8.

310. Ibid., XXII, 5.

311. Ibid., X1VI, 33.

312. Ibid., XX, 55.

313. Ibid., XXIII, 100.

314. Ibid., XVI, 38‑39.

315. Ibid., XXI, 104.

316. Ibid., LVI, 61.

317. Ibid., XXX, 27, 58.

318. Ibid., LXXIX, 6‑9.

319. Ibid., XXV, 25, LXXIII, 18.

320. Ibid., LXX, 8.

321. Ibid., LXXV, 7‑9; IXXXI, 1.

322. Ibid., LXXXI, 2.

323. Ibid., XCIX, 1.

324. Ibid;, LXXXIX; 21.

325. Ibid., XGVII 88; III, 9‑10; LVI, 4‑6; LXXVII 10.

326. Ibid., LXX, 9.

327. Ibid., LXXXII, 4; XCIX, 2.

328. Ibid., XX, 102; XXVII, 87; 1, 20.

329. Ibid., XXXVI, 29

330. Ibid., XXXI, 28.

331. Ibid., XXXVI, ,

332. Ibid., LXXX, 40‑41.

333. Ibid., XX, 102, 124.

334. Ibid., XXI, 97; XXVII, 87.

335. Ibid., LXXIX, 9.

336. Ibid., XL, 18.

337. Ibid., LXXX, 38‑39.

338. Ibid., XXXIX, 68.

339. Ibid., XXXIX, 69.

340. Ibid., VI, 28; LXXXIX, 23.

341. Ibid., XCIX, 6‑8.

342. Ibid., X, 45.

343. Ibid., LXXX, 37.

344. Ibid., VI, 51.

345. Ibid., XX, 109.

346. Ibid., XIX, 95.

347. Ibid., XXI, 47.

348. Ibid., XXXVI, 54.

349. Ibid., XXXVII, 21; LXXVII, 13‑14.

350. Ibid., XXXVII, 38‑39.

351. Ibid., XIX, 71‑72.

352. Ibid., XIII, 35; XLVII, 15.

353. Ibid., IVI, 7‑56.

354. Ibid., VII, 43; XXXV, 33‑35; LXV, 46‑48.

355. Ibid., LXXVIII, 35.

356. Ibid., XVIII, 31; XXII, 23.

357. Ibid., III, 24.

358. Ibid., XIX, 61‑63; LII, 23.

359. Ibid., XLII, 22; 1, 35.

360. Ibid., LXXXIII, 24.

361. Ibid., XLIII, 70.

362. Ibid., LV, 56‑58.

363. Ibid., XIII, 23.

364. Ibid., V, 122.

365. Ibid., 1, 35; LIV, 55.

366. Ibid., LV, 54.

367. Ibid., LV, 70‑77.

368. Ibid., V, 122; IX, 20‑21, 7‑2; XV, 45‑48; XXXVII, 40‑49; XXXIX, 20; LII, 17‑24; LV, 6‑78; LVI, 10‑39, 88‑91.

369. Ibid., XLVII, 15.

370. Ibid., XX, 74.

371. Ibid., XIV, 16‑17.

372. Ibid., XLIV, 43.

373. Ibid., XCII, 15‑16.

374. Ibid., XXXII, 17.

375. Ibid., XIX, 71.

376. Ibid., LXXXIV, 6, 16‑19.


11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45