Muslim Scholars' Views on Education

Muslim Scholars' Views on Education60%

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Muslim Scholars' Views on Education

Muslim Scholars' Views on Education

Author:
Publisher: www.alhassanain.org/english
English

This book is corrected and edited by Al-Hassanain (p) Institue for Islamic Heritage and Thought

Educational Ontology

Goals of Education

Khajeh Naseer believes that human being has different and diverse abilities, aptitudes and capacities. Man has two attitudes: attitude towards goodness and badness. Therefore, It is quite necessary that, as one of the most important goals of education, man’s abilities to be educated and his or her capacities to be actualized in order that he or she might achieve a scientific and practical perfection and attain the ultimate happiness and nearness to God. It is evident that education and guidance of educators, teachers and guides play a great role in this field (Beheshti, Abu ja’afari & Faqihi, 2000).

Khajeh Naseer Tusi introduces an absolute happy as one whose happiness has no decline and change. Happiness is obtained whenever its owner enjoys a pleasure of wisdom. One, who has not comprehended such a true and real pleasure, how will be inclined to it? (Tusi, 1981).

Khajeh Naseer Tusi emphasizes “moderation” a characteristic which can bring humans to happiness. Those ones who pay attention to only some of their aptitudes or powers can’ t reach happiness (Tusi, 1981).

Farabi believes each folk (country) whose cities cooperate to achieve happiness will become lucky, and all the inhabitants of the world will become lucky whenever all folks (countries) in the world cooperate to attain perfection and happiness (Seyyed Arab, 2007).

Farabi considers human perfection, as one of the educational goals, in acquiring virtues and acting according to them. He believes that action is of particular importance in actualizing the intellectual development (Soltanolqaraee, 2005).

Farabi sees guidance of man’s main aptitudes or powers, i.e. lust, anger and rational faculty or intellect as the aims of education. The major aim was the cultivation of the rational faculty in such a manner that it becomes governor of other aptitudes (Soltanolqaraee, 2005).

The following cases can be known as the goals of education from Farabi’s viewpoint:

1. Instruction of right beliefs, and strengthening the belief to them. Such beliefs as belief in God, hereafter, happiness and the way to reach it through cognition of deeds and actions that lead to happiness.

2. Training of necessary skills for incumbency of a duty in Utopia (virtuous or perfect city)

3. Encouragement of individuals for action according to right beliefs.

4. Encouragement of individuals for doing social duties (Howzeh- University Co- Operation Center, 1998).

Farabi is of the opinion that the goal of education is moderation in the appetitive and irascibility faculties and submissiveness to intellect. Therefore, the goal of ethics and education is a moderate personality that its speech and rational faculties govern other faculties. As for lust and anger Farabi says that these two are not good or bad in themselves, rather their goodness or badness is dependent upon whether they are in service of intellect and real happiness or not.

In social aspect of education, he deeply believes that the orientation of education should be towards regulating the affairs of Utopia that he has described it in one of his books. Farabi much emphasizes that educational goals to be social oriented. On the whole, it can be said that the following points can be concluded about educational goals:

Perfection of rational faculty in its two sections: Speculative (theoretical), and practical (Pragmatic). Originality or authenticity belongs to perfection and development of speculative intellect, and the leadership of societies is the right of real philosophers, whether, they have achieved truth thought their own efforts, or through inspiration.

Action and behavior are of particular importance in actualization and development of intellectual faculty of humans. A special and great attention has been paid to social goals and development of expertise, skills, social and economic problems, in the thinking and educational system of Farabi.

Intellectual and spiritual perfection and pleasure is higher than material and physical pleasure.

Farabi considers the worldly happiness as an introduction for hereafter happiness, and he also deems it possible to achieve spiritual happiness in this word. He introduces cognition and attaining Truth as the ideal goal and the final perfection (Howzeh- University Co- Operation Center, 1993, PP. 267-269).

Avicenna’s view on educational goals is almost similar to Farabi’s. These two philosophers both emphasize speculative intellect, and social aspect of education (Howzeh- University Co-operation Center, 1993, P. 275).

Avicenna calls God as the pure and absolute goodness who is the true and real Beloved for all human beings. He also believes that happiness is the real purpose and the desired aim of humans. A real happiness is free and pure from worldly interests and defects. Although sensory affaires and worldly things appear as happiness apparently, but in fact they can’t be considered as happiness (Avicenna, 1981).

Avicenna, regarding happiness as one of the goals of creation and education, in harmony with Plato believes that whatever humans become closer to God, their enthusiasm, love, and their beatitude increase and whenever they remain away from God, such an enthusiasm, love, and beatitude and joy decrease in them (Shiite encyclopedia, 2007).

Avicenna swears by God that it is only the foolish who become unable of perfection and get attached to this abject and low world. One who has given her or his heart to the world is always involved in abyss of pains and disappointment, and is always distressed and in delusion of worldly goods. Then how may it be possible that such people have love of seeking and cognition of the truth?

Avicenna introduces amphibolies and quarrelsomeness as the most invalid efforts. The best actions are those which their doers have a pure intention and clear belief, and the best intentions are those sprung from knowledge. Wisdom is the mothers of virtues, and cognition of God is the first and the most important involvements. All bondmen should seek help from God. They should come to know that following the worldly desires causes darkness of the soul, therefore, it is necessary to forsake of many of carnal desires in the way of helping people.

People should take lessons from the past folks. It is Knowledge that gives its owner a high rank and esteem. In the light of acquiring knowledge and virtues, man’s soul will be purified from all kinds of vices (Dehkhoda, 1998).

The foundation of Ghazali’s educational philosophy is the realization of humankind s happiness as one of the goals of education. He means by “happiness”, the other worldly happiness because it includes all wishes. This happiness is eternal, is a pleasure without pain, is perfection without decrease, is an esteem without abasement. To achieve such a happiness, “knowledge” and “action” should be with each other so that one’s behavior to be changed, for so far as one’s behavior is not changed well, no happiness will be attained.

If a light of knowledge shines to one’s heart, her or his behavior will become admirable. Therefore, no change in behavior is expected without education and instruction. That’s the reason why instruction is considered as the noblest affaires. The desirable otherworldly happiness has a non-disjunctive connection with the societies of this world. Thus, it requires that instruction to have no disjunctive connection with society needs, in such a manner that there should be some people who strive for a accomplishment of social life in which the life needs of this world have been satisfied, and also be consistent with man’s nature and all people observe God’s orders and guidance in what they do.

Humans are social in their nature and need cooperation with each other to prepare their life materials. The task of instruction and education is preparation of people for participation of them in the accomplishment of the social life, in such a manner that everyone can do what he or she should do without difficulty and doubt (Kilani, translation, criticism and additions by Rafiie, 2007).

Ghazali says that honesty and virtue of human being is in having the aptitude for cognition of the exalted God. The characteristic of human being is the ability of obtaining knowledge and wisdom, and the noblest kinds of knowledge is cognition of the exalted God and his Attributes, because man’s perfection is dependent upon this, and humans can attain happiness and can deserve neighborliness of God and proximity to Him through that particular sort of knowledge.

The whole happiness of mankind is in this fact that makes vision of God as his or her destination, and makes the hereafter as his or her deployed place and the world as passageway (Ghazali, 1989).

Humans should know and recognize their truth of their essence, because if they do not identify this, it will be impossible for them to seek for their happiness and attain it. In fact, man’s happiness is in the cognition of the exalted God, and the cognition of one’s soul is the key for the cognition of God (Ghazali, 1997).

Ghazali believes that wisdom is God’s bounty which will be given to everyone who deserves it, and the result of wisdom is easiness and the result of wealth is pain and disaster (Ghazali, 1888). Ghazali says that each thing which is finished because of death has now value for the wise, rather that bounty has value which is eternal and permanent, and this bounty is “faith” which is the seed of eternal happiness (Ghazali, 1888).

Ghazali believes everyone who knows the world and is always remembering the last breath of life (death), the affairs of the world will become easy for him, and his faith will become strengthened. Ghazali says that the comfort of the world is only for a few days, and mixed with different kinds of pains (Ghazali, 1888). Everyone who makes his effort in following the bodily pleasures, and is like animals in eating, will fall in a abyss of ignominy (Ghazali, 1989).

Ghazali stimulates anger, lust, etc. to troops that attack humans and can finally overcome them, and make humans their slaves and perish them and debar them from the way of reaching to the eternal happiness (Ghazali, 1989). As for goals of education, Ghazali is of the opinion that human’s inner form is not good so far as four powers or aptitudes have not become good in: knowledge, anger, lust, and justice (Attaran, 1992).

According to Beheshti, Faqihi and Abuja’fari (2001), although Sa’di has not explicitly stated the educational goals in his works, the following goals can be deduced from his sayings and poems:

1. Detachment

Sa’di speaks in detail of self-cognition, faith, servitude toward God, and praising God in his writings and considers such traits necessary if one desires reaching the position of attachment to God, therefore reach a place that includes all values. Sa’di recognizes serving God as a way to gain esteem, power and greatness, and he regrets that the people come and go and do not taste the most pleasurable and enjoyable pleasures of sincere devotion and absolute sincerity, which will cause wisdom springs to flow from his heart to his tongue.

Therefore, the ultimate goal of education, from Sa’di’s viewpoint, is cognition of the exalted God and devotion to him. He says the way to reach this state is through the soul and being detached so that one acquires inner purity or good morality and is able to surrender to God.

2. Cultivation of spirit

Sa’di considers the cultivation of spirit as the basis of education and man’s personality, and believes that it is impossible to cultivate spirit without purification of soul and banishing carnal desires, arrogance, rancor, oppression. He says it is also impossible without acquiring moral virtues such as humility, modesty, benevolence, justice, magnanimousness, and magnanimity.

3. Health of Body

Sa’di considers man as consisting of physical body and spiritual soul. He states that spirit’s cultivation is by itself desirable and the major goal. However, he considers procurement of health and the power of body and satisfying its needs as desirable intermediate goals for the purpose of worship of God and rendering service to people. He warns humans against indolence. Sa’di mentions four points regarding health of body:

1) avoiding gluttony, 2) moderation, 3) preservation of greatness and magnanimity, 4) refraining from idleness.

4. Social Adjustment

From the viewpoint of Sa’di, social adjustment leading to peaceful coexistence is desirable as we aspire to the perfection of the ideal society. He imagines a Utopia in which these two things are the firm foundation of each individual in such society. That’s the reason that Sa’di, in all parts of Gulistan and Bustan, speaks of characteristics of the individuals in a desired society and mentions such properties as justice, humility, peace, benevolence, sympathy, and contentment as the characteristics of the desirable society.

Sa’di mentions the following items as the factors which create social adjustment: 1) justice, 2) humility, 3) self-esteem and uprightness, 4) benevolence and goodness.

Moulavi says that the goal of man’s creation is “knowledge and guidance.” In another part of “Masnavi,” he introduces “knowledge of the truth” as the goal of man’s creation. Therefore, Moulavi believes that knowledge should be for God only. The possessors of such a knowledge are those who are affected by their knowledge and insight, and their intellect restrains them from doing evil and committing sins.

Moulavi places a particular emphasis on “intent.” He says that, for example, a poet composes poetry for a special intent, and his intent plays the main role in this area. Therefore, all men benefit from their deeds and the sciences they learn on the basis of their intent and goal. If these intents and goals are good, the results and benefits of their deeds and behaviors will be unimaginable and very good.

A man who establishes his prayer for God will definitely be rewarded in this world and the Hereafter. Thus, one can understand that each of the disciplines are a means and instrument that can lead man to God, truth, and true peace and tranquility if man’s intent or goal is good and approved, and these disciplines cannot, by themselves, give man sublimity and are not consolatory. Sciences, which are tools for submission, sublimity, and transcendence are for leading man to the goals of creation, and should not be taken as the final goals. Moulavi emphasizes that all the branches of sciences and knowledge are for the sake of man.

Therefore, it can be said that those who love God, should really love Him, and their final desire should be for God. In this case, it is possible for us to speak of a learned and loving worship of God as one of the most important goals of man’s creation. Thus, it is up to all the virtuous and wise scientists and scholars not to involve themselves in words, utterances, and appearances, and not to forget the real goal behind the words and controversies.

Goals of education from the viewpoint of Moulavi can be divided into main different groups:

1) Ultimate aims,

2) Intermediary goals.

Ultimate Aims

As regards “ultimate aims”, the following aims can be extracted from Moulavi’s poems and writings (Beheshti, Abuja`afari & Faqihi, 2000, pp. 211-219):

Annihilation in God and abiding in Him

Moulavi believes that the ultimate and final perfection of human being is disengagement from existence or being, and reaching an abiding state after annihilation; and this is the meaning of proximity to God. Annihilation in God means becoming free from darkness, involvements, material and worldly attachments, and disillusionment with everything except God. A man annihilated in God does not see and does not want save God (Beheshti, Abuja`afari & Faqihi, 2000, pp. 211-212).

Voluntary death

This particular kind of death means that man dies or separate, when living, from nature and material attachments, and is borne in divine world, fights against carnal desires, and lives, free from ambition, disgrace, position, eminence and destroys all devilish temperaments and dispositions and reaches a position that kills the evil- prompting self, and makes himself or herself free, and is borne with divine and spiritual life and humanly admirable dispositions, and this is the second birth of human being.

Intuition or knowledge by heart

In addition to value of formal sciences, Moulavi believes that a seeker mystic or possessor of gnosis position of intuition, has really achieved the infinite Divine knowledge, and has undoubtedly revealed some secrets of being, even a sea of sciences and facts that others are deprived of it. This intuitional and inspired knowledge is not only endless, but it is always, in a state of being created, and represents at every moment new sciences and discoveries for the wayfarer mystic.

Immediate receiving of God’s bounty or emanation

In the beginning, a mystic goes through the way along with his or her educator or leader, but the highest position and rank is where he or she receives the bounty and favor of God Immediately, even the seeker becomes the channel of Divine bounty.

Intermediary goals

As for intermediary goals, the followings can be extracted from Moulavi’s works:

Cultivation and guidance of intellect and thought

Moulavi deems necessary the cultivation and guidance of intellect and thought in spiritual experience and intuition, and considers it as a goal of education. Moulavi says that the real knowledge is an intuitive knowledge than man receives immediately from God, and it is endless, and the superficial sciences can’t be considered real because of limitation and instability; but if people receive these sciences correctly and follow them well, and act according to them, and cultivate and guide their intellect and thought in the light of them, they will gradually achieve the real knowledge.

Solving the existential problems

From Moulavi’s viewpoint, humans’ existential problems are the philosophy of creation, imprisoning of the spirit in body, fear of the future, man’s attachment to the lust shackle, anger, fame, position, etc., neglectance from the real “ego” and from the original home, defect in thinking and intellect, loneliness, etc. Solving these problems is the goal of mystical education from Moulavi’s viewpoint.

Moulavi says that these difficulties can be solved through appealing to spiritualities, acquisition of soul virtues, and avoiding vices, and seeking help from those endowed with divine breath and spiritual soul, and finally the basic solution of these problems is “love”. A lover is always in happiness and exhilaration. He or she complains of nothing and no one. There are no short sightedness, meanness, malignancy, cynicism, arrogance, temptation, greed, self- interest, grief over this world and the world hereafter in the hearth of a mystic.

Love satisfies the thirst of spirit, and satiates the heart, and dissolves the lover in Master and he or she enjoys heartfully, because the right cause for enjoyment and happiness is internal not external.

Happiness is never possible through possessions, position, fame or prestige; rather it is from inner being. Moulavi (2000) believes that acquisition of knowledge should be for God. In other words, man’s intention from learning and the dissemination of knowledge should be nearness to God (pp. 1-2).

The knowledge of such scholars is not superficial, because superficial science may lead to neglectance (Rum: 7). It is intellect and reason that governs their lives (ibid, p.2). Even their religiosity is based on knowledge. Thus, According to the prophet of Islam “the best of you from the viewpoint of faith, is the best of you in knowledge” (Muhammadi Rey Shahri, 1993, p.121), their faith is the best and firmest kind of faith; that’s because Imam Baqer says someone who acquires knowledge, their knowledge will lead them to righteous deeds (ibid, p. 131).

Therefore, it can be concluded that humans receive benefit from the sciences they learn according to the intentions they have. It is in the light of good intentions that they receive real tranquility and are led to God and truth (ibid, p. 32). The prophet of Islam says that if a person learns science for hypocrisy and worldiness, God will remove blessing from his life and make the life annoyed and difficult for him (Muhammadi Rey Shahri, 1993, p. 479).

Educational goals from Ibn Khaldun viewpoint can be divided into two general groups:

1. Ultimate goals

2. Spiritual dispositions, i.e. series of goals and perfections of soul (Behehsti, Faqihi & Abuja’afari, 2001,pp. 109-113).

Ultimate goals

Ibn Khaldun considers “knowledge, faith, theistic belief” as the ultimate goal of education. From His viewpoint spiritual dispositions can be divided into three groups:

1. Scientific dispositions

2. Industrial dispositions

3. Spiritual dispositions

Scientific Dispositions

These are mastering skills in science in such a manner that its owner can teach that science, participate powerfully in discussions, and understand derive branches from principles with master on foundations of rules and science problems.

Industrial Dispositions

These are practical- intellectual skills, like sewing and carpentry

Spiritual habits or dispositions

These are firm humanistic moral properties, and the position of soul perfection which is along with exaltation and motivation and approaches of the individual to God, angels and the ultimate aim.

According to Tabataba’i (1987) Islam has established its most important commandments, such as Hajj, prayer, jihad, charity, and every kind of religious piety, based “on community” (society). It has also considered real happiness in nearness to God as the supreme goal of an Islamic community. Achieving this sacred goal is in itself a great guarantee of performance that acts as a serious, inner supervisor for the implementation of the laws regarding an Islamic society.

Tabataba’i (1987) considering one of the verses of the Qur’an (Zariat: 56), says that the ultimate aim of man’s creation and of Islamic education can be worship (and in fact devotion to and submission to God). Both worship and perfection man receives from it are the aims of man’s creation, and all are results of worship, e.g. mercy of God, and etc. cognition or knowledge obtained from worship, will be a higher aim as compared with worship itself.

The truth and reality of worship is in the fact that a bondman reaches the place of humbleness and submission to God. The ultimate aim of creation is achieving the truth of worship, i.e. a position in which the bondman has separated from himself and all other things, and is always in remembrance of his Lord.

Tabataba’i (1990) in the eighteenth volume of Al-Mizan Interpretation, in description of the Qur’nic verses mentions this speech from Imam J’afar Sadeq that a believer is a brother for another believer, and his eye and his guide, does not beguile and deceive him, does not oppress him, does not mislead him , and if he promises him something, he does not break that promise.

Tabataba’i (1987) argues that in the light of “law of social justice” each rightful cause will be sided with and righteousness will be sided with its doers, and the relations among people will become justly. Thus, humans are inevitably in acceptance of having a society and social justice. Islam has considered social spirit in all of its commandments and rules. According to Mutahhari (1988) ; man in Islam has a comprehensive personality and is very sensitive to his social responsibilities.

Principles and methods of Education

Education is based on broad and general rules and policies which are called principles of Education. These polices can be applied and practiced through methods of education which bring the person to the goals of education. It is possible to extract the following principles from the texts khajeh Naseer has written (Beheshti, Abuja’afari & Faqihi, 2000):

1. Discovering aptitudes: People are different in intellectual aptitude and ability, and personal capacities and interests on sciences, skills and occupations. If the unique and particular aptitude and interest of each person in different sciences, techniques and skills are discovered, and she or he is involved in a job and educational field consistent with her or his aptitude and interest, she or he will undoubtedly attain considerable success. Therefore, it is up to individuals, their parents and teachers to discover children’s aptitudes and interests to guide them to the way suitable for them.

2. Harmony with nature: Khajeh Naseer believes that one should consider children’s nature and the gradual trend of their soul faculties, and that education should be in harmony with the stages of their aptitudes development. Since moderation governs the nature, and coherence and system of the world is based on justice, it is also necessary in education that the principle of moderation, that is driven from the nature, be observed so that all the human being’s aspects be developed.

3. Harmony with the human’s nature of seeking God and religion: According to khajeh Naseer, harmony with human’s nature and religion is the certain principle of education, and all educational policies should be based on this nature, and human’s perfection is possible through considering the above fact.

4. Observing development stages: Khajeh Naseer, regarding education based on the gradual growth and development of the individuals, refers to the stages of development of children, the quality of the gradual formation of their aptitudes and powers, and the procedure of the instruction of the composition lesson to children. The stages of children’s education are:

a) Suckling period: This stage starts with the birth of children until they become two years old.

b) Correction period: After finishing suckling state, Children’s education should be started, and they should also be forbidden from companionship with the bad, because they are much influenced by their companions. If their virtues and values are praised, they will turn to these good properties.

c) Period of instruction of religion and morality: The subjects and materials which should be first instructed to children are religious and morals obligations and that those may become unwavering in their souls.

d) Complementary instructions or trainings: complementary instructions should be started after finishing complementary educations. Students should first be taught the science of ethics if they are interested in acquiring science, after which, they should learn social manners and they should be made familiar with social adjustment factors, and move them away from luxury, affluence, wealth and comfort.

e) job and employment: getting a job and occupation should be prepared for youngsters when their complementary period of training and instruction is finished. This causes that they taste the sweetness of an occupation and earn a living in this way.

5. Observing the student’s understanding and comprehension: Different students and pupils have different power of understanding and comprehension. Observing these individual differences and becoming in complete agreement and unanimous with them is of the certain principles of education.

Khajeh Naseer emphasizes that every knowledge or science can’t be taught to every person, rather each knowledge is suitable for a particular group, and teaching that particular kind of knowledge to those who do not deserve it, is considered as an oppression. Some people receive dubious things, but they do not understand the answers to those dubieties. Therefore, such doubts should not be told to them. It is also necessary that teachers and educators be familiar with logics and can use it when necessary and speak with each person according to her or his particular speech.

6. Counseling: Khajeh Naseer Tusi says that all people need counseling in all of their individual and social fields of life, because it can help to achieve goodness and advisability more simply and prevent badness and loss. Khajeh Naseer also emphasizes that the students and seekers of knowledge discuss about a subject they have learned it, because it may be that an hour of discussion would be better than a month of review and repetition.

7. Affection: According to Khajeh Naseer, one should love (a real love) and should be really loved. Thus if affection governs home, school and society, and is considered in the plans of responsible of educational planning, and backgrounds and plans for its implementation have been provided, then many of corruptions and problems will be solved.

The highest kind of affection is that one which is free from all sorts of defect of materiality, passivity, estrangement and darkness, this kind of affection is given to humans to love the exalted God. After the inner affection of humans to God, The affection and kindness of parents to their children and of teachers to students are considered as highest affections.

8. Encouragement and punishment: Khajeh Naseer has considered encouragement and punishment as two means for guarantee of implementation of education, and its extension, and making sound the home climate, school, society and creating motivation for avoidance of offenses.

He believes that people are different; a group of them should be led to courtesy and morality by warning and punishment, and another group with encouragement and announcement. Although education is founded on encouragement, and a child should be praised and encouraged in public when she or he does a good behavior and if she or he does a bad behavior, we should try to feign negligence it, in some cases. But if that bad action is repeated, he or she should be blamed in private, and then state the heinousness of that action and caution her or his against repeating that behavior

9. Practice and repetition: Khajrh Naseer is of the opinion that practice and repetition cause actualizing and realization of one’s aptitudes and abilities. Therefore, people should try to create suitable and desired habits and skills and finally acquiring sensual dispositions through practice and repeatation, and students should repeat the lessons happily and with motive, after learning that lesson and reflection and precision in it.

10. Interior Purification: According to khajeh Naseer, interior purification is purification of inner self from moral corruptions and it is the first step in self - education without which one can’t be adorned with moral virtues. Thus, students should be pious from the very beginning and keep their heart or soul from offences so that their knowledge may become fruitful.

11. Mortification: Khajrh Naseer believes that mortification is necessary because if human’s soul follows appetitive and irascible faculties and obey these two faculties, will decline to a bestial soul. Although mortification is difficult in the beginning, but considering its effects such as chastity, self- preservation, contentment, trust in God, generosity and piety, it would be sweet and easy.

12. Self- vigilance and Self- examination: According to Khajrh Naseer self- vigilance is that one always tries to avoid sins, worldly involvements, and obstacles of perfection and keeps and cares for his or her inward or outward behavior and speech in order that not to behave against God.

Self-examination is when one controls his or her worships and compares them with God’s bounties and then confesses his or her defects and sins before God. These two cause one compensate for previous behaviors and tries to clean the effects of sins by worship and mortification.

Khajeh Naseer Tusi’s view on educational principles is very similar to Avicenna’s. The following items can also be extracted from Khajeh Naseer writings as the most important of educational principles from his viewpoint:

1. Following from Nature: Khajeh has paid much attention to this fact that in education one should consider man’s nature and its gradual development, and the education of children should be quite in harmony with their gradual stages of physical growth. Therefore, we should first know the stages of children’s natural growth and then plan consistent with that nature.

2. Observation of Stages of Education: Khajeh has considered stages for education, considering the law of following from the nature and some other things. These stages are similar to those ones Avicenna has put forward.

3. Observation of Individual Differences: Khajeh Naseer recommends observing individual differences of persons in educational planning (Howzed and University Co- operation Center, 1993, pp. 318- 320).

If one wishes to extract some principles from Farabi’s statements observing of which originates suitable methods and decisions for achieving goals of education, can refer to the following cases:

• Education is for the happiness of individuals of the society.

• Instruction can’t be separated from education, since speculative and Practical trainings or instructions are justifiable. Therefore, an instruction which does not lead to belief and action along with belief and certitude is useless. Observing individual differences in aptitudes and attitudes to sciences and industries is necessary.

• Universal education and instruction is necessary. Those ideas and concepts which are prerequisite condition of attaining a real happiness should be taught to all people. Even, those ones who avoid the opinions consistent with Utopia, should become convinced by different methods so that they might turn to right ideas and opinions (Howzeh- University Co- Operation Center, 1998).

Although Farabi has not presented an independent model and design for educational principles, but the following important principles of education can be extracted from his writings and discussions:

1. Being social of education: from Farabi’s viewpoint, education is social, i.e. humans are social by their natures, then it is necessary that social goals to be considered for their education, and achieving Utopia is a goal that should be considered and a accomplished in education.

2. Observation of individual differences: Farabi believes that individual differences, i.e. different aptitudes and interests of students, should be considered and observed in education.

3. Preparation of individuals for different occupations: Farabi is of the opinion that each person should be educated for a particular skill and occupation, and this fact should be considered from childhood.

4. The effect of geographical environment and quality of buildings: Farabi believes that natural environment, climatic conditions, and architectural fashion are effective in education. Therefore, he recommends that educators should pay attention to this fact in education (Howzed- University Co- operation Center, 1993, pp. 271-272).

Education is actualized in the light of some important and comprehensive principles. From the viewpoint of Avicenna, these principles are realized through some educational methods (Howzeh- University Co- Operation Center, 1998):

1. Self- cognition and Self- education: One should first rectify himself before trying to educate others and to rectify oneself it is necessary to know himself or herself. Individuals should completely know their reprehensible properties and habits.

2. Observing individual differences: Different people are different in physical power, power of thinking, intellect and aptitude and other aspects, their interests to different and crafts are different as well.

3. Cognition of aptitudes, interests and possibilities: Discovering intellectual abilities and aptitudes should be considered in selection of a major or an occupation and craft. Ibn Sina also believes that personal interests for a major or occupation plays an important role in one’s progress and success and preventing from wasting one’s time. In addition to all of these, there should also exist learning possibilities and instruments for a particular kind of science or occupation.

4. Formulating the plan on the basis of the stages of development: Avicenna has paid attention to the stages of development of children in the process of their education, and has considered a particular plan for each of these stages. Therefore, educational planning should be based on the stages of a person’s development and growth.

5. Group training and instruction: Avicenna emphasizes group instruction, and believes that a child should acquire knowledge and do his or her job in group, because good children have a good influence and effect on the child. Observing the above principle causes: moral and social education of children and actualizing their intellect and perceptions, and satisfying their spiritual needs.

6. Encouragement and punishment: Ibn Sina recommends encouragement and punishment of children as guaranty keeping the admirable dispositions and avoidance of moral iniquities and reprehensible habits. He mentions different ways for encouragement or punishment.

This indicates that educator should not only use one particular method for encouragement or punishment, e.g. encouragement of children can be carried out through praising their good behavior and morality, and through getting friendly with children or acknowledging them.

According to Avicenna five principles are of importance in education of children and youngsters: faith, good and admirable morality, health, knowledge and occupation (Shiite encyclopedia).

7. Selection of Teacher and Friend: Avicenna says in this field that it deserves the educator of a child to be wise, religious, and aware of moral education, and have skills in the education of the children. On the other hand, since one can’t trust one’s own cognition from oneself, he or she needs a wise and kind friend to help to show them their morals and moods. (Howzed and University Co- operation - Canter, 1993, pp. 280-283).

The following educational principles can be extracted from Ghazali’s writings (Howzeh- University Co- Operation Center, 1993, p 305):

1. Imprintability of child’s heart

2. Changeability of morality

3. Graduality of personality formation

4. Effect of habits in education

5. Effect of indoctrination in education

6. Negative or affirmative nature of education

7. Individual differences

8. Different stages of development and growth, and the necessity of observing them

The following educational principles can be extracted from Moulavi’s works (Beheshti, Abuja`afari & Faqini, 2000, pp. 220-232):

1. Submission to God: Moulavi has emphasized this principle in many cases of his writings and poems. Obeying this principle gives a particular insight to humans in the light of which they would not see and want save God, and not get attach to anything else but Him, and worship Only God. In fact, the real philosophy and reason of all worships is submission and servitude to God.

2. Following Educator: Moulavi has expressed the need of human being to an aware and reliable educator; and he believes that following such educator will bring man to perfection and elevation. This educator knows the soul, faculties of the soul, existential dimensions of the soul, temptations and deceptions of the soul, and the spirit’s pains and that’s the reason why this educator can help others and treat them. These educators, are as physician and guidas, and are pure bondmen of God that never think of the material and worldly things.

3. Motivation and Request: Moulavi says that the basis and foundation of attaining truth is request or wanting which increases man’s efforts and activities.

4. Effort and Activity: Moulavi considers effort and activity as great factors for bringing man to goals and aims. He had also introduced these two factors as the cause of man’s happiness and joy.

5. God’s bounty and grace: In addition to effort and activity, grace of God exalted is a major factor of bringing humans to perfection.

6. Esteem or the dignity of man: Moulavi believes that in addition to satisfying material and superficial needs of people, we should not neglect their high and supreme needs.Man has a structure that can be a manifestation of God and a light of Him. Therefore, he should not lose himself and his esteem or dignity.

7. Sociability: Moulavi believes that there is no monasticism or renunciation in Islam. He has introduced joining society as the way of reaching growth, elevation and perfection. Moulavi says that membership in a society makes man valuable and spiritual, and this causes that man avoids egoism and individualism. It is in the light of joining society that the spirit of compassion, altruism, patience, trust or good judgment, and affection is cultivated in humans. That’s the reason why the principle of sociability has been considered in Islamic worships.

8. Individualism: Moulavi has stated the individual differences and psychological, intellectual characteristics of each person and the necessity of observing these factors in life and education. Educational policies should be consistent with the rate of comprehension, understanding, intelligence and aptitude of each student.

9. Simplification: Moulavi is of the opinion that this principle is the educational principle of all divine religions, and the recommendation of all high mystics; while severity, and imposing an ignorant plan indicates crude.

The educational methods from Moulavi’s viewpoint can be divided into two groups:

1. methods of student education

2. methods of self-training

Methods of Student Education

The following educational methods can be extracted from Moulavi’s works this field, as some of the important methods (Beheshti, Abuja`afari & Faqihi, 2000, pp. 233-253):

a. Suggestopedia or mimesis Method: Moulavi has emphasized the effective role of this method in education. He believes that the admonishment of others through one’s deeds is more attractive.

b. Affection Method: Moulavi believes that educator can make student attached to him or her, and provide the ground for student’s acceptance of education and trust to the educator.

c. Encouragement or punishment Method: Moulavi agrees that education is based on encouragement and affection. In spite of this, he has sometimes spoken of punishment when encouragement or kindness is not effective in the education of a student. But the intention of teacher should be educational and for the correction of student’s behaviors, and must not be taking revenge, acting out of self- interest or self- comfort.

d. Good Admonishment or Positive Advice Method: Moulavi introduces good admonishment or good exhortation as the educational method of God’s prophets. He has used this method in many cases and in different stories and exemplum. He refers to two major points in this regard:

First) If admonishment is prudent and tactful and its conditions are observed, it will have a very great influence and effect. Second) the main condition for effectiveness of admonishment is readiness of the one who is to hear that admonishment. Many a stubborn man, opposes the friendly advice, or justifies them.

e. Counseling Method: Moulavi has spoken of this method in many cases, and has mentioned its role and importance in helping individuals for cognitive changes and creating new insights and finding solutions to different problems.

f. Taking an object lesson Method: Moulavi has introduced taking lesson method as the sign of intellectuality, insight and growth. He believes that man can take many lessons from the history of the past.

g. Story Telling Method: Story telling is one of the most frequent used methods of Moulavi. He has explained many facts in different kinds of stories.

h. Exemplum Method: Moulovi has used exemplum to clarify different subjects to permeate them in audiences and address.

He has described, in some cases, difficult and complex subjects through using several running subsequent exemplums.

Self-training Methods

The following educational methods can be extracted from Moulavi’s works in this regard, as some of the important methods (Beheshti, Abuja`afari & Faqihi, 2000, pp. 235- 262):

a. Fulfillment of Knowledge: According to Moulavi, the heart of the matter for knowledge is commitment and action. The criteria of humanity should be searched in practical obligation and commitment, and we should not be beguiled by superficial sciences of some people. If knowledge is combined with action, it not only brightens the soul of its owner, but also it guides the ignorant people.

A man, who has no commitment to his knowledge, is like a tree which has no root. On the other hand, from Moulavi’s view, the basis of knowledge is intuitional, and this particular kind of science is only obtained through action. It should also be noted that in the event of acting according to superficial science, i.e. not intuitional sciences, one can gradually achieve the desired perfection and intuitional knowledge.

b. Loving God: Moulavi considers love the most basic mystical educational method, and believes that spiritual education and development is only possible through having such a love; because love has a power that changes or revolutionizes the personality of the lover and purifies him from himself and from his unbecoming properties, habits and behaviors, and leads him to harmony with the beloved.

c. Watching over the soul and self- examination: Moulavi has much talked about watching over the soul and self-examination and their role in self- training. He has considered them as the factors of leading humans to perfection, self revelation, heart indulgence and passing the stages of Mystic Journey.

d. Reciting the Qur’an: Moulavi says to us regarding the Qur’an not to consider it like other words and usual concepts; because its appearance has a great inner form. If we read the Qur’an and accept it and speculate on the deep meaning of each verse, our spirit will gain such a magnitude that enthusiasm for flying leaves the spirit restless without moment of calmness.

e. Remembrance and Thinking: Moulavi is of the opinion that man’s thinking should be combined with remembrance of God, because this remembrance causes dynamism and purification and magnificence of thinking, and also causes separation and purification from all sorts of evils and vices. It not only enlightens man’s thought, but also it cultivates man’s inner senses.

Ibn Khaldun believes that the following items can be considered as the principles and methods of education (Beheshti, Abuja`afari & Faqihi, 2001, pp. 115- 128):

1. Graduality in Instruction: According to Ibn Khaldun, the first point which should be considered here is that, instruction for the student leads him to learning. When it requires creating a disposition in that student, it needs time and is done gradually, because the aptitude of someone is gradually actualized or realized.

2. Consideration of the Measure of Student’s Understanding and Aptitude and its Gradual Cultivation: Ibn Khaldun believes that the amount of intellectual ability of students in scientific subjects and problems should be identified, and then they should be instructed consistent with their aptitudes so that their understanding and aptitude in learning might be cultivated.

3. Development of Instruction From Simple to Difficult: Ibn Khaldun is of the opinion that not observing the above mentioned fact and not considering the correct instructional and teaching method cause student not to comprehend the subject matter and then drops out.

4. Applying Different Teaching Methods: It is up to the teacher to be aware of different teaching methods and be able to apply them in order to use the suitable method and procedure in instruction and teaching. Ibn Khaldun believes that teachers can use different teaching methods for their students.

Some of these methods are: first) lecture, a teaching method in which the teacher tries to transfer his knowledge to the student, and there is a one- sided dialogue between teacher and student and the lecture is teacher- centered.

second) Suggestopedia teaching method in which the subject matters are taught to the students through their imagination by deeds or speeches. Third) dialectic and scientific dialogue (debate) between teacher and student, or encouragement of the students to discuss with one another.

Ibn Khaldun considers the second method more complete and more comprehensive than the first one. He also believes that the third teaching method is the simplest one for learning of the students.

5. Creating a suitable ground and atmosphere for learning and removing the obstacles: Ibn Khaldun says that there are the following obstacles and problems for learner in learning, and teachers should try to remove or solve them:

    a. Applying vague words

         • Selection of a brief and short text (or subject matter)

        • Abundance of text books (as instructional sources)

        • Frequency of involvement in instrumental sciences

        • Teaching materials beyond student’s understanding

        • Mixing the subject matters

        • Longitude of instruction time

        • Concurrent instruction of two different disciplines

        • Verbal controversies

6. Simplification and Kindness of teacher: This can be very effective in educational achievement and moral education of students. In contrast, severity an harsh treatment will cause many negative and psychological disorders, including student’s dropping out.

7. Keeping freedom and personality (self-esteem) in students: According to Ibn Khaldun, it is of the effective methods in education that binds teachers, educators, parents or everyone else, to be friendly. Also, it is a stimulant to free expression of feelings and personality in students, and they avoid imperious orders or instructions. Not considering this fact causes that ability and self- esteem of students to be destroyed.

8. Evaluation and Assessment: It is up to teachers and educators to evaluate their student’s performances in order that the student might know what he or she has done, and what- that should have done- has not done. What he or she has said, and what- which should have said- has said, and in general what and how have been his or her deeds and speeches so that it might become possible to correct them.

Knowledge

Theologians are unanimous about knowledge being one of the perfect self - attributes of Allah, and that “al - Aalim العالم ” is one of His Supreme Names (Attributes). No two persons contest it, so in order to explain, we have to prepare for the topic with a precept.

What is Knowledge?

Knowledge is defined as an image resulting from a thing on the mind’s page. Or it is a reflection coming out on the mind when one is in contact with the outside. Men of wisdom have derived this definition from the sciences in circulation among people.

But this definition is incomplete because it does not cover some sections of knowledge. Knowledge is categorized as either incidental or ever - present. The said definition suits the first rather than the second. Let us explain both categories for you.

When man casts a look at the outside and observes the cosmos that surrounds him, the trees and the rocks, the sun and the moon, etc., he earns a realization, and the outside thing is realized only through the mediation of an image between the person who realizes and the thing which he realizes. This image is extracted from the outside through tools of knowledge, and then it moves to the centers of comprehension.

Trees are identified when they are exhibited, the image is known through the self, whereas man is the one who knows. We have called the thing as being in the outside known through exhibiting and the image as being known through the self because the outside is known to us via this image, without it, the link between man and reality is severed.

In other words, the outside reality is not present with us in this feature because the outside thing has an outside effect such as heat coming out of fire, wetness from water, weight from rocks and iron, etc. It is known that the outside thing does not come to our minds with these characteristics. For this reason, the outside thing has become known through exhibiting and the image is known through the self due to man always experiencing mental images.

Thus, you come to know the definition of incidental knowledge. It is the knowledge in which the outside reality is known not by itself but through the mediation of an exact image of it. All tools of the senses are employed in the service of this knowledge. It depends on three pillars: one who realizes, the outside, and the image. Do not think that this is an admission of the originality of the image and of the outside being a branch thereof.

There is no doubt that the matter is the opposite. The outside is the origin and the image is extracted from it, telling us about it. But what the mind practices and employs is the image that it has, not the same outside. This mental image is its only means to realize the outside and to be aware of it.

Up to here, you have come to know the definition of incidental know - ledge. As regarding the ever - present knowledge, it is the realizing person being aware of the presence of what he realizes without the mediation of anything, and it has two parts:

1. There is no mediation between the realizing person and what he realizes, while the first is not being aware of the reality. This knowledge is reached through the same image that is extracted from the outside. This is so because the outside is realized through the image. As for the image itself, it is known by the self, and there is no mediation between it and the realizing person. When one comes in contact with the outside through the mental image, he will achieve two types of knowledge: One is incidental in its capacity as knowledge of the outside through the image method, and one is present by regarding his knowledge as having been attained through the same image, its presence and reality being realized by the individual.

Thus, you come to know an essential difference between both norms of knowledge. What is known in the incidental knowledge is not present to the one who realizes it in its reality, as you have come to know. With the ever - present one, what is known is present with him in its reality, and this is similar to the mental knowledge image. Through its reality, which does not depart from being a mental existent thing, it is present to man. Thus, the incidental knowledge has three branches, whereas what is ever - present has two in as far as this part is concerned.

2. Knowledge in which there is no mediation at all between the person who realizes it and what he realizes is united through the self and is different according to noticing and considering. It is like man knowing and realizing his own self. The reality of every human being is present by itself with him, not absent from him. He sees himself rationally, senses it through his senses and conscience, and sees it present with him without any mediation between the realizing person and the self that he realizes.

In this case, knowledge becomes unilateral, not bilateral and tripartite as is the case in the first part (above). It is then that the one who realizes and what he realizes are both united, and man’s self becomes knowledge and a discovery. Among the present knowledge is man’s awareness of his feelings, happiness and pain. They all are present without any mediating image.

Thus, you come to know about the weakness of the conclusion about man’s presence having taken place through his own thinking, so it is said, “I think, therefore I exist.” It seeks evidence from the presence of thinking to indicate the presence of the thinker.1 The aspects of weakness are:

First: Man’s knowledge of himself is a necessity, it does not need a proof. Man’s contemplation is not clearer than his self - awareness, his being aware of his knowledge of his entity, of himself.

Second: The one seeking evidence has admitted the result at the beginning of his evidence when he said “I think.” He has taken his presence as being pre - supposed, taken for granted, and then he has tried to find evidence of it.

Inclusive Definition

In the light of what we have stated, i.e. dividing knowledge to incidental and present, it is accurate to say that knowledge, in the absolute sense, is “the presence of what is known with the one who knows it.” This definition covers knowledge in both its types.2 Yet what is present in the first is the mental image rather than the outside reality. In the second, it is the same reality of what is known without any mediator between it and the one who knows it.

The mental image in the incidental knowledge is present with man, not absent from him. Also, the same man in the present knowledge is present with him, within him, since it is standing on its own. It is called knowledgeable. Since it is exposed to itself, not absent from it, it is regarded as being known. Since there is presence, not absence, this presence is called knowledge.

This definition is comprehensive, inclusive of all types of resulting knowledge in what is possible and what is a must. If you grasp this precept, the research in His knowledge, Glory to Him, stands once on its own and once due to His actions (the things that are outside His entity).

His Knowledge, Glory to Him, of Himself

His knowledge, Praise is due to Him, of His entity is not incidental, i.e. He takes the image from the Self and witnesses it through such a way. The reason is that such type of knowledge cannot be known about Him, as we will see later. Rather, it is ever - present, i.e. He is present by Himself and for Himself. Two evidences prove it:

First: One who grants perfection cannot lack it.

He, Praise belongs to Him, created mankind and the world by Himself through His ever - present knowledge. One Who grants such perfection has to create it in the best of way, the most perfect, because one who lacks perfection cannot grant it. He creates it the best that it can be. Although we are not familiar, and we will never be familiar, with the particularity of the ever - presence of His self with Himself, we refer to this knowledge as “the presence of His entity is with Him, and His knowledge of it without an intermediary is obvious.”

His knowledge, Glory to Him, of Himself

His knowledge of Himself, Glory belongs to Him, is not incidental, that is, His takes the image from the self and witnesses it through this way. This is not so because this type of knowledge does not apply to Him as you will come to know. Rather, it is present, that is, He is present for His own self. There are two matters that prove it:

First: One who bestows perfection cannot be lacking it.

He, Glory belongs to Him, created man, who is aware of his presence at present. One Who grants this perfection has to be creating it in the best and most perfect way because one who lacks perfection cannot be the one who bestows it; He surely is the One Who creates it as best as can be. Although we are not, and we will never be, familiar with the particularity of His presence by Himself, we term this knowledge as “the presence of His entity with Him and His knowledge of it without a mediation in - between.”

Briefly, one who enjoys intellectual commonsense does not find it rational to think that one who grants perfection can be without it, lacking it; otherwise, the one who receives the boon will be better than the one who grants it, and the one who is deriving the benefit is better than the one who grants the benefit. Since all possibilities have been proven to be rendered to Him, including the Knowledgeable entity itself, it becomes a must that the One Who creates this perfection should be knowledgeable by Himself, knowledge which is innate, not superfluous.3

Second: Factors of absence and disappearance of the self are non - existent.

To explain, we say that since the material existent is present in quantity, ratios and parts that have no collective presence, since its parts do not gather in one (and the same) status, some of its parts are absent from others. So, it is not right for the material existent, due to its being a matter, to be aware of itself by itself due to the absence that controls its own parts.

Absence contrasts the presence of the self. It prevents the attainment of the self - knowing itself (by itself). So, if the one who is present is above being absent, taken apart, his parts can be put together, a simple existent, as a whole, rather than parts and particles, his entity is ever - present, and it has an absolutely complete presence. Thus, we see the presence of our selves by our own selves, but not in the sense of some parts of our bodies being present, but in the sense we have the presence of a human reality expressed by the term “I” which is above quantity, parts and particles.

So, if we suppose there is an existent at a high level of abstraction and simplicity, having no absence factors, which are among the features of a material being, his entity is present with him. This is the meaning of His knowledge, Glory to Him, of His own Self, that is, an innate presence that stands by itself in the most perfect way because it is above being material, a composition and a division as you will see the proof for His simplicity when we discuss the negative attributes.

There are other proofs that we have avoided in order to be brief. Yet some folks deny that He knows through His own self, and here is the explanation of their belief.

Self - Knowledge Requires Variation

Those who deny His knowledge, Glory to Him, of Himself by saying that knowledge is a standing ratio between the one who knows and the thing which he knows, and the ratio is usually between two different things, and the ratio of the thing to itself is impossible, since there is no variation here, nor is there duality. Briefly, the one thing, I mean the Almighty, Glory to Him, is One, a ratio cannot be imagined as existing in Him.

Critics have rebutted it with this gist: Multiplicity and variation exist in incidental knowledge because it is the adding of the one who knows to the outside through the mental image, so in it, the known image is not the same as the outside identity. As regarding present knowledge, there is no requirement in it to have external variation; rather, multiplicity suffices for consideration.

For example, He, Glory to Him, has an entity that is never absent from Himself. So, He knows, and since His entity is ever - present, it is known.

In other words, the terms of: knowledge, one who knows, something known, etc. are used for the sake of calculations and considerations. Considering the self’s revelation to the self is called “knowledge”, and the self is exposed to the self is called “a piece of knowledge.” Considering its familiarity with itself is called “knowledgeable.” If you consider how man gets to know himself, it may be easier for you to believe in all of this.

What we have stated is due to the critics saying that differentiation may be through the self, and it may be through a sort of consideration. Here, the Self of the Almighty, since it is knowledgeable and is different from it because it is known, this suffices for knowledge to be attached to it.4

His knowledge, the Glorified One, of Things before Creating Them

His knowledge, Glory belongs to Him, of things is of two types: pre - creating knowledge, post - creating knowledge. The first is the one that we see to be one of the most important issues in the science of logic. Here is the proof for it:

Knowledge through Causality is Knowledge of Causer

Knowing the cause, as a cause, is knowing the causer, the one that caused it. Knowing the objective, as such, is knowing the existence of its effect. What is meant by knowing the objective is knowing the method which became a principle for the presence of the effect and for its taking place. In order to explain this principle, we use the following examples.

Knowing Causality is Knowing the Causer

Knowing the cause, as a cause, is knowing the causer, the one that causes it. And knowing the reason, as a reason, is knowing the effect. What is meant by the cause is knowing how it became a principle for finding the effect, for making it happen. In order to explain this principle, let us provide the following examples:

A. An astrologer who knows the astrological laws and cosmic computations gets to know that the eclipse of the sun or of the moon or the like takes place at a certain time or in a particular situation. His knowledge of these eventualities is nothing but his knowing the cause behind them.

B. The physician who knows the cases and types of the pulse as well as the conditions and situations of the heart can predict what will happen to a patient in the future. Such knowledge is nothing but his knowing the cause as such.

C. A pharmacist who knows the particularity of poison when one drinks it can inform us that the life of such a person will end at a certain period of time.

If you come to know these examples, we say that the world, all of it, is the effect of His Presence, Glory belongs to Him, and has no cause other than Him, Praise belongs to Him. Knowing the self is knowing the way that caused the world to come to be, the cause behind its existence.

In other words, knowledge the self, the indications of which you have already come to know, is knowing the way the entire cosmos came to be, and knowing this way is attached to knowing the effect. This evidence is based on precepts taken for granted by the theologians to the summary of which we would like to point out as follows:

First: The world, in all its parts, relies on Him, the most Praised One that He is, and this is the requirement for the Unity of the Creator, and that there is no creator other than Him.

Second: The causality of something is that it includes a particularity that requires the effect producing it, and it definitely positively requires the presence of the effect in the outside so as without this particularity, the effect will not come to be. For this reason, there is a special connecting link between the standing particularity relevant to the cause and the existence of the effect that requires the existence of the effect. Had it not been for that particularity, the ratio of the effect to the cause, and to others than lack it, would have been equal, although it by necessity is nil.

The particularity that exists in the fire, which brings about heat, is not the same particularity that is present in the water, which brings about wetness.

Third: His effect, the Almighty, on others is through His own Self, not through an incidental particularity, an entity that is superfluous to Him. He by Himself is the doer of everything, as is required by the simplicity of His own Self and His lack of need for anything at all (the superfluous particularity) beside Himself. The most Praised and Exalted One by necessity is the doer on His own; He does not act through a method attached to His own self.

Fourth: Knowing the entity that requires a thing is knowledge of the thing itself.

This discussion results in concluding that the Knowledge of the Almighty, by itself, is the knowledge of His particularity, entity, and it is inseparable from Him, I mean His knowledge of things requires such a connection, a link.

Great men of logic and philosophy have pointed out to the above. The head of theologians, Mulla Sadra (Sadr ad - Deen), has said, “The Self of the Praised One, as the cause behind all things, due to the latter’s presence, and the knowledge of the cause requires knowing their effects; realizing them from this standpoint requires their arrangement one after the other.”5

The wise Sabzawari refers to the same in a poem in which he says:

One who knows things other than Him and who relies on Him

Testifies to the cause behind the knowledge as one

Of knowing the effect, an unavoidable must.6

Precision and Perfection Prove His Knowledge of What He Makes.

Noticing any simple or complex set (an electronic pen or a computer) tells us that its maker is one who knows the laws and relations that govern it. A huge encyclopedia points out to the knowledge of those who wrote and compiled its texts.

In other words, the existence of the effect indicates the existence of the cause. Its details lead to its being particular to its own cause. The precision of composition of the things that exist in the world, as a creation of Allah, Glory to Him, prove that their Maker is knowledgeable of what He creates, familiar with what He makes. The details that make up a created thing lead us to the Attributes of the One Who has created it.

This evidence has been of interest to thinkers. What is made indicates, from the standpoint of arrangement of parts, that is, the parts are made for each other in order to serve the purpose of what is made, that it did not result from a maker who is not familiar with these details. Rather, it was made by a maker who organized it for a purpose, so he has to be knowledgeable of it. If man looks at a house, he will realize that the foundations were made for the wall and the wall was made for the ceiling, etc. He will conclude that the house was built by one who is knowledgeable of the building industry.

The conclusion is that whatever is made, its precision, minute details, marvelous system, certain and exact amounts tells us that its maker is fully familiar with these laws and symbols, knowledgeable of the measurements and systems the made item needs. From this onset, the cosmos, starting from the infinite atom and ending at the gigantic constellation, from the tiny cell to the largest planet, the systems and the very precise plans, tells us that the Creator of the cosmos is fully knowledgeable of all the secrets and laws it contains. It tells us that it is impossible for Him to be ignorant of them.

The Holy Quran has referred to this evidence when it said:

“Should He not know, the One Who created, the One Who understands the finest mysteries (and) is well acquainted (with them all)?!” (Qur’an, 67:14).

The Almighty has also said,

“We have created man and We know what dark suggestions his soul makes to him” (Qur’an, 50:16).

Our Imam, the Commander of the Faithful (as), has said, “He knows what shall be and what was; He created the beings with His knowledge, initiated them with His wisdom.”7

Imam Ali ibn Mousa al - Ridhah (as) has said, “Praise be to the One Who created creation with His might, perfected what He created with His wisdom and placed everything in its place with His knowledge.”8

It is to this evidence that al - Tusi, the critic, pointed out in abstracting belief saying, “… And precision is evidence of knowledge.”

So, you say that some animals may perform precise actions in organizing their homes and ways of living, as is the case with the bees, ants and many beasts and birds, although they are not masters of knowledge.

I say in response: The precision in action, which we have stated, proves that the doer’s knowledge is a mental case not liable for specificity. As for these animals, their work is the result of inspiration from their Creator as Quranic texts have stated. The most Praised One has said,

“And your Lord taught the bees to build their cells in hills, on trees, and in (men's) habitations. So eat of all the produce (of the earth), and find the spacious paths of your Lord with skill: From within their bodies, a drink of varying colors comes out in which (there) is healing for men: Truly (there) is a Sign in this for those who ponder” (Qur’an, 16:68 - 69).

Interpreting these wonderful actions, some people may render them to animal instincts. This does not contradict what we have stated. Mute instincts are no more than a blind matter that cannot find something balanced except when there is a higher command that leads them to what they are required to do. And this interpretation has room somewhere else.

His Knowledge, Glory to Him, of Things After Creating Them

You have come to know evidences about His knowledge of Himself and of His actions before creating things, and it is time now to look into His knowledge, Glory to Him, of His actions after creating and forming them. In this regard, we contend ourselves with both following evidences:

His Knowledge, Glory to Him, is Action

The external things end up in their status of existence at Allah, Glory to Him, and everything ends up at Him. Every effect is present at its cause, not being absent from it, nor is it obstructed from it. You have come to know the fact that knowledge is the presence of what is known with the one who knows it.

In other words, every existent thing other than Him is possible, be it is an essence and is incidental, external or mental. All are colored with the color of possibility, and there is no avoiding relying on it. Reliance is only presence with Him, His being fully acquainted with it, Glory to Him.9

In order to explain this evidence, we say this: Every possible thing is affected, in its coming into being, by Allah, the Glorified One. The effect has no meaning other than being attached to its cause and its standing for it in reality like the literal meaning of a noun. Just like the literal meaning, in all its affairs, it stands through the meaning of the noun, so is the effect. It stands through its cause. Just as the literal meaning being cut off from the name ends its presence, so is the effect when detached from the cause: It ends up at its being non - existent.

If you say, “I started my course from Basra,” there are noun meanings: course and Basra, and there is a literal meaning which is the starting of the course from that city. But the second meaning stands on both sides; without them, it cannot stand on its own. Similarly is the effect, that is, the possible implementation of presence. It stands through the one that implements it, not through its own actuality other than its being attached to its cause.

Otherwise, it will be required to be independent, and this, if we suppose it is possible, trails it. If there is such a thing, it will be outside its own cause. Getting out of its limits requires independence that cannot exist with something being probable. There must be caution in its regard and never abandon such caution since all things are present with Him. Presence is knowledge: You have come to know that knowledge is the knower possessing what is known.

Thereupon, the world, just as it is His doing, so is His knowledge, Glory to Him. In order to bring the picture closer to comprehension, notice the mental images created by the soul on the mind’s stage. They are the doing of the self and, at the same time, they are knowledge of them. The self does not need, in order to know these images, other images.

Likewise, the self encompasses these images, and they stand through the One Who undertakes them, who creates them. Such is the world in its precision and magnanimity: a creation of Allah, Glory to Him, which is sustained by Him. He fully encompasses it.

Expanse of His Presence is Evidence of His Knowledge

Irrefutable evidences have shown that His existence, Glory to Him, is above having a body, a matter, time and place. It is above any time or place restriction. Something like this has an unlimited and endless presence. Limits and restrictions are outcomes of a thing being restricted by time and place.

What exists in time and place does not go beyond the frame of its environment. As for the thing that is above these two restrictions, nothing limits it, nor is there anything that confines it. A thing the condition of which is as such knows everything and is not confined to anything. Rather, it encompasses everything.

In order to bring an example that brings the picture closer to comprehension, let us say that one who sits in a room and looks to the outside from a small opening in the wall does not see but a portion of the passing train. He is the opposite of one who stands on the roof or looks from a higher angle, such as from a plane.

Based on this principle, the more one is stripped of restrictions, the more and more knowledge of things he will have. Allah is above time and place, above each and every limit and restriction. Nothing encompasses Him that is located within the frame of time and place. Rather, He encompasses everything that takes place on the stage of existence.

Imam Ali (as) has pointed out to some of what we have stated saying, “Allah, the most Exalted and the most Great, is the ‘where’ of the ‘where’; there is no ‘where’ for Him. He is too great to be confined to a place, He is everywhere without getting in contact with a thing, without neighboring a thing. His knowledge encompasses it; nothing is empty of His management.”

We are going to recite some holy verses as we research His knowledge, Glory to Him, of the details.

Levels of His Knowledge, Glory to Him

It has become obvious from the above that His knowledge of things, Glory to Him, is of two levels:

First: He knows them before bringing them into existence, and you have already come to know the evidence for it.

Second: His knows of them after getting them out of the status of the self, and you have already come to know its evidence. All this is based on philosophical proofs. But the Holy Quran reminds us of His knowledge through manifestations which it sometimes expresses as the Preserved Tablet, other times as the Unfolded Scroll, a third time as the Clear Record, a fourth time as the Well - Guarded Book, a fifth time as the Guarding Book, a sixth time as the Book of Destiny, a seventh time as simply the Book, an eighth time as the Clear Imam, a ninth time as the Mother Book and a tenth time as the Tablet that blots out and confirms.

To the Preserved Tablet, the most Praised One refers saying,

“Nay! This is a glorious Qur'an, (inscribed) in a preserved tablet” (Qur’an, 85:21 - 22).

To the Unfolded Scroll He refers saying,

“By a decree inscribed in a scroll unfolded” (Qur’an, 52:2 - 3).

Referring to the Clear Record, He says,

“… nor anything fresh or dry (green or withered) but is (recorded) in a clear record (for those who can read)” (Qur’an, 6:59).

To the Well - Guarded Book He refers saying,

“That this indeed is a most honorable Qur'an, in a well - guarded Book” (Qur’an, 56:77 - 78).

To the Guarding Book, the Almighty refers saying,

“We already know how much of them the earth diminishes: With Us is a record guarding (the full account)” (Qur’an, 50:4).

To the Book of Destiny (term of death), He refers saying,

“Nor can a soul die except by God's leave, the term being fixed in writing” (Qur’an, 3:145).

When He simply refers to the Book, He says,

“We gave (clear) warning to the Children of Israel in the Book…” (Qur’an, 17:4).

The Holy Quran makes a reference to “the Clear Imam” in Surat Ya - Sin:

“We have taken account of all things in a clear Imam” (Qur’an, 36:12).

To the “Mother Book”, the Almighty refers saying,

“And indeed it is in the Mother Book, in Our presence, high (in dignity), full of wisdom” (Qur’an, 43:4).

And to the Tablet that blots out and confirms, the Almighty refers saying in His Book,

“Allah blots out or confirms whatever He pleases: The mother of the Book is with Him” (Qur’an, 13:39).

We have contended ourselves with referring to each Book with one verse although there are many.

Scholars of exegesis have differed among themselves about the truth of these books and their details. Some say that they are stripped of matter and material, so much so that it is right to regard them as manifestations of His endless knowledge. And there are those who say that they are material tablets and books in which things, their life spans and periods are recorded by way of symbols. Both opinions cannot be taken for granted. Rather, believing in them and looking into their exegesis must be done through the Book (Quran) and the authentic Sunnah.

It is also regarded, among the manifestations of His knowledge, is decree and destiny that we will discuss in a special chapter by His leave.

Two interesting items have to be pointed out here:

His Knowledge, Glory to Him, is Presential, not Incidental

You have come to know the difference between the incidental and the presential types of knowledge, so we do not wish to repeat ourselves. But what must be pointed out is that His knowledge, Glory to Him, of His own self and of His action is presential. As for His knowledge of His entity, it is due to such entity never being absent from Him, it is always present with Him. As for His knowledge of things, you have come to know that it is of two types.

First: Knowledge of the self is knowledge of the calculation that results in things, and knowledge of such calculation is knowledge of things. Thus, it becomes clear that His knowledge, Glory to Him, of Himself reveals in detail the things in the way that is appropriate for Him.

Second: The presence of probabilities whenever necessary. What is probable stands through the presence of the Creator, Glory to Him, in its taking place and in its sustenance. His being self - sustaining, Glory to Him, is like the meaning of the letters composing a name. This type of existence does not permit absence, for the latter spells its non - existence and annihilation. So, if the possible existents have this characteristic, how can one imagine that He is separate from them?

It is nothing but supposing their non - existence and non - presence. Thereupon, the world, in all its particles, is the outcome of His own action, Glory to Him, of His own bringing it into being. At the same time, it is present with him. Such presence is His knowledge. Allah’s knowledge and His action are two different concepts, but they are in agreement on the outside.

As regarding whether or not He has beyond the present knowledge an incidental knowledge, researching it is the task of detailed books. Peripatetian philosophers have claimed that He, Glory to Him, has an incidental knowledge that they label as painted images.

His Knowledge, Glory to Him, of Details

It is amazing how some philosophers go as far as denying His knowledge, Glory to Him, of details. They are influenced by some flimsy misconceptions. You will be familiar with the answers to some of them. Carefully discerning what we have stated about the probable existents, you will find it obvious that His knowledge, Glory to Him, of the details is quite clear. Its reality is clear if you understand how creation is, how existence is only due to the outgiving of Allah, Glory to Him, and here is its explanation:

The cosmos, with everything it incorporates, from the atom to the constellation, regenerates; it is always changing, not only in its incidental characteristics and outer shapes but also in its essence and entity. What appears to the onlooker to be fixed, stable and immovable in the natural world is actually the fault of the senses. The reality is different. In all its atoms, matter is subject to alteration, change and flow in every time and place.

The meaning of change in the world of the matter is the regeneration of its existence, the flowing of its coming to be time and over again. Every material phenomenon is preceded by a time void. The presence of matter, which came to be through a gradual and flowing process, is like a spring the water of which continuously gushes out. It does not have a presence, firmness, immobility and stability.

If creation and existence are the outcome of a gradual and sequential process, and the effect cannot come out of the limits of its cause, it seems that the world, in its atoms and particles, as it was made by Allah Almighty, is known to Him. Gradual outpouring and presence in the form of a gradual process which He, Glory to Him, has set up, necessitates His knowledge, Glory and Exaltation belong to Him, of the outer details.

Deniers’ Misconceptions

You have already come to know that His knowledge of the particulars, Glory to Him, and the rest of discussion in analyzing the misconceptions raised in this field, and here are their explanations:

First Misconception: Knowledge of Details Inheres Change in His Knowledge

They have said that if He, Glory to Him, knows the details that go on in the cosmos, it becomes mandatory for His knowledge to change according to the change of what is known. Otherwise, conformity would have been non - existent. Since time details change, and had they been known to Allah Almighty, this would have necessitated change to His knowledge, which is impossible.

This has been explained by allama Ibn Maytham al - Bahrani who says, “Some of them have denied His being knowledgeable of the details according to the changing partial variable; rather, He knows them as things that are comprehensible essences. Their argument is that had He known that Zaid was sitting in this house, after his departure, when His first knowledge remains, becomes ignorance, and if is removed, change becomes a must.”10

Misconception Analyzed

This misconception is extremely weak, and its rebuttal is:

First: The revocation might. If knowledge of details requires it to change when what is known changes, it also becomes a must to change its ability due to its being relevant to details, while the ability is one of the characteristics of the self. So, what is the answer in the ability aspect, and what is the answer in the knowledge aspect?

Second: Through resolution. Our knowledge of events that are in various periods of time is knowledge of time, as for His knowledge, the most Exalted One that He is, it is not conditioned by time at all. There is no present, past and future here. These adverbs are relevant to time when measured according to time - related existents, the time in which one lives. When one does something, it is said that he is doing it during a particular time. What he did is labeled as past. And what he will do is called future.

As for what exists outside the frame of time, environment and place, it cannot be imagined in His regard that there is any past, present and future. Allah, Glory to Him, knows all fractional events as a whole, not with regard to some of them taking place in the present, some in the past and some in the future. Rather, He knows them through knowledge that is inclusive, one that is above being subjected to time conditions.

In other words, since the Almighty dos not occupy a space (just as He is never subject to time), relating Him to all places alike is not by measuring them with Him so as one would say that it is near, distant, medium. Thereupon, His relevance to all things, in all times, is one and the same. What is present since time immemorial, and what remains forever, is attributed to Him and there is nothing in His knowledge that “was”, “is” and “will be”.

Rather, they all are present with Him in all their details but not with regard to time having anything to do with them according to their three characteristics. They cannot be applied to Him, the most High. Such knowledge is not variable but continuous, such as the knowledge of totalities.

In order to bring this closer to comprehension, we bring about this example. If the street is full of cars that pass one after the other, and if someone is looking at them from a narrow window, he sees each moment a passing car. The cars will then, relevant to him, are of three types: one has already passed, one is now passing and one is yet to pass. This division is sound as related to him in this situation.

Based on this premise, the existent which is above the restrictions of time and the limits of place is familiar with all things once, and the changing existents are painted with the hue of stability in as far as He is concerned.

Knowledge in the example brought while explaining the misconception, that is, Zaid sitting for a while at home, then he came out of it at another time, is relevant to sitting and coming out once and there is no sense here for advancing and delaying.

Another Way to Resolve Misconception

This misconception is based on the supposition that His knowledge of things, Praised is He, is incidental through the drawn images that stand through Him, Glory to Him, the change in what is known will then be concurrent with the images that stand through Him. This will require His essence being the place for change and alteration.

But if we say that His knowledge of the details, Glory to Him, is presential, that is, the things, in their outer identities and self realities, are the products of His own doing, Glory to Him, and at the same time His knowledge, there is no objection, then, to say that a change has taken place to His knowledge, Glory to Him, as a result of a change that took place to the existent things.

This is so because the knowledge that depends on His knowledge is the one described as being innate. As for the operative knowledge, that is, the knowledge that stands in the position of an action, there is no objection if it changes as His action changes. The knowledge that stands in the position of the action is no more than the knowledge of the same action and nothing else. It is to this conclusion that the critic al - Tusi refers when he says, “The changes of additions is possible.”11

In other words, change is what is added, not in the entity itself. What is meant by additions is His action, which is His knowledge. There is no objection for a change to take place in the additions and attachments while no change takes place to the entity itself.

Second Misconception: Realizing Details Needs a Mechanism

Realizing the details needs material tools and physical mechanisms, while the most Glorified One is above having a body or physical requirements.

The answer to this misconception is obvious. Knowledge of details acquired through material tools is the affair of one who is not familiar with how to perpetuate their maintenance, and things do not stand through him but are present in his possession, such as humans. Man’s knowledge is through extracting images through sense - related tools. Therefore, realizing details depends on these tools and on their functions.

When it comes to the Almighty, since His knowledge encompasses all things, and since He truly sustains them, His knowledge does not depend on tools and on their functions.

It is to this answer that the virtuous al - Qoshaji refers as he explains abstraction saying, “Realizing details needs a physical mechanism if the knowledge (of them) comes through extracting images. But if it is a pure addition, without an image, there is no need for it.”12

Third Misconception: Knowledge of Details Requires Plurality

Knowledge is an image that is equivalent to what is known and drawn to the one who knows it. There is no doubt that things have various images. The abundance of known things requires abundance of the single self from all aspects.13

The answer to this misconception, as you have already come to know, is clear, too. It is based on His knowledge of things being drawn within Him, Glory to Him, similarly to things drawn within the human self, so this requires plurality in the single self. You have already come to know that His knowledge of things is not like that. Rather, the outside identities are present with Him, with His Self, without any images, and this type of knowledge is stronger than that in which things produce images.

Fourth Misconception: Knowledge of Details Requires Turning What is Probable into a Must

If knowledge of a variable takes place prior to its variation, such knowledge becomes a must. Otherwise, it is possible there is no such requirement. Hence, His knowledge, the most Exalted One, turns into ignorance, which is impossible.14

In other words, the knowledge of the most Exalted One is not relevant to events prior to their taking place. Otherwise, this will require the events being both possible and a must at the same time. As for the first, it is due to their taking place. As for the second, without Him, it would be possible that they would not have existed; thus, His knowledge turns into ignorance.

The answer to this misconception is obvious. What is impossible is the combination of what can by itself be and also what must by itself be. As for the combination of what by itself is possible with what must be (existent) as a must through others, there is no doubt about it. The effect, in the full presence of the cause, is by itself probable and a must through others.

Thereupon, if His knowledge, Praise belongs to Him, hinges on the presence of an event at a particular time, His knowledge, Praise belongs to Him, does not get Him out of the self probability. The ultimate requirement for His knowledge (of something) being in agreement with the reality is that something exists through something else, whether the cause behind it is Allah, Glory to Him, or someone else, and it is in agreement with what is probably by its own self.

Briefly, the event that takes place during a certain circumstance does not get out of the limit of probability after being attached to His knowledge, the most Exalted One, and the full cause for it takes place. The creation, all of it, is possible by itself while, at the same time, it is a must through someone else.

The Holy Quran and the Expanse of His Knowledge, the Most Exalted One

From what we have already stated, we can grasp the greatness of the (Quranic) phrase that says, “Allah’s knowledge encompasses everything.” It means that the Almighty knows what has already passed, what will come to pass, and what is in existence in the universe, the secrets and the symbols.

The most Praised One says,

“The keys of the unseen, the treasures that none but He knows, are with Him. He knows whatever there is on the earth and in the sea. Not a leaf falls but with His knowledge: There is no grain in the darkness (depths) of the earth, nor anything fresh or dry (green or withered), but is (recorded) in a clear record” (Qur’an, 6:59).

The most Praised One also states,

“Say: ‘Whether you hide what is in your hearts or reveal it, Allah knows it all: He knows what is in the heavens and what is on earth. And Allah has might over all things’” (Qur’an, 3:29);

“Allah knows what every female (womb) bears, and that of which the wombs fall short (of term) or exceed. Every single thing is before His sight in (due) proportion” (Qur’an, 13:8);

“We have created man and We know what dark suggestions his soul makes to him, for We are nearer to him than his life - vein” (Qur’an, 50:16),

and

“The One Who knows the unseen and from Whom not the least tiny atom in the heavens or on earth is hidden, nor is there anything less than that, or greater, but is in a clear record” (Qur’an, 34:3).

There are other verses that refer to the Almighty’s knowledge of all details.

Loftiness of the Quranic Expression About the Expanse of His Knowledge

One of the most complex concepts is imagining the concept of what is infinite as a fact and a reality. Man is still dealing in his life with limited matters. Therefore, imagining something infinite is a very difficult problem for him. This system, the stars that it contains, is only a portion of our expansive constellation. Despite that, the part and the whole are endless in as far as the particles and compositions are concerned. The largest figure an ordinary individual knows how to use in his life is the billion: the number 1 before which nine zeros line up.

Also, the human civilization, because of its coming to perfection through mathematical sciences, has reached what is called astronomical numbers/figures. Nevertheless, all numbers, including the “astronomical” ones, which mankind has reached, cannot be described as infinite. When the Holy Quran wants to explain His knowledge, Glory to Him, as being infinite, it does not use numbers and mathematical figures or even the “astronomical” ones because they all end up at a certain limit/point.

Instead, it brings about a superb example that shows the expanse of His knowledge. He says,

“And if all trees on earth were pens and ocean (were ink), with seven oceans behind it to add to its (supply), God's words would still not be exhausted (in the writing), for Allah is Exalted in might, full of wisdom” (Qur’an, 31:27).

Look at this magnificent expression which is superior to all others, and see how you find no mathematical figure that depicts the expanse of His knowledge, Glory to Him, equivalently to His saying “…God's words would still not be exhausted”. If one were to say that the extent of His knowledge is the figure one before which there are hundreds of zeros, he will not convey the meaning of His statement: “…God's words would still not be exhausted”. Thus, you come to know the truth of His statement, Glory to Him,

“Only little knowledge is communicated to you, (O mankind!)” (Qur’an, 17:85).

It expresses the limitation of human measurements and criteria. It also expresses how little, how minute, mankind’s knowledge is.

Statements by Imam Ali (as) About the Knowledge of the Most Exalted One of Details

Commander of the Faithful Ali (as) has said, “The number of rain drops is not beyond His knowledge, nor is it the number of the stars in the sky, the particles of dust carried by the wind, the sound of ants on soft rocks, or where particles fall in the dark night. He knows where leaves fall, what visions conceal.”15

He, peace with him, has also said, “Praise belongs to Allah Who knows the dust raised by the beasts in the plains, the sins of His servants which they commit in privacy, the places where sea creatures go, and the tumultuous water stirred by storms.”16

He (as) has also said, “He knows what the chests hide, what the consciences conceal; His knowledge encompasses everything.”17

Up to this point, talk comes to an end about the positive entitative attribute that is knowledge. The following discussion covers the second attribute which is potence, that is, His being Omni - Potent, Mighty, Able, Powerful, if the most Praised One so wills.

3. Self - Affirmative Attributes

Notes

1. The one who seeks such evidence is the French philosopher Rene Descartes.

2. The goal behind this definition is only to point out in a way to the truth of the knowledge without observing the condition of a true definition, so it must not be criticized as requiring a role so the one who defines it may derive it in the definition.

3. Refer to Al - Asfar, Vol. 6, p. 176. You will come to know in the next researches that His Attributes are His own Self.

4. Murad fi Tajrid al - Itiqad كشف المراد في تجريد الاعتقاد , p. 175 and Sharh al - Qawshaji شرح القوشجي , p. 313.

5. Al - Asfarالأسفار , Vol. 6, p. 275. Refer also in this regard to abstractions and its explanations.

6. Sharh al - Manzouma شرح المنظومة , philosophy section, p. 164.

7. Nahjul - Balagha, pieces of wisdom section, No. 191.

8. Bihar al - Anwar, Vol. 4, p. 65.

9. Kashf al - Murad, p. 175.

10. Qawaid al - Maram, p. 98.

11. Tajrid al - Itiqad, p. 176.

12. Al - Qoshaji, Sharh al - Itiqad, p. 414.

13. Ibid.

14. Kashf al - Murad, p. 176.

15. Nahjul - Balagha, sermon 178.

16. Ibid., sermon 198.

17. Ibid., sermon 86.

Knowledge

Theologians are unanimous about knowledge being one of the perfect self - attributes of Allah, and that “al - Aalim العالم ” is one of His Supreme Names (Attributes). No two persons contest it, so in order to explain, we have to prepare for the topic with a precept.

What is Knowledge?

Knowledge is defined as an image resulting from a thing on the mind’s page. Or it is a reflection coming out on the mind when one is in contact with the outside. Men of wisdom have derived this definition from the sciences in circulation among people.

But this definition is incomplete because it does not cover some sections of knowledge. Knowledge is categorized as either incidental or ever - present. The said definition suits the first rather than the second. Let us explain both categories for you.

When man casts a look at the outside and observes the cosmos that surrounds him, the trees and the rocks, the sun and the moon, etc., he earns a realization, and the outside thing is realized only through the mediation of an image between the person who realizes and the thing which he realizes. This image is extracted from the outside through tools of knowledge, and then it moves to the centers of comprehension.

Trees are identified when they are exhibited, the image is known through the self, whereas man is the one who knows. We have called the thing as being in the outside known through exhibiting and the image as being known through the self because the outside is known to us via this image, without it, the link between man and reality is severed.

In other words, the outside reality is not present with us in this feature because the outside thing has an outside effect such as heat coming out of fire, wetness from water, weight from rocks and iron, etc. It is known that the outside thing does not come to our minds with these characteristics. For this reason, the outside thing has become known through exhibiting and the image is known through the self due to man always experiencing mental images.

Thus, you come to know the definition of incidental knowledge. It is the knowledge in which the outside reality is known not by itself but through the mediation of an exact image of it. All tools of the senses are employed in the service of this knowledge. It depends on three pillars: one who realizes, the outside, and the image. Do not think that this is an admission of the originality of the image and of the outside being a branch thereof.

There is no doubt that the matter is the opposite. The outside is the origin and the image is extracted from it, telling us about it. But what the mind practices and employs is the image that it has, not the same outside. This mental image is its only means to realize the outside and to be aware of it.

Up to here, you have come to know the definition of incidental know - ledge. As regarding the ever - present knowledge, it is the realizing person being aware of the presence of what he realizes without the mediation of anything, and it has two parts:

1. There is no mediation between the realizing person and what he realizes, while the first is not being aware of the reality. This knowledge is reached through the same image that is extracted from the outside. This is so because the outside is realized through the image. As for the image itself, it is known by the self, and there is no mediation between it and the realizing person. When one comes in contact with the outside through the mental image, he will achieve two types of knowledge: One is incidental in its capacity as knowledge of the outside through the image method, and one is present by regarding his knowledge as having been attained through the same image, its presence and reality being realized by the individual.

Thus, you come to know an essential difference between both norms of knowledge. What is known in the incidental knowledge is not present to the one who realizes it in its reality, as you have come to know. With the ever - present one, what is known is present with him in its reality, and this is similar to the mental knowledge image. Through its reality, which does not depart from being a mental existent thing, it is present to man. Thus, the incidental knowledge has three branches, whereas what is ever - present has two in as far as this part is concerned.

2. Knowledge in which there is no mediation at all between the person who realizes it and what he realizes is united through the self and is different according to noticing and considering. It is like man knowing and realizing his own self. The reality of every human being is present by itself with him, not absent from him. He sees himself rationally, senses it through his senses and conscience, and sees it present with him without any mediation between the realizing person and the self that he realizes.

In this case, knowledge becomes unilateral, not bilateral and tripartite as is the case in the first part (above). It is then that the one who realizes and what he realizes are both united, and man’s self becomes knowledge and a discovery. Among the present knowledge is man’s awareness of his feelings, happiness and pain. They all are present without any mediating image.

Thus, you come to know about the weakness of the conclusion about man’s presence having taken place through his own thinking, so it is said, “I think, therefore I exist.” It seeks evidence from the presence of thinking to indicate the presence of the thinker.1 The aspects of weakness are:

First: Man’s knowledge of himself is a necessity, it does not need a proof. Man’s contemplation is not clearer than his self - awareness, his being aware of his knowledge of his entity, of himself.

Second: The one seeking evidence has admitted the result at the beginning of his evidence when he said “I think.” He has taken his presence as being pre - supposed, taken for granted, and then he has tried to find evidence of it.

Inclusive Definition

In the light of what we have stated, i.e. dividing knowledge to incidental and present, it is accurate to say that knowledge, in the absolute sense, is “the presence of what is known with the one who knows it.” This definition covers knowledge in both its types.2 Yet what is present in the first is the mental image rather than the outside reality. In the second, it is the same reality of what is known without any mediator between it and the one who knows it.

The mental image in the incidental knowledge is present with man, not absent from him. Also, the same man in the present knowledge is present with him, within him, since it is standing on its own. It is called knowledgeable. Since it is exposed to itself, not absent from it, it is regarded as being known. Since there is presence, not absence, this presence is called knowledge.

This definition is comprehensive, inclusive of all types of resulting knowledge in what is possible and what is a must. If you grasp this precept, the research in His knowledge, Glory to Him, stands once on its own and once due to His actions (the things that are outside His entity).

His Knowledge, Glory to Him, of Himself

His knowledge, Praise is due to Him, of His entity is not incidental, i.e. He takes the image from the Self and witnesses it through such a way. The reason is that such type of knowledge cannot be known about Him, as we will see later. Rather, it is ever - present, i.e. He is present by Himself and for Himself. Two evidences prove it:

First: One who grants perfection cannot lack it.

He, Praise belongs to Him, created mankind and the world by Himself through His ever - present knowledge. One Who grants such perfection has to create it in the best of way, the most perfect, because one who lacks perfection cannot grant it. He creates it the best that it can be. Although we are not familiar, and we will never be familiar, with the particularity of the ever - presence of His self with Himself, we refer to this knowledge as “the presence of His entity is with Him, and His knowledge of it without an intermediary is obvious.”

His knowledge, Glory to Him, of Himself

His knowledge of Himself, Glory belongs to Him, is not incidental, that is, His takes the image from the self and witnesses it through this way. This is not so because this type of knowledge does not apply to Him as you will come to know. Rather, it is present, that is, He is present for His own self. There are two matters that prove it:

First: One who bestows perfection cannot be lacking it.

He, Glory belongs to Him, created man, who is aware of his presence at present. One Who grants this perfection has to be creating it in the best and most perfect way because one who lacks perfection cannot be the one who bestows it; He surely is the One Who creates it as best as can be. Although we are not, and we will never be, familiar with the particularity of His presence by Himself, we term this knowledge as “the presence of His entity with Him and His knowledge of it without a mediation in - between.”

Briefly, one who enjoys intellectual commonsense does not find it rational to think that one who grants perfection can be without it, lacking it; otherwise, the one who receives the boon will be better than the one who grants it, and the one who is deriving the benefit is better than the one who grants the benefit. Since all possibilities have been proven to be rendered to Him, including the Knowledgeable entity itself, it becomes a must that the One Who creates this perfection should be knowledgeable by Himself, knowledge which is innate, not superfluous.3

Second: Factors of absence and disappearance of the self are non - existent.

To explain, we say that since the material existent is present in quantity, ratios and parts that have no collective presence, since its parts do not gather in one (and the same) status, some of its parts are absent from others. So, it is not right for the material existent, due to its being a matter, to be aware of itself by itself due to the absence that controls its own parts.

Absence contrasts the presence of the self. It prevents the attainment of the self - knowing itself (by itself). So, if the one who is present is above being absent, taken apart, his parts can be put together, a simple existent, as a whole, rather than parts and particles, his entity is ever - present, and it has an absolutely complete presence. Thus, we see the presence of our selves by our own selves, but not in the sense of some parts of our bodies being present, but in the sense we have the presence of a human reality expressed by the term “I” which is above quantity, parts and particles.

So, if we suppose there is an existent at a high level of abstraction and simplicity, having no absence factors, which are among the features of a material being, his entity is present with him. This is the meaning of His knowledge, Glory to Him, of His own Self, that is, an innate presence that stands by itself in the most perfect way because it is above being material, a composition and a division as you will see the proof for His simplicity when we discuss the negative attributes.

There are other proofs that we have avoided in order to be brief. Yet some folks deny that He knows through His own self, and here is the explanation of their belief.

Self - Knowledge Requires Variation

Those who deny His knowledge, Glory to Him, of Himself by saying that knowledge is a standing ratio between the one who knows and the thing which he knows, and the ratio is usually between two different things, and the ratio of the thing to itself is impossible, since there is no variation here, nor is there duality. Briefly, the one thing, I mean the Almighty, Glory to Him, is One, a ratio cannot be imagined as existing in Him.

Critics have rebutted it with this gist: Multiplicity and variation exist in incidental knowledge because it is the adding of the one who knows to the outside through the mental image, so in it, the known image is not the same as the outside identity. As regarding present knowledge, there is no requirement in it to have external variation; rather, multiplicity suffices for consideration.

For example, He, Glory to Him, has an entity that is never absent from Himself. So, He knows, and since His entity is ever - present, it is known.

In other words, the terms of: knowledge, one who knows, something known, etc. are used for the sake of calculations and considerations. Considering the self’s revelation to the self is called “knowledge”, and the self is exposed to the self is called “a piece of knowledge.” Considering its familiarity with itself is called “knowledgeable.” If you consider how man gets to know himself, it may be easier for you to believe in all of this.

What we have stated is due to the critics saying that differentiation may be through the self, and it may be through a sort of consideration. Here, the Self of the Almighty, since it is knowledgeable and is different from it because it is known, this suffices for knowledge to be attached to it.4

His knowledge, the Glorified One, of Things before Creating Them

His knowledge, Glory belongs to Him, of things is of two types: pre - creating knowledge, post - creating knowledge. The first is the one that we see to be one of the most important issues in the science of logic. Here is the proof for it:

Knowledge through Causality is Knowledge of Causer

Knowing the cause, as a cause, is knowing the causer, the one that caused it. Knowing the objective, as such, is knowing the existence of its effect. What is meant by knowing the objective is knowing the method which became a principle for the presence of the effect and for its taking place. In order to explain this principle, we use the following examples.

Knowing Causality is Knowing the Causer

Knowing the cause, as a cause, is knowing the causer, the one that causes it. And knowing the reason, as a reason, is knowing the effect. What is meant by the cause is knowing how it became a principle for finding the effect, for making it happen. In order to explain this principle, let us provide the following examples:

A. An astrologer who knows the astrological laws and cosmic computations gets to know that the eclipse of the sun or of the moon or the like takes place at a certain time or in a particular situation. His knowledge of these eventualities is nothing but his knowing the cause behind them.

B. The physician who knows the cases and types of the pulse as well as the conditions and situations of the heart can predict what will happen to a patient in the future. Such knowledge is nothing but his knowing the cause as such.

C. A pharmacist who knows the particularity of poison when one drinks it can inform us that the life of such a person will end at a certain period of time.

If you come to know these examples, we say that the world, all of it, is the effect of His Presence, Glory belongs to Him, and has no cause other than Him, Praise belongs to Him. Knowing the self is knowing the way that caused the world to come to be, the cause behind its existence.

In other words, knowledge the self, the indications of which you have already come to know, is knowing the way the entire cosmos came to be, and knowing this way is attached to knowing the effect. This evidence is based on precepts taken for granted by the theologians to the summary of which we would like to point out as follows:

First: The world, in all its parts, relies on Him, the most Praised One that He is, and this is the requirement for the Unity of the Creator, and that there is no creator other than Him.

Second: The causality of something is that it includes a particularity that requires the effect producing it, and it definitely positively requires the presence of the effect in the outside so as without this particularity, the effect will not come to be. For this reason, there is a special connecting link between the standing particularity relevant to the cause and the existence of the effect that requires the existence of the effect. Had it not been for that particularity, the ratio of the effect to the cause, and to others than lack it, would have been equal, although it by necessity is nil.

The particularity that exists in the fire, which brings about heat, is not the same particularity that is present in the water, which brings about wetness.

Third: His effect, the Almighty, on others is through His own Self, not through an incidental particularity, an entity that is superfluous to Him. He by Himself is the doer of everything, as is required by the simplicity of His own Self and His lack of need for anything at all (the superfluous particularity) beside Himself. The most Praised and Exalted One by necessity is the doer on His own; He does not act through a method attached to His own self.

Fourth: Knowing the entity that requires a thing is knowledge of the thing itself.

This discussion results in concluding that the Knowledge of the Almighty, by itself, is the knowledge of His particularity, entity, and it is inseparable from Him, I mean His knowledge of things requires such a connection, a link.

Great men of logic and philosophy have pointed out to the above. The head of theologians, Mulla Sadra (Sadr ad - Deen), has said, “The Self of the Praised One, as the cause behind all things, due to the latter’s presence, and the knowledge of the cause requires knowing their effects; realizing them from this standpoint requires their arrangement one after the other.”5

The wise Sabzawari refers to the same in a poem in which he says:

One who knows things other than Him and who relies on Him

Testifies to the cause behind the knowledge as one

Of knowing the effect, an unavoidable must.6

Precision and Perfection Prove His Knowledge of What He Makes.

Noticing any simple or complex set (an electronic pen or a computer) tells us that its maker is one who knows the laws and relations that govern it. A huge encyclopedia points out to the knowledge of those who wrote and compiled its texts.

In other words, the existence of the effect indicates the existence of the cause. Its details lead to its being particular to its own cause. The precision of composition of the things that exist in the world, as a creation of Allah, Glory to Him, prove that their Maker is knowledgeable of what He creates, familiar with what He makes. The details that make up a created thing lead us to the Attributes of the One Who has created it.

This evidence has been of interest to thinkers. What is made indicates, from the standpoint of arrangement of parts, that is, the parts are made for each other in order to serve the purpose of what is made, that it did not result from a maker who is not familiar with these details. Rather, it was made by a maker who organized it for a purpose, so he has to be knowledgeable of it. If man looks at a house, he will realize that the foundations were made for the wall and the wall was made for the ceiling, etc. He will conclude that the house was built by one who is knowledgeable of the building industry.

The conclusion is that whatever is made, its precision, minute details, marvelous system, certain and exact amounts tells us that its maker is fully familiar with these laws and symbols, knowledgeable of the measurements and systems the made item needs. From this onset, the cosmos, starting from the infinite atom and ending at the gigantic constellation, from the tiny cell to the largest planet, the systems and the very precise plans, tells us that the Creator of the cosmos is fully knowledgeable of all the secrets and laws it contains. It tells us that it is impossible for Him to be ignorant of them.

The Holy Quran has referred to this evidence when it said:

“Should He not know, the One Who created, the One Who understands the finest mysteries (and) is well acquainted (with them all)?!” (Qur’an, 67:14).

The Almighty has also said,

“We have created man and We know what dark suggestions his soul makes to him” (Qur’an, 50:16).

Our Imam, the Commander of the Faithful (as), has said, “He knows what shall be and what was; He created the beings with His knowledge, initiated them with His wisdom.”7

Imam Ali ibn Mousa al - Ridhah (as) has said, “Praise be to the One Who created creation with His might, perfected what He created with His wisdom and placed everything in its place with His knowledge.”8

It is to this evidence that al - Tusi, the critic, pointed out in abstracting belief saying, “… And precision is evidence of knowledge.”

So, you say that some animals may perform precise actions in organizing their homes and ways of living, as is the case with the bees, ants and many beasts and birds, although they are not masters of knowledge.

I say in response: The precision in action, which we have stated, proves that the doer’s knowledge is a mental case not liable for specificity. As for these animals, their work is the result of inspiration from their Creator as Quranic texts have stated. The most Praised One has said,

“And your Lord taught the bees to build their cells in hills, on trees, and in (men's) habitations. So eat of all the produce (of the earth), and find the spacious paths of your Lord with skill: From within their bodies, a drink of varying colors comes out in which (there) is healing for men: Truly (there) is a Sign in this for those who ponder” (Qur’an, 16:68 - 69).

Interpreting these wonderful actions, some people may render them to animal instincts. This does not contradict what we have stated. Mute instincts are no more than a blind matter that cannot find something balanced except when there is a higher command that leads them to what they are required to do. And this interpretation has room somewhere else.

His Knowledge, Glory to Him, of Things After Creating Them

You have come to know evidences about His knowledge of Himself and of His actions before creating things, and it is time now to look into His knowledge, Glory to Him, of His actions after creating and forming them. In this regard, we contend ourselves with both following evidences:

His Knowledge, Glory to Him, is Action

The external things end up in their status of existence at Allah, Glory to Him, and everything ends up at Him. Every effect is present at its cause, not being absent from it, nor is it obstructed from it. You have come to know the fact that knowledge is the presence of what is known with the one who knows it.

In other words, every existent thing other than Him is possible, be it is an essence and is incidental, external or mental. All are colored with the color of possibility, and there is no avoiding relying on it. Reliance is only presence with Him, His being fully acquainted with it, Glory to Him.9

In order to explain this evidence, we say this: Every possible thing is affected, in its coming into being, by Allah, the Glorified One. The effect has no meaning other than being attached to its cause and its standing for it in reality like the literal meaning of a noun. Just like the literal meaning, in all its affairs, it stands through the meaning of the noun, so is the effect. It stands through its cause. Just as the literal meaning being cut off from the name ends its presence, so is the effect when detached from the cause: It ends up at its being non - existent.

If you say, “I started my course from Basra,” there are noun meanings: course and Basra, and there is a literal meaning which is the starting of the course from that city. But the second meaning stands on both sides; without them, it cannot stand on its own. Similarly is the effect, that is, the possible implementation of presence. It stands through the one that implements it, not through its own actuality other than its being attached to its cause.

Otherwise, it will be required to be independent, and this, if we suppose it is possible, trails it. If there is such a thing, it will be outside its own cause. Getting out of its limits requires independence that cannot exist with something being probable. There must be caution in its regard and never abandon such caution since all things are present with Him. Presence is knowledge: You have come to know that knowledge is the knower possessing what is known.

Thereupon, the world, just as it is His doing, so is His knowledge, Glory to Him. In order to bring the picture closer to comprehension, notice the mental images created by the soul on the mind’s stage. They are the doing of the self and, at the same time, they are knowledge of them. The self does not need, in order to know these images, other images.

Likewise, the self encompasses these images, and they stand through the One Who undertakes them, who creates them. Such is the world in its precision and magnanimity: a creation of Allah, Glory to Him, which is sustained by Him. He fully encompasses it.

Expanse of His Presence is Evidence of His Knowledge

Irrefutable evidences have shown that His existence, Glory to Him, is above having a body, a matter, time and place. It is above any time or place restriction. Something like this has an unlimited and endless presence. Limits and restrictions are outcomes of a thing being restricted by time and place.

What exists in time and place does not go beyond the frame of its environment. As for the thing that is above these two restrictions, nothing limits it, nor is there anything that confines it. A thing the condition of which is as such knows everything and is not confined to anything. Rather, it encompasses everything.

In order to bring an example that brings the picture closer to comprehension, let us say that one who sits in a room and looks to the outside from a small opening in the wall does not see but a portion of the passing train. He is the opposite of one who stands on the roof or looks from a higher angle, such as from a plane.

Based on this principle, the more one is stripped of restrictions, the more and more knowledge of things he will have. Allah is above time and place, above each and every limit and restriction. Nothing encompasses Him that is located within the frame of time and place. Rather, He encompasses everything that takes place on the stage of existence.

Imam Ali (as) has pointed out to some of what we have stated saying, “Allah, the most Exalted and the most Great, is the ‘where’ of the ‘where’; there is no ‘where’ for Him. He is too great to be confined to a place, He is everywhere without getting in contact with a thing, without neighboring a thing. His knowledge encompasses it; nothing is empty of His management.”

We are going to recite some holy verses as we research His knowledge, Glory to Him, of the details.

Levels of His Knowledge, Glory to Him

It has become obvious from the above that His knowledge of things, Glory to Him, is of two levels:

First: He knows them before bringing them into existence, and you have already come to know the evidence for it.

Second: His knows of them after getting them out of the status of the self, and you have already come to know its evidence. All this is based on philosophical proofs. But the Holy Quran reminds us of His knowledge through manifestations which it sometimes expresses as the Preserved Tablet, other times as the Unfolded Scroll, a third time as the Clear Record, a fourth time as the Well - Guarded Book, a fifth time as the Guarding Book, a sixth time as the Book of Destiny, a seventh time as simply the Book, an eighth time as the Clear Imam, a ninth time as the Mother Book and a tenth time as the Tablet that blots out and confirms.

To the Preserved Tablet, the most Praised One refers saying,

“Nay! This is a glorious Qur'an, (inscribed) in a preserved tablet” (Qur’an, 85:21 - 22).

To the Unfolded Scroll He refers saying,

“By a decree inscribed in a scroll unfolded” (Qur’an, 52:2 - 3).

Referring to the Clear Record, He says,

“… nor anything fresh or dry (green or withered) but is (recorded) in a clear record (for those who can read)” (Qur’an, 6:59).

To the Well - Guarded Book He refers saying,

“That this indeed is a most honorable Qur'an, in a well - guarded Book” (Qur’an, 56:77 - 78).

To the Guarding Book, the Almighty refers saying,

“We already know how much of them the earth diminishes: With Us is a record guarding (the full account)” (Qur’an, 50:4).

To the Book of Destiny (term of death), He refers saying,

“Nor can a soul die except by God's leave, the term being fixed in writing” (Qur’an, 3:145).

When He simply refers to the Book, He says,

“We gave (clear) warning to the Children of Israel in the Book…” (Qur’an, 17:4).

The Holy Quran makes a reference to “the Clear Imam” in Surat Ya - Sin:

“We have taken account of all things in a clear Imam” (Qur’an, 36:12).

To the “Mother Book”, the Almighty refers saying,

“And indeed it is in the Mother Book, in Our presence, high (in dignity), full of wisdom” (Qur’an, 43:4).

And to the Tablet that blots out and confirms, the Almighty refers saying in His Book,

“Allah blots out or confirms whatever He pleases: The mother of the Book is with Him” (Qur’an, 13:39).

We have contended ourselves with referring to each Book with one verse although there are many.

Scholars of exegesis have differed among themselves about the truth of these books and their details. Some say that they are stripped of matter and material, so much so that it is right to regard them as manifestations of His endless knowledge. And there are those who say that they are material tablets and books in which things, their life spans and periods are recorded by way of symbols. Both opinions cannot be taken for granted. Rather, believing in them and looking into their exegesis must be done through the Book (Quran) and the authentic Sunnah.

It is also regarded, among the manifestations of His knowledge, is decree and destiny that we will discuss in a special chapter by His leave.

Two interesting items have to be pointed out here:

His Knowledge, Glory to Him, is Presential, not Incidental

You have come to know the difference between the incidental and the presential types of knowledge, so we do not wish to repeat ourselves. But what must be pointed out is that His knowledge, Glory to Him, of His own self and of His action is presential. As for His knowledge of His entity, it is due to such entity never being absent from Him, it is always present with Him. As for His knowledge of things, you have come to know that it is of two types.

First: Knowledge of the self is knowledge of the calculation that results in things, and knowledge of such calculation is knowledge of things. Thus, it becomes clear that His knowledge, Glory to Him, of Himself reveals in detail the things in the way that is appropriate for Him.

Second: The presence of probabilities whenever necessary. What is probable stands through the presence of the Creator, Glory to Him, in its taking place and in its sustenance. His being self - sustaining, Glory to Him, is like the meaning of the letters composing a name. This type of existence does not permit absence, for the latter spells its non - existence and annihilation. So, if the possible existents have this characteristic, how can one imagine that He is separate from them?

It is nothing but supposing their non - existence and non - presence. Thereupon, the world, in all its particles, is the outcome of His own action, Glory to Him, of His own bringing it into being. At the same time, it is present with him. Such presence is His knowledge. Allah’s knowledge and His action are two different concepts, but they are in agreement on the outside.

As regarding whether or not He has beyond the present knowledge an incidental knowledge, researching it is the task of detailed books. Peripatetian philosophers have claimed that He, Glory to Him, has an incidental knowledge that they label as painted images.

His Knowledge, Glory to Him, of Details

It is amazing how some philosophers go as far as denying His knowledge, Glory to Him, of details. They are influenced by some flimsy misconceptions. You will be familiar with the answers to some of them. Carefully discerning what we have stated about the probable existents, you will find it obvious that His knowledge, Glory to Him, of the details is quite clear. Its reality is clear if you understand how creation is, how existence is only due to the outgiving of Allah, Glory to Him, and here is its explanation:

The cosmos, with everything it incorporates, from the atom to the constellation, regenerates; it is always changing, not only in its incidental characteristics and outer shapes but also in its essence and entity. What appears to the onlooker to be fixed, stable and immovable in the natural world is actually the fault of the senses. The reality is different. In all its atoms, matter is subject to alteration, change and flow in every time and place.

The meaning of change in the world of the matter is the regeneration of its existence, the flowing of its coming to be time and over again. Every material phenomenon is preceded by a time void. The presence of matter, which came to be through a gradual and flowing process, is like a spring the water of which continuously gushes out. It does not have a presence, firmness, immobility and stability.

If creation and existence are the outcome of a gradual and sequential process, and the effect cannot come out of the limits of its cause, it seems that the world, in its atoms and particles, as it was made by Allah Almighty, is known to Him. Gradual outpouring and presence in the form of a gradual process which He, Glory to Him, has set up, necessitates His knowledge, Glory and Exaltation belong to Him, of the outer details.

Deniers’ Misconceptions

You have already come to know that His knowledge of the particulars, Glory to Him, and the rest of discussion in analyzing the misconceptions raised in this field, and here are their explanations:

First Misconception: Knowledge of Details Inheres Change in His Knowledge

They have said that if He, Glory to Him, knows the details that go on in the cosmos, it becomes mandatory for His knowledge to change according to the change of what is known. Otherwise, conformity would have been non - existent. Since time details change, and had they been known to Allah Almighty, this would have necessitated change to His knowledge, which is impossible.

This has been explained by allama Ibn Maytham al - Bahrani who says, “Some of them have denied His being knowledgeable of the details according to the changing partial variable; rather, He knows them as things that are comprehensible essences. Their argument is that had He known that Zaid was sitting in this house, after his departure, when His first knowledge remains, becomes ignorance, and if is removed, change becomes a must.”10

Misconception Analyzed

This misconception is extremely weak, and its rebuttal is:

First: The revocation might. If knowledge of details requires it to change when what is known changes, it also becomes a must to change its ability due to its being relevant to details, while the ability is one of the characteristics of the self. So, what is the answer in the ability aspect, and what is the answer in the knowledge aspect?

Second: Through resolution. Our knowledge of events that are in various periods of time is knowledge of time, as for His knowledge, the most Exalted One that He is, it is not conditioned by time at all. There is no present, past and future here. These adverbs are relevant to time when measured according to time - related existents, the time in which one lives. When one does something, it is said that he is doing it during a particular time. What he did is labeled as past. And what he will do is called future.

As for what exists outside the frame of time, environment and place, it cannot be imagined in His regard that there is any past, present and future. Allah, Glory to Him, knows all fractional events as a whole, not with regard to some of them taking place in the present, some in the past and some in the future. Rather, He knows them through knowledge that is inclusive, one that is above being subjected to time conditions.

In other words, since the Almighty dos not occupy a space (just as He is never subject to time), relating Him to all places alike is not by measuring them with Him so as one would say that it is near, distant, medium. Thereupon, His relevance to all things, in all times, is one and the same. What is present since time immemorial, and what remains forever, is attributed to Him and there is nothing in His knowledge that “was”, “is” and “will be”.

Rather, they all are present with Him in all their details but not with regard to time having anything to do with them according to their three characteristics. They cannot be applied to Him, the most High. Such knowledge is not variable but continuous, such as the knowledge of totalities.

In order to bring this closer to comprehension, we bring about this example. If the street is full of cars that pass one after the other, and if someone is looking at them from a narrow window, he sees each moment a passing car. The cars will then, relevant to him, are of three types: one has already passed, one is now passing and one is yet to pass. This division is sound as related to him in this situation.

Based on this premise, the existent which is above the restrictions of time and the limits of place is familiar with all things once, and the changing existents are painted with the hue of stability in as far as He is concerned.

Knowledge in the example brought while explaining the misconception, that is, Zaid sitting for a while at home, then he came out of it at another time, is relevant to sitting and coming out once and there is no sense here for advancing and delaying.

Another Way to Resolve Misconception

This misconception is based on the supposition that His knowledge of things, Praised is He, is incidental through the drawn images that stand through Him, Glory to Him, the change in what is known will then be concurrent with the images that stand through Him. This will require His essence being the place for change and alteration.

But if we say that His knowledge of the details, Glory to Him, is presential, that is, the things, in their outer identities and self realities, are the products of His own doing, Glory to Him, and at the same time His knowledge, there is no objection, then, to say that a change has taken place to His knowledge, Glory to Him, as a result of a change that took place to the existent things.

This is so because the knowledge that depends on His knowledge is the one described as being innate. As for the operative knowledge, that is, the knowledge that stands in the position of an action, there is no objection if it changes as His action changes. The knowledge that stands in the position of the action is no more than the knowledge of the same action and nothing else. It is to this conclusion that the critic al - Tusi refers when he says, “The changes of additions is possible.”11

In other words, change is what is added, not in the entity itself. What is meant by additions is His action, which is His knowledge. There is no objection for a change to take place in the additions and attachments while no change takes place to the entity itself.

Second Misconception: Realizing Details Needs a Mechanism

Realizing the details needs material tools and physical mechanisms, while the most Glorified One is above having a body or physical requirements.

The answer to this misconception is obvious. Knowledge of details acquired through material tools is the affair of one who is not familiar with how to perpetuate their maintenance, and things do not stand through him but are present in his possession, such as humans. Man’s knowledge is through extracting images through sense - related tools. Therefore, realizing details depends on these tools and on their functions.

When it comes to the Almighty, since His knowledge encompasses all things, and since He truly sustains them, His knowledge does not depend on tools and on their functions.

It is to this answer that the virtuous al - Qoshaji refers as he explains abstraction saying, “Realizing details needs a physical mechanism if the knowledge (of them) comes through extracting images. But if it is a pure addition, without an image, there is no need for it.”12

Third Misconception: Knowledge of Details Requires Plurality

Knowledge is an image that is equivalent to what is known and drawn to the one who knows it. There is no doubt that things have various images. The abundance of known things requires abundance of the single self from all aspects.13

The answer to this misconception, as you have already come to know, is clear, too. It is based on His knowledge of things being drawn within Him, Glory to Him, similarly to things drawn within the human self, so this requires plurality in the single self. You have already come to know that His knowledge of things is not like that. Rather, the outside identities are present with Him, with His Self, without any images, and this type of knowledge is stronger than that in which things produce images.

Fourth Misconception: Knowledge of Details Requires Turning What is Probable into a Must

If knowledge of a variable takes place prior to its variation, such knowledge becomes a must. Otherwise, it is possible there is no such requirement. Hence, His knowledge, the most Exalted One, turns into ignorance, which is impossible.14

In other words, the knowledge of the most Exalted One is not relevant to events prior to their taking place. Otherwise, this will require the events being both possible and a must at the same time. As for the first, it is due to their taking place. As for the second, without Him, it would be possible that they would not have existed; thus, His knowledge turns into ignorance.

The answer to this misconception is obvious. What is impossible is the combination of what can by itself be and also what must by itself be. As for the combination of what by itself is possible with what must be (existent) as a must through others, there is no doubt about it. The effect, in the full presence of the cause, is by itself probable and a must through others.

Thereupon, if His knowledge, Praise belongs to Him, hinges on the presence of an event at a particular time, His knowledge, Praise belongs to Him, does not get Him out of the self probability. The ultimate requirement for His knowledge (of something) being in agreement with the reality is that something exists through something else, whether the cause behind it is Allah, Glory to Him, or someone else, and it is in agreement with what is probably by its own self.

Briefly, the event that takes place during a certain circumstance does not get out of the limit of probability after being attached to His knowledge, the most Exalted One, and the full cause for it takes place. The creation, all of it, is possible by itself while, at the same time, it is a must through someone else.

The Holy Quran and the Expanse of His Knowledge, the Most Exalted One

From what we have already stated, we can grasp the greatness of the (Quranic) phrase that says, “Allah’s knowledge encompasses everything.” It means that the Almighty knows what has already passed, what will come to pass, and what is in existence in the universe, the secrets and the symbols.

The most Praised One says,

“The keys of the unseen, the treasures that none but He knows, are with Him. He knows whatever there is on the earth and in the sea. Not a leaf falls but with His knowledge: There is no grain in the darkness (depths) of the earth, nor anything fresh or dry (green or withered), but is (recorded) in a clear record” (Qur’an, 6:59).

The most Praised One also states,

“Say: ‘Whether you hide what is in your hearts or reveal it, Allah knows it all: He knows what is in the heavens and what is on earth. And Allah has might over all things’” (Qur’an, 3:29);

“Allah knows what every female (womb) bears, and that of which the wombs fall short (of term) or exceed. Every single thing is before His sight in (due) proportion” (Qur’an, 13:8);

“We have created man and We know what dark suggestions his soul makes to him, for We are nearer to him than his life - vein” (Qur’an, 50:16),

and

“The One Who knows the unseen and from Whom not the least tiny atom in the heavens or on earth is hidden, nor is there anything less than that, or greater, but is in a clear record” (Qur’an, 34:3).

There are other verses that refer to the Almighty’s knowledge of all details.

Loftiness of the Quranic Expression About the Expanse of His Knowledge

One of the most complex concepts is imagining the concept of what is infinite as a fact and a reality. Man is still dealing in his life with limited matters. Therefore, imagining something infinite is a very difficult problem for him. This system, the stars that it contains, is only a portion of our expansive constellation. Despite that, the part and the whole are endless in as far as the particles and compositions are concerned. The largest figure an ordinary individual knows how to use in his life is the billion: the number 1 before which nine zeros line up.

Also, the human civilization, because of its coming to perfection through mathematical sciences, has reached what is called astronomical numbers/figures. Nevertheless, all numbers, including the “astronomical” ones, which mankind has reached, cannot be described as infinite. When the Holy Quran wants to explain His knowledge, Glory to Him, as being infinite, it does not use numbers and mathematical figures or even the “astronomical” ones because they all end up at a certain limit/point.

Instead, it brings about a superb example that shows the expanse of His knowledge. He says,

“And if all trees on earth were pens and ocean (were ink), with seven oceans behind it to add to its (supply), God's words would still not be exhausted (in the writing), for Allah is Exalted in might, full of wisdom” (Qur’an, 31:27).

Look at this magnificent expression which is superior to all others, and see how you find no mathematical figure that depicts the expanse of His knowledge, Glory to Him, equivalently to His saying “…God's words would still not be exhausted”. If one were to say that the extent of His knowledge is the figure one before which there are hundreds of zeros, he will not convey the meaning of His statement: “…God's words would still not be exhausted”. Thus, you come to know the truth of His statement, Glory to Him,

“Only little knowledge is communicated to you, (O mankind!)” (Qur’an, 17:85).

It expresses the limitation of human measurements and criteria. It also expresses how little, how minute, mankind’s knowledge is.

Statements by Imam Ali (as) About the Knowledge of the Most Exalted One of Details

Commander of the Faithful Ali (as) has said, “The number of rain drops is not beyond His knowledge, nor is it the number of the stars in the sky, the particles of dust carried by the wind, the sound of ants on soft rocks, or where particles fall in the dark night. He knows where leaves fall, what visions conceal.”15

He, peace with him, has also said, “Praise belongs to Allah Who knows the dust raised by the beasts in the plains, the sins of His servants which they commit in privacy, the places where sea creatures go, and the tumultuous water stirred by storms.”16

He (as) has also said, “He knows what the chests hide, what the consciences conceal; His knowledge encompasses everything.”17

Up to this point, talk comes to an end about the positive entitative attribute that is knowledge. The following discussion covers the second attribute which is potence, that is, His being Omni - Potent, Mighty, Able, Powerful, if the most Praised One so wills.

3. Self - Affirmative Attributes

Notes

1. The one who seeks such evidence is the French philosopher Rene Descartes.

2. The goal behind this definition is only to point out in a way to the truth of the knowledge without observing the condition of a true definition, so it must not be criticized as requiring a role so the one who defines it may derive it in the definition.

3. Refer to Al - Asfar, Vol. 6, p. 176. You will come to know in the next researches that His Attributes are His own Self.

4. Murad fi Tajrid al - Itiqad كشف المراد في تجريد الاعتقاد , p. 175 and Sharh al - Qawshaji شرح القوشجي , p. 313.

5. Al - Asfarالأسفار , Vol. 6, p. 275. Refer also in this regard to abstractions and its explanations.

6. Sharh al - Manzouma شرح المنظومة , philosophy section, p. 164.

7. Nahjul - Balagha, pieces of wisdom section, No. 191.

8. Bihar al - Anwar, Vol. 4, p. 65.

9. Kashf al - Murad, p. 175.

10. Qawaid al - Maram, p. 98.

11. Tajrid al - Itiqad, p. 176.

12. Al - Qoshaji, Sharh al - Itiqad, p. 414.

13. Ibid.

14. Kashf al - Murad, p. 176.

15. Nahjul - Balagha, sermon 178.

16. Ibid., sermon 198.

17. Ibid., sermon 86.


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