Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Lectures on Ashura

Author (s): Dr. Muhammad Ibrahim Ayati and Others

Table of Contents

About The Islamic Seminary 3

INTRODUCTION OF IMAM HUSAYN (P) IN LECTURES ON ASHURA4

Introduction 6

Causes of Husaini Jihad 8

The Successful Effort21

Jihad and Martyrdom 31

Supplement42

What Made Imam Husayn (P) Rise? 52

Was the action and the rising of Zayd bin Ali (P) right or not?63

Sermon and The Pulpit (1)66

ROLE PLAYED BY ISLAM IN THE ADVANCEMENT OF ORATORY:67

Sermon and The Pulpit (2)77

Supplement87

THE KHATEEB IS THE SPOKESMAN OF ISLAM 95

About The Islamic Seminary

This international organization named THE ISLAMIC SEMINARY, established, under the patronage of His Eminence Imam Khui (Rehmatullah alaih of Najaf of Iraq) in 1977, is endeavouring to convey authentic Islamic literature to the people of the world.

The object of this organization is to meet the spiritual needs of the present age, to draw the attention of the people to real and solid Islamic learning and to safeguard the valuable treasure of knowledge which has been entrusted to us by the Seal of the Prophets, Muhammad and by his Holy Ahlul Bayt (peace be upon them).

This organization has so far published more than one hundred books in English, Urdu, Arabic, French, Malay, Hausa, Sindhi and Gujrati which enjoy a high position among the publications on Islamic literature. If Allah Wills this process of publication will continue and will show the Straight Path to the humanity. Moreover, many madaris which are being run under the supervision of the Seminary are playing their role in spreading Islamic education among the youths of the community.

Furthermore, the Seminary also participates in the establishment and development of social and welfare projects of the community. Spreading the message of slam is a task which needs cooperation by all of us. The Seminary invites you to participate in this noble task so that the teachings of slam may be spread round the globe.

I pray to Almighty Allah to favour us with His Kindness and Blessings.

Agha YusufAli Nafsi, Representative of Ayatullah-al-Uzma Sistani (Najaf- Iraq)

INTRODUCTION OF IMAM HUSAYN (P) IN LECTURES ON ASHURA

It cannot be gainsaid that the Ashura Day or the Tragedy of Karbala has no parallel in the history of the world. Though its significance has been realized by a large number of people, yet it requires to be brought home to the ignorant masses and the educated persons, who are desirous of learning the true concepts of Islam, but have been handicapped by hearing or listening to only one-sided or biased accounts.

This tragedy occurred (61 A.H) 50 years after the passing away of the Holy Prophet (11 A.H). The hero of this tragedy was Husayn bin Ali bin Ali Talib (P) the grandson of the Holy Prophet. The Holy Imam [ Husayn (P) ] was martyred on the l0th of Muharrum (Ashura day 61 A.H) at the plains of Karbala (Iraq).

Why was he martyred? It was because he refused to pay allegiance to Yazid who was nominated Caliph by his father Muawiyyah. Muawiyyah, who belonged to the Umayyad clan was the worst enemy of Ali (P) who, like the Holy Prophet, belonged to the Hashimiite clan. The enmity between the Umayyad and the Hashimiites was proverbial. In the battle of Badr most of the Umayyad were killed and Islam was now on a firm footing. Abu Sufyan who was always trying to kill the Holy Prophet and destroy Islam, was the leader of the Umayyad. Although later he apparently professed Islam, he was at heart the bitterest enemy of Islam and the Prophet.

When Yazid, the vilest of the vile, son of Muawiyyah and grandson of Abu Sufyan, declared himself to be the Caliph of Islam, he got martyred Husayn son of Ali and Fatima, the dearest daughter of the Prophet of Islam. The fight between Husayn (P) and Yazid (L) was really a fight between Truth and Falsehood, and between Faith and Infidelity .Had Husayn (P) any desire for power, he would not have gone forward to sacrifice his life along with a band of less than hundred of his kith and kin including his children and women.

This tragedy occurred within fifty years of the passing away of the Holy Prophet. During the twenty-three years of the Prophetic mission an unparalleled revolution had taken place. The Holy Prophet suffered extreme troubles in propagating Islam which gloriously spread by leaps and bounds with the support of his real uncle Abu Talib who had nurtured him in his childhood and protected and defended him from his inveterate enemies.

After the demise of Abu Talib the Holy Prophet pursued his preaching with his cousin Ali bin Abi Talib (P) at his support, until the task was accomplished in 10 A.H. It was then that after receiving Allah's command Proclaim what has been sent down to you and if you do not, you would not accomplish the mission at all. -(5 : 67). The Prophet of Islam, returning from his Farewell Hajj, ordered a halt at Ghadir-e-Khum on 18th Zil Hij, mounted the pulpit and taking Ali's(P) hand in his own proclaimed amongst multitudes of muslims. "I leave behind two grand things -Allah's Book (the Qur'an) and my Progeny (Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husayn). Beware! how you behave to them when I am gone from amongst you. Both of them will never separate from each other until they reach me in Heaven at the fountain of Kauther". Then he reiterated taking Ali's hand in his hand "Whomsoever I own the guardian- ship Ali also owns his guardianship?" The Divine Mission was accomplished and shortly afterwards the Holy Prophet passed away in Madina on 28th of Safer or 12th of Rabiul Awwal.

Thus ended the revelation of Wahi,since the Holy Prophet was the last Prophet and the Holy Qur'an is the last Book of Allah.

The Holy Prophet in his lifetime had forewarned the people of the atrocious activities of Bani Umayya against his progeny. The Holy Qur'an also said: Say O Prophet! I do: not require any recompense from you except love for my kin. Allah also said about the Prophet's Ahlul Bayt: Verily Allah intends but to keep off from you, O' the People of the House, every kind of uncleanness and purify you with a thorough purification. (33: 33)

The Prophet of Islam had repeatedly expressed his extreme love for his Ahlul Bayt and had announced their supreme merits. About Ali (P), he said "I am the City of Knowledge and Ali is its Gate. " About Fatima he said, "Fatima is a part of mine; whoever grieves her grieves me." He also said "Hasan and Husayn are the two youths of Paradise." He said, "Husayn is from me and I am from Husayn; Allah loves him who loves Husayn."

Now we can see what happened to Islam within fifty years of the demise of the Holy Prophet. Islam was almost metamorphosed into irreligion. Was it due to bad teachings of Islam or was it due to those in authority who held the reins of Islamic Government? The worst period, however, came when one who assumed the Caliphate proclaimed -"Neither there was any Wahi (revelation) nor there came any angel; I have taken revenge for the killings of my ancestors at Badr ."- yazid bin Muawiyyah.

And it was Husayn bin Ali and Fatima, and grandson of the Holy Prophet, who rose against that tyrant and was martyred at Karbala on the Ashura Day on the l0th of Muharram 61 A.H. along with his 72 kith and kin including a six-month-old babe Ali Asghar, who was shot dead thirsty. The echoes of the martyrs' sufferings and the wailings of the children and women of the Prophet's Household, who were later taken prisoners, are still resounding throughout the world. A deep and unbiased study of the history of Ashura will convince the reader that Karbala has put into the shade the atrocities the world has ever seen.

Introduction

Karbala presents a clear and inspiring example of a great sacrifice for Islam and humanity. The example of martyrdom set by Imam Husayn (Peace be upon him), the members of his family and his companions will continue to provide lofty values to human hearts which make man attain that exalted position of humanity which Allah expects from a true Muslim. Islam is the name of a continual movement and revolution which is a perfect system in the ideological field -a living movement in the journey of historical continuity.

The following Qur'anic verse goes to show that ideologically Islam is a perfect system: ...On this day I have perfected your religion, completed my favours to you and have chosen Islam as your religion. ...(Surah Mai'dah, 5:3) In the passage of history the following Divine verses bear witness to Islam being a perpetual movement: you are the best of the nations that existed among men. You command people to follow the Law and prohibit them from committing sins and you believe in Allah. (Surah Ali Imran, 3:111)

Let there be a group among you, who will invite others to do good deeds, command them to obey the Law, and prohibit them from committing sins. (Surah AI-e-Imran, 3:104)

As in the caravan of history Islam is a perpetual movement and a constant revolution, it offers unending sacrifices. From its very beginning it presented martyrs to combat the forces and evils of ignorance to achieve success and even after the perfection of religion it made sacrifices successively against the powers of alteration and destructive elements to safeguard its success; During every revolution the number of martyrs continued to increase and opposition to its aims and objects also increased. The object of this opposition was to annihilate the revolution and its future. And it is here that the greatness of martyrdom against the forces inimical to revolution becomes manifest, because it was the martyrdom of those 'victors' 'who were not avaricious of the honors of victory but who stuck to their ideal even after achieving victory so that they might attain the great blessing of martyrdom.

Imam Husayn (P) belonged to this very 'victorious' family and taking advantage of the honors of 'victory' he could lead a comfortable life in the Islamic society. However, he saw that anti-Islamic movement was progressing in the guise of Islam itself, Islam had fallen a prey to intellectual pollution and profanity and as the Holy Prophet had warned the Muslims, the Islamic Caliphate had changed into despotic anarchism.

Islam which according to Imam Husayn's concept is a perpetual revolution was always faced with the danger of being desecrated and destroyed by the anti- Islamic forces of the suppressive movement of autocratic rule. It was on the basis of this concept that Imam Husayn chose the path of martyrdom so that the spirit of Islam might remain alive and be protected from the pollution of the anti-Islamic government.

Islam, for the sake of which Imam Hu'sayn (P) chose martyrdom, is not an idle concept but a perfect system, which has been introduced for the benefit of Mankind. It brings into existence a Muslim society which looks after the needs of the people, protects their human rights and promises a life of prosperity in this world and the Hereafter.

Imam Husayn (P) and his companions did not become martyrs after being slain, but they were martyrs even during their lifetime. Martyrdom is not attained only through death but it also takes place during one's life. To take a just stand and to stick to it firmly for the welfare of the entire society, rising above personal, family and party interests, to make it the stand for the present and future generations of the entire Ummah, to connect that stand with Allah according to the Divine teachings and to follow the principles of political virtue, gives the meaning of martyrdom to life, and it is this act which adorns them with martyrdom.

The material life is for all the people, but the future of a martyr is connected with the spiritual uplift of man. It is this thing which gives man the distinctive sign of martyrdom and this is the reality of the highest rank of martyrdom of the martyrs of Karbala. This martyrdom is a landmark in- the history of human dignity defying all sorts of communalism, regionalism or nationalism. It was the noblest feat of humanity because it was the interpreter of the stand taken by an honourable creation like man -the same man who is entitled to honour, prosperity -and good future. The Almighty Allah says: We have exalted the children of Adam, carried them on the. land and on the sea, given them pure sustenance and exalted them above most of My creatures. (Surah Bani Israel, 17: 70)

Hence, it is the universal recognition of the Tragedy of Karbala,which has made it everlasting (and) (it is present) in the annals of History as a living memorial ( of the martyrs) till today and leads them to those sublime human values which take man out of the narrow circle of his ego and bring him into the field of effort and action for the honour, welfare and future of the entire society. The Holy Prophet says: "Every one of you is responsible and every one will be questioned about his subordinates."

When we study the revolution., brought about by Imam Husayn (P) and the martyrdom of his kith, and kin we understand the reality of the events which have taken place in the world of Islam and we also come to know where it has reached now and what dangers threaten it. Under the manifest spirit of human sacrifice staged in Karbala, a Karbala is taking place for every man and every group of men even today. Today man is standing at the parting of the ways: Either he should remain steadfast in his belief in Monotheism and should, relying on Allah, lead his life on His Path by turning away his face from the East and the West, controlling his temptations, helping the weak in seeking proximity to Allah, defending the faith, fostering brotherhood, love and unity, and make Islam honoured, or he may submit to Satan and choose the path of cruelty, treachery, fanaticism and dissension. In any case every one of us is standing at the crossroads to decide his line of action.

In the past many persons who were at the crossroads, failed. However, if we fail it will be the death of our religious existence because the deceitful enemy is sitting in ambush. Shaykh Muhammad Mahdi Shamsuddin Vice President, Al-Majlis-al-lslami al Shi'ie al-A 'la (Lebanon)

6. Ummah and Nation

The Islamic ideal normally distinguishes only between the Islamic and non-Islamic world, thedar a-Islam anddar al-harb. The former is the unified world of Islam; the latter is the realm of struggle to implement Islam. Classically these distinguished geographical realms under Muslim political and military control from those which were not. Such nations as existed in thedar al-Islam were regarded as units of political and administrative expediency and in theory the whole of thedar al-Islam was ruled by the Caliph. As late as the 1920's Muslims around the world looked hopefully at the prospect of Islam and its believers united under some type of political structure. The pan-Islamic movement did not achieve this goal, and the debate over how the world-wide unity of Muslim believers, theummah , should be achieved in an era of nation-states goes on. In part this debate centers on how to create an Islamic state. While some purists among Muslims argue that no modern state can realize Islamic ideals apart from the unity of theummah , there are nonetheless active political movements throughout the Muslim world to transform existing nations into Islamic states under the rule ofsharia law. At the same time dominantly Muslim states have formed organizations and alliances which attempt at some level to foster the overall unity of theummah , and intellectuals continue to theorize about how actual political unity can be attained.

7. The Realization of Islam

We cannot understand modern Muslims if we do not understand that the drive to realize the ideals sketched above is central to their understanding of human fulfillment. Paradise (see below) is the reward for a life of submission to God's will. But for Muslims the authentic fulfillment of that submission should come here on earth, not a distant afterlife. Muslims have never been taught to push their hopes for human authenticity to a future eschaton. And this human authenticity, although it has a distinctive inner dimension, is for Muslims inextricably linked with the implementation of particular personal roles, and family, community, political, and economic structures. Unless Islam changes dramatically Muslims will never be content with less thandin , an all-embracing pattern of life, ordered according to God's or law.

V. The End of Creation

Islam is a way of life. But this way of life was always a wayto eternal victory, reward, and success in the form of promisedal-Jannah , paradise, or literally "Garden". This way leads through death and the grave, and God's judgement, before reaching its end with either eternal bliss or eternal suffering.

A. Death and the Grave

The continued existence of the soul after death is central to Islamic teaching. The Arabs believed that life continued, after a fashion, in the grave. The Quran makes only indirect reference to punishment in the grave (47:27, 6:93). However, the traditions of the prophet affirm the importance of the grave ("the grave is the first stage of the journey to eternity") and address directly the fears of life in the grave. By the time Islamic theologians developed the first creeds Islam had a highly developed doctrine of punishment in the grave (adhab al-kabr ). The tradition states that two angels,Munkar andNakir , will examine each person after death regarding Muhammed (or in a more elaborate form, God, Muhammed, religion, and direction of prayer). The faithful will give a satisfactory answer, and will be left to await the Resurrection. Some traditions suggest that the graves of the faithful will be mystically in communion with theKaba' or the grave of Muhammed, and that in this way they will find comfort and even bliss as they await the resurrection. Those without a satisfactory answer will be beaten continually in the grave until the resurrection, (except on Fridays). Some traditions excuse the righteous unbelievers from this punishment. Regardless of the specific elaboration of tradition, the primary emphasis is on correct belief as the hope for avoiding immediate punishment in the grave. It is a tradition in Islam that as a person dies they whisper theShahada , or basic belief in Allah and Muhammed.

In addition to the hope of avoiding punishment, and finding some comfort in the grave, Islam holds out the possibility of avoiding both the grave and God's final judgement. The prophets are taken directly to paradise upon their death. For ordinary Muslims this privilege is obtained when death comes through martyrdom, primarily when fighting on behalf of Islam. Women who die in childbirth, and those who die in the holy land on a pilgrimage, are also martyrs who obtain the entry into paradise directly after death. This hope has motivated many Muslims to embrace death for Islamic causes, with the modern suicide bombers of Hamas providing a notable recent example. A more benign effect has been to encourage elderly Muslims to put off making their pilgrimage until they are quite feeble in the hope of dying in the holy land, where many who have the means remain illegally after the pilgrimage is over.

B. The Final Judgement

The earliest revelations in the Quran emphasize the unity and majesty of God, and the certainty of God's judgement on those who have not acknowledged God as their creator and submitted to God's will. Muhammed's earliest preaching focused on the day of judgement which would mark the end of the world, and salvation from hell was a dominant theme. Belief in a day of reckoning (qiyamah ) and a resurrection of the dead to judgement (hashr ) is found in earliest Islamic creeds, and is universally regarded as an essential doctrine. The earliest revelations to Muhammed stress the certainty of God's judgement and of punishment in hell-fire for wrong-doers and paradise for the righteous. (88, 99, 101, and many others) Later revelations and traditions greatly expanded the Islamic picture of the last judgement. The most basic elements are:

the last day when the present creation will be annihilated,

the resurrection of the dead,

their presentation before God and the reading out of the complete record of all their good and evil deeds,

the rewarding and punishing of each person strictly according to the balance off their good and evil deeds,

the intercession of Muhammed on behalf of the faithful.

the sending of the successful to Paradise, and the losers to the fire and torment of Hell.

Muslims learn of these through accounts of the final judgement which are portrayed with vivid imagery. Most accept these accounts as literal portrayals of what they will personally face. Avoiding the terrors of hell, and indeed the uncertainty of the judgement day, both motivates Muslims to obedience in God's law, and to seeking to mitigate the effects of their sins.

C. Salvation

Within the Islamic tradition the specific Arabic word for salvation,hajat, is not often used. Instead humans at the final judgement are characterized as "winners" and "losers", as those who have succeeded and those who have failed. Salvation is moving from being a loser to being a winner, and thus obtaining paradise in the end. And this salvation is accomplished by taking the concrete steps, provided by God, which insure that at the final judgement a human life will have more good deeds than bad when weighed in the balance. Islam stresses that these steps are God's provision for human failure, so that while the immediate cause of salvation may be human actions, the possibility of that actions will lead to salvation comes from God's grace and mercy.

1. Sin and its Remedies

The Quran does not present a formal theory of sin (krait's is the general quranic term), but recognizes a difference between faults (dhanb ) and intentional sins (ithm ) The Quran suggests that those who avoid intentional sins will find forgiveness in Allah (53:111), and also offers forgiveness to those who repent of such sins or infidelity. Later Muslim theologians discussed extensively both the distinction between light (sagha'dir ) and heavy (kaba'ir ) sins, which acts belonged to each category, and how they could be remedied so as to avoid eternal punishment. One of the first divisions in Islam was the withdrawal of theKharidjites, who insisted that not onlyshirk (making something or someone equal to God), but heavy sins rendered a person an infidel (kafir ) and required repentance. TheMutalizites also insisted that punishment for heavy sins on the last day could be avoided only through repentance. The controversy centered around the importance of personal deeds versus the importance of belief in both maintaining membership in the community, and in achieving paradise at the final judgement.

The orthodox view, developed by theMurdji'ies , gave priority to belief for both membership in the community and attaining paradise. They stressed that each person is responsible for his or her own sins, and that no person can pay the price for the sins of another. (4:111, 6:164) Yet they were equally forceful in asserting that God is merciful and forgiving, and that no one should despair because of their sin. (12:87, 15:56, 39:53) A system of classification of sins then provided guidelines to specific remedies for sinful acts.[13]

In the orthodox view thoughts are not sins, or are the lightest of sins, unless they are put into action. They are not taken into account on the judgement day. One tradition of the prophet states: "Allah does not take into account what the members of my community think, as long as they do not pronounce it or carry it out."[14]

Dhanb , mistakes or faults, are overcome by removing the fault which caused them through knowledge and good works. One tradition (often quoted on the television in Malaysia at the time of evening prayers) stresses that "each footstep on the way to evening worship at the mosque overcomes 10,000 sins." For the believer there was no need to seek special forgiveness for such mistakes.

Heavy sins, normally those which involved consciously breaking God's commands, could be remedied through formally asking for forgiveness (istighfar ), and through restitution if a person had been wronged. Such sins, although avoidable, were regarded as ubiquitous in humans and necessary so that humans would rely on God for mercy and forgiveness. One tradition states that Allah would eliminate his community if it didn't sin, and create another people who would commit sins, ask forgiveness, and be forgiven.[15] Another states that the prophet prayed for forgiveness several times a day, indicating that no one should think themselves above the possibility of committing heavy sins.

The ultimate sin, shirk, required repentance ( tawbah ), and the embracing of Islam through the confession of the one God, Allah, and the prophet-hood of Muhammed.

2. Intercession (shafa'a).

The concept of intercession (shafa'a ) is found in the Quran, but primarily in the denial that anyone can intercede for another on the day of judgement (2:48, 2:254). However, an elaborate tradition developed supporting the idea that Muhammed would intercede on behalf of the faithful who had committed heavy sins and been cast into hell, and would then lead them into paradise. In some traditions this power to intercede was extended to others, with some maintaining that the followers of all the genuine prophets would have their prophet to intercede for them on the day of judgement. In many parts of the Muslim world intercessory prayers are offered on behalf of the dead, although this has been a matter of great controversy between traditionalist Muslims and those seeking to restore a purer Islam based on only the original teaching of the Quran and Hadith.[16]

3. Cleanliness

Islam recognizes that religion is not merely a matter of good and bad deeds, but of a relationship with or toward God which has a psychological dimension as well. Muslims may feel distanced or alienated from God not only by sins which can lead to hell, but by unintentional acts or circumstances (such as being touched by an unclean animal, or having impure thoughts about a person of the opposite sex). These make a person unfit to worship, and thus cut off from the primary means by which they live in obedience to God. As in Judaism these actions are circumstances are associated with cleanliness, and indeed in many Islamic languages holiness and cleanliness are interchangeable terms. The Quran and Hadith make many provisions for situations of uncleanliness, primarily through special forms of ritual washing in addition to those prescribed before prayer. 

D. Conclusion

In the end Islam seeks to offer a way of life in which, by God's mercy, success at the final judgement is obtainable by all humans, and for the faithful is certain. The life which leads to success follows a way clearly revealed by God, trodden and further explained by God's prophet, and minutely analyzed by generations of Muslim scholars. For every possible misdeed along that way there is (by God's mercy) a corresponding act which will mitigate its ultimate effects. For every misstep there is a way back on track. There are Muslims who are racked with doubt and guilt, and who feel that nothing they do can overcome the burden of their sins. When no Islamic solution meets their psychological and spiritual needs many have found peace in the message of the gospel. However, the history of missions among Muslims has shown that the majority find within their own religion provisions for living toward God's end for the world which give them both confidence in their present life, and hope for the future. Finding ways to present the truth of the gospel, without denigrating the claims of Islamic teaching or offending against Muhammed, remains one of the great challenges of Christian mission.

VI. Bibliography

Shorter Encylopedia of Islam , H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961. (This work is keyed only to Arabic terms, but contains excellent accounts of the history of Islamic theological reflection.)

Salvation through Repentance , Abu Ameenah Bilil Philips, Tawheed Publications, 1990

The Islamic Impulse , ed. Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Georgetown University, Washington D.C. 1987

Islamic Futures andThe Future of Islamic Civilization , Ziauddin Sardar, Pelanduk Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1988

Concept of Islam , Mahmoud Abu-Saud, American Trust Publications, 1990

The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam , Cyril Glasse, Harper Collins, San Francisco, 1989. (This work is keyed to English as well as Arabic terms, and is thus particularly useful for students. However, its presentations do not recognize the actual diversity of Islamic teaching on certain key points, and should always be checked against other sources.)

Toward Understanding Islam, Abul A'la Mawdudi, The Islamic Foundation, London, 1980.

Religion, Law, and Society, ed Tarek Mitri, WCC, Geneva, 1995

Muslim Devotions , Constance Padwick, OneWorld, Oxford, 1997.

Islamic Spirituality, vols. 1 and 2, ed. Seyyed Hussein Nasr, Crossroads, New York, 1987, 1991.

Notes

[1] Islamic Spirituality I, p. 359.

[2] During the period when the author lived in Malaysia (1985-1992) it was not uncommon to hear stories about jinn being involved in human affairs. Politicians were sometimes accused of enlisting jinn to attack their opponents, cases of mass hysteria were attributed to jinn, and more girls who became pregnant, and their families, would attribute the child to a jinn, to whom the girl was said to be legitimately married.

[3] An oft told anecdote tells how one famous teacher would not eat watermelon, because although the melon itself was an allowed food, he could not determine whether Muhammed had spit or swallowed the seeds, and thus had no guidance in the matter.

[4] Islamic Spirituality, p.359

[5] See, for example, Mawdudi's account of Muhammed's life in his Towards Understanding Islam.

[6] Islamic Spirituality, Vol 1, p. 48-49.

[7] Ibid, p.49.

[8] Islamic Spirituality, Vol 1. 295.

[9] Shorter Encylopedia of Islam, H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961, p.435. Students of Islam should exercise care in taking any presentation of Islamic beliefs in this area as authoritative. The systems of al-Shastarani, al-Ghazzali, and al-Baidawi in particular are sometimes presented as representing the orthodox Muslim viewpoint, when in fact their systems, although not rejected as heretical, are not necessarily representative of all orthodox opinion. 

[10] Ziauddin Sardar's books, Islamic Futures and The Future of Islamic Civilization, (Pelanduk Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1988) present an overview of one strand of popular modern Muslim thinking on these issues. Of particular interest is a model Islamic constitution (Islamic Futures, pp. 327-345) which seeks to codify Islamic teaching in a form useful to the creation of a modern state.

[11] "Religious Ideology, Women and the Family: the Islamic Paradigm, Barbara Freyer Stowasser, in The Islamic Impulse, ed. Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Washington D.C. 1987, pp. 262-296

[12] Mahmoud Abu-Saud, Concept of Islam, American Trust Publications, 1990. pp. 121-127. Abu-Saud's presentation wouldn't necessarily find agreement with all Muslims, but represents one typical apologetic approach for Muslim views of the family.

[13] See Muslim Devotions, Constance Padwick, OneWorld, Oxford, 1997, pp. 173-208 for a full account of Muslim prayer related to seeking forgiveness for sins.

[14] Shorter Encylopedia of Islam, H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961, p.251

[15] Salvation through Repentance,  Abu Ameenah Bilil Philips, Tawheed Publications, 1990, p.4

[16] As is the case in Christian tradition, the chronological experience of the soul after death is not always clear, or agreed, in the Islamic tradition. 

6. Ummah and Nation

The Islamic ideal normally distinguishes only between the Islamic and non-Islamic world, thedar a-Islam anddar al-harb. The former is the unified world of Islam; the latter is the realm of struggle to implement Islam. Classically these distinguished geographical realms under Muslim political and military control from those which were not. Such nations as existed in thedar al-Islam were regarded as units of political and administrative expediency and in theory the whole of thedar al-Islam was ruled by the Caliph. As late as the 1920's Muslims around the world looked hopefully at the prospect of Islam and its believers united under some type of political structure. The pan-Islamic movement did not achieve this goal, and the debate over how the world-wide unity of Muslim believers, theummah , should be achieved in an era of nation-states goes on. In part this debate centers on how to create an Islamic state. While some purists among Muslims argue that no modern state can realize Islamic ideals apart from the unity of theummah , there are nonetheless active political movements throughout the Muslim world to transform existing nations into Islamic states under the rule ofsharia law. At the same time dominantly Muslim states have formed organizations and alliances which attempt at some level to foster the overall unity of theummah , and intellectuals continue to theorize about how actual political unity can be attained.

7. The Realization of Islam

We cannot understand modern Muslims if we do not understand that the drive to realize the ideals sketched above is central to their understanding of human fulfillment. Paradise (see below) is the reward for a life of submission to God's will. But for Muslims the authentic fulfillment of that submission should come here on earth, not a distant afterlife. Muslims have never been taught to push their hopes for human authenticity to a future eschaton. And this human authenticity, although it has a distinctive inner dimension, is for Muslims inextricably linked with the implementation of particular personal roles, and family, community, political, and economic structures. Unless Islam changes dramatically Muslims will never be content with less thandin , an all-embracing pattern of life, ordered according to God's or law.

V. The End of Creation

Islam is a way of life. But this way of life was always a wayto eternal victory, reward, and success in the form of promisedal-Jannah , paradise, or literally "Garden". This way leads through death and the grave, and God's judgement, before reaching its end with either eternal bliss or eternal suffering.

A. Death and the Grave

The continued existence of the soul after death is central to Islamic teaching. The Arabs believed that life continued, after a fashion, in the grave. The Quran makes only indirect reference to punishment in the grave (47:27, 6:93). However, the traditions of the prophet affirm the importance of the grave ("the grave is the first stage of the journey to eternity") and address directly the fears of life in the grave. By the time Islamic theologians developed the first creeds Islam had a highly developed doctrine of punishment in the grave (adhab al-kabr ). The tradition states that two angels,Munkar andNakir , will examine each person after death regarding Muhammed (or in a more elaborate form, God, Muhammed, religion, and direction of prayer). The faithful will give a satisfactory answer, and will be left to await the Resurrection. Some traditions suggest that the graves of the faithful will be mystically in communion with theKaba' or the grave of Muhammed, and that in this way they will find comfort and even bliss as they await the resurrection. Those without a satisfactory answer will be beaten continually in the grave until the resurrection, (except on Fridays). Some traditions excuse the righteous unbelievers from this punishment. Regardless of the specific elaboration of tradition, the primary emphasis is on correct belief as the hope for avoiding immediate punishment in the grave. It is a tradition in Islam that as a person dies they whisper theShahada , or basic belief in Allah and Muhammed.

In addition to the hope of avoiding punishment, and finding some comfort in the grave, Islam holds out the possibility of avoiding both the grave and God's final judgement. The prophets are taken directly to paradise upon their death. For ordinary Muslims this privilege is obtained when death comes through martyrdom, primarily when fighting on behalf of Islam. Women who die in childbirth, and those who die in the holy land on a pilgrimage, are also martyrs who obtain the entry into paradise directly after death. This hope has motivated many Muslims to embrace death for Islamic causes, with the modern suicide bombers of Hamas providing a notable recent example. A more benign effect has been to encourage elderly Muslims to put off making their pilgrimage until they are quite feeble in the hope of dying in the holy land, where many who have the means remain illegally after the pilgrimage is over.

B. The Final Judgement

The earliest revelations in the Quran emphasize the unity and majesty of God, and the certainty of God's judgement on those who have not acknowledged God as their creator and submitted to God's will. Muhammed's earliest preaching focused on the day of judgement which would mark the end of the world, and salvation from hell was a dominant theme. Belief in a day of reckoning (qiyamah ) and a resurrection of the dead to judgement (hashr ) is found in earliest Islamic creeds, and is universally regarded as an essential doctrine. The earliest revelations to Muhammed stress the certainty of God's judgement and of punishment in hell-fire for wrong-doers and paradise for the righteous. (88, 99, 101, and many others) Later revelations and traditions greatly expanded the Islamic picture of the last judgement. The most basic elements are:

the last day when the present creation will be annihilated,

the resurrection of the dead,

their presentation before God and the reading out of the complete record of all their good and evil deeds,

the rewarding and punishing of each person strictly according to the balance off their good and evil deeds,

the intercession of Muhammed on behalf of the faithful.

the sending of the successful to Paradise, and the losers to the fire and torment of Hell.

Muslims learn of these through accounts of the final judgement which are portrayed with vivid imagery. Most accept these accounts as literal portrayals of what they will personally face. Avoiding the terrors of hell, and indeed the uncertainty of the judgement day, both motivates Muslims to obedience in God's law, and to seeking to mitigate the effects of their sins.

C. Salvation

Within the Islamic tradition the specific Arabic word for salvation,hajat, is not often used. Instead humans at the final judgement are characterized as "winners" and "losers", as those who have succeeded and those who have failed. Salvation is moving from being a loser to being a winner, and thus obtaining paradise in the end. And this salvation is accomplished by taking the concrete steps, provided by God, which insure that at the final judgement a human life will have more good deeds than bad when weighed in the balance. Islam stresses that these steps are God's provision for human failure, so that while the immediate cause of salvation may be human actions, the possibility of that actions will lead to salvation comes from God's grace and mercy.

1. Sin and its Remedies

The Quran does not present a formal theory of sin (krait's is the general quranic term), but recognizes a difference between faults (dhanb ) and intentional sins (ithm ) The Quran suggests that those who avoid intentional sins will find forgiveness in Allah (53:111), and also offers forgiveness to those who repent of such sins or infidelity. Later Muslim theologians discussed extensively both the distinction between light (sagha'dir ) and heavy (kaba'ir ) sins, which acts belonged to each category, and how they could be remedied so as to avoid eternal punishment. One of the first divisions in Islam was the withdrawal of theKharidjites, who insisted that not onlyshirk (making something or someone equal to God), but heavy sins rendered a person an infidel (kafir ) and required repentance. TheMutalizites also insisted that punishment for heavy sins on the last day could be avoided only through repentance. The controversy centered around the importance of personal deeds versus the importance of belief in both maintaining membership in the community, and in achieving paradise at the final judgement.

The orthodox view, developed by theMurdji'ies , gave priority to belief for both membership in the community and attaining paradise. They stressed that each person is responsible for his or her own sins, and that no person can pay the price for the sins of another. (4:111, 6:164) Yet they were equally forceful in asserting that God is merciful and forgiving, and that no one should despair because of their sin. (12:87, 15:56, 39:53) A system of classification of sins then provided guidelines to specific remedies for sinful acts.[13]

In the orthodox view thoughts are not sins, or are the lightest of sins, unless they are put into action. They are not taken into account on the judgement day. One tradition of the prophet states: "Allah does not take into account what the members of my community think, as long as they do not pronounce it or carry it out."[14]

Dhanb , mistakes or faults, are overcome by removing the fault which caused them through knowledge and good works. One tradition (often quoted on the television in Malaysia at the time of evening prayers) stresses that "each footstep on the way to evening worship at the mosque overcomes 10,000 sins." For the believer there was no need to seek special forgiveness for such mistakes.

Heavy sins, normally those which involved consciously breaking God's commands, could be remedied through formally asking for forgiveness (istighfar ), and through restitution if a person had been wronged. Such sins, although avoidable, were regarded as ubiquitous in humans and necessary so that humans would rely on God for mercy and forgiveness. One tradition states that Allah would eliminate his community if it didn't sin, and create another people who would commit sins, ask forgiveness, and be forgiven.[15] Another states that the prophet prayed for forgiveness several times a day, indicating that no one should think themselves above the possibility of committing heavy sins.

The ultimate sin, shirk, required repentance ( tawbah ), and the embracing of Islam through the confession of the one God, Allah, and the prophet-hood of Muhammed.

2. Intercession (shafa'a).

The concept of intercession (shafa'a ) is found in the Quran, but primarily in the denial that anyone can intercede for another on the day of judgement (2:48, 2:254). However, an elaborate tradition developed supporting the idea that Muhammed would intercede on behalf of the faithful who had committed heavy sins and been cast into hell, and would then lead them into paradise. In some traditions this power to intercede was extended to others, with some maintaining that the followers of all the genuine prophets would have their prophet to intercede for them on the day of judgement. In many parts of the Muslim world intercessory prayers are offered on behalf of the dead, although this has been a matter of great controversy between traditionalist Muslims and those seeking to restore a purer Islam based on only the original teaching of the Quran and Hadith.[16]

3. Cleanliness

Islam recognizes that religion is not merely a matter of good and bad deeds, but of a relationship with or toward God which has a psychological dimension as well. Muslims may feel distanced or alienated from God not only by sins which can lead to hell, but by unintentional acts or circumstances (such as being touched by an unclean animal, or having impure thoughts about a person of the opposite sex). These make a person unfit to worship, and thus cut off from the primary means by which they live in obedience to God. As in Judaism these actions are circumstances are associated with cleanliness, and indeed in many Islamic languages holiness and cleanliness are interchangeable terms. The Quran and Hadith make many provisions for situations of uncleanliness, primarily through special forms of ritual washing in addition to those prescribed before prayer. 

D. Conclusion

In the end Islam seeks to offer a way of life in which, by God's mercy, success at the final judgement is obtainable by all humans, and for the faithful is certain. The life which leads to success follows a way clearly revealed by God, trodden and further explained by God's prophet, and minutely analyzed by generations of Muslim scholars. For every possible misdeed along that way there is (by God's mercy) a corresponding act which will mitigate its ultimate effects. For every misstep there is a way back on track. There are Muslims who are racked with doubt and guilt, and who feel that nothing they do can overcome the burden of their sins. When no Islamic solution meets their psychological and spiritual needs many have found peace in the message of the gospel. However, the history of missions among Muslims has shown that the majority find within their own religion provisions for living toward God's end for the world which give them both confidence in their present life, and hope for the future. Finding ways to present the truth of the gospel, without denigrating the claims of Islamic teaching or offending against Muhammed, remains one of the great challenges of Christian mission.

VI. Bibliography

Shorter Encylopedia of Islam , H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961. (This work is keyed only to Arabic terms, but contains excellent accounts of the history of Islamic theological reflection.)

Salvation through Repentance , Abu Ameenah Bilil Philips, Tawheed Publications, 1990

The Islamic Impulse , ed. Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Georgetown University, Washington D.C. 1987

Islamic Futures andThe Future of Islamic Civilization , Ziauddin Sardar, Pelanduk Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1988

Concept of Islam , Mahmoud Abu-Saud, American Trust Publications, 1990

The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam , Cyril Glasse, Harper Collins, San Francisco, 1989. (This work is keyed to English as well as Arabic terms, and is thus particularly useful for students. However, its presentations do not recognize the actual diversity of Islamic teaching on certain key points, and should always be checked against other sources.)

Toward Understanding Islam, Abul A'la Mawdudi, The Islamic Foundation, London, 1980.

Religion, Law, and Society, ed Tarek Mitri, WCC, Geneva, 1995

Muslim Devotions , Constance Padwick, OneWorld, Oxford, 1997.

Islamic Spirituality, vols. 1 and 2, ed. Seyyed Hussein Nasr, Crossroads, New York, 1987, 1991.

Notes

[1] Islamic Spirituality I, p. 359.

[2] During the period when the author lived in Malaysia (1985-1992) it was not uncommon to hear stories about jinn being involved in human affairs. Politicians were sometimes accused of enlisting jinn to attack their opponents, cases of mass hysteria were attributed to jinn, and more girls who became pregnant, and their families, would attribute the child to a jinn, to whom the girl was said to be legitimately married.

[3] An oft told anecdote tells how one famous teacher would not eat watermelon, because although the melon itself was an allowed food, he could not determine whether Muhammed had spit or swallowed the seeds, and thus had no guidance in the matter.

[4] Islamic Spirituality, p.359

[5] See, for example, Mawdudi's account of Muhammed's life in his Towards Understanding Islam.

[6] Islamic Spirituality, Vol 1, p. 48-49.

[7] Ibid, p.49.

[8] Islamic Spirituality, Vol 1. 295.

[9] Shorter Encylopedia of Islam, H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961, p.435. Students of Islam should exercise care in taking any presentation of Islamic beliefs in this area as authoritative. The systems of al-Shastarani, al-Ghazzali, and al-Baidawi in particular are sometimes presented as representing the orthodox Muslim viewpoint, when in fact their systems, although not rejected as heretical, are not necessarily representative of all orthodox opinion. 

[10] Ziauddin Sardar's books, Islamic Futures and The Future of Islamic Civilization, (Pelanduk Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1988) present an overview of one strand of popular modern Muslim thinking on these issues. Of particular interest is a model Islamic constitution (Islamic Futures, pp. 327-345) which seeks to codify Islamic teaching in a form useful to the creation of a modern state.

[11] "Religious Ideology, Women and the Family: the Islamic Paradigm, Barbara Freyer Stowasser, in The Islamic Impulse, ed. Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Washington D.C. 1987, pp. 262-296

[12] Mahmoud Abu-Saud, Concept of Islam, American Trust Publications, 1990. pp. 121-127. Abu-Saud's presentation wouldn't necessarily find agreement with all Muslims, but represents one typical apologetic approach for Muslim views of the family.

[13] See Muslim Devotions, Constance Padwick, OneWorld, Oxford, 1997, pp. 173-208 for a full account of Muslim prayer related to seeking forgiveness for sins.

[14] Shorter Encylopedia of Islam, H.A.R Gibbs and J.H. Kraemer, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1961, p.251

[15] Salvation through Repentance,  Abu Ameenah Bilil Philips, Tawheed Publications, 1990, p.4

[16] As is the case in Christian tradition, the chronological experience of the soul after death is not always clear, or agreed, in the Islamic tradition.