Understanding the Month of Glory; Lessons on the Month of Ramadhan

Understanding the Month of Glory; Lessons on the Month of Ramadhan66%

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Understanding the Month of Glory; Lessons on the Month of Ramadhan

Understanding the Month of Glory; Lessons on the Month of Ramadhan

Author:
Publisher: www.alhassanain.org/english
English

www.alhassanain.org/english

Understanding the Month of Glory: Lessons on the Month ofRamadhan

Publisher(s):Tayyiba Publishers & Distributors

www.alhassanain.org/english

Notice:

This versionis published on behalf of www.alhassanain.org/english

The composing errorsare not corrected .

Table of Contents

An Invitation 6

Verses of the Holy Quran on Ramadhan 7

Ahadith on Fasting 8

A Message from the Holy Prophet (S) 9

Imam Sajjad (a) Welcomes the Month of Ramadhan 10

The Ramadhan Checklist 11

An Attitude of Anticipation and Enthusiasm 11

Flexible Time and Schedule 11

A Qur'an with a good translation 11

A Donation to a Worthwhile Charity 11

A Determination to Avoid Sins 12

A Desire to Help Others 12

A Muslim's Thoughts on Ramadhan 13

Seeking Nearness to God 15

Why should a believer seek nearness to Allah? 15

1. Allah is Merciful and loves His Creatures 15

2. It is the only achievement that will give true peace and happiness 16

3. It will guarantee success in the world and the Hereafter 17

How to seek Nearness to Allah 17

Seeking Nearness in Ramadhan 17

Exercises 17

The Spring of the Holy Qur'an 18

Reciting the Holy Qur'an 18

How to recite the Qur'an 19

Understanding the Holy Qur'an 19

Exercises 20

Supplicating to the Almighty 21

What is Du`a? 21

Effects of Dua 22

Pleases the Almighty 22

Gives Peace and Contentment 22

Increases Knowledge and Humility 23

Changes what is destined 23

Averts Difficulties 23

Etiquette of Du`a 23

Du`a is always answered 24

Exercises 25

Seeking Forgiveness from Allah 26

Necessity of Istighfar in the life of a believer 26

Conditions of Istighfar 27

Exercises 28

Eighteen reasons why a Muslim Fasts 29

Sympathy for Others 32

Conditions of the Poor and Needy around the world 32

Helping Others 32

Being Grateful to the Almighty 33

Exercises 34

Ramadhan 35

Eid 36

Thoughts on Eid 37

An Invitation

Verses of the Holy Quran onRamadhan

Ahadith on Fasting

One who while fasting does not guard his tongue from telling lies and does not refrain from bad deeds, is not respecting his fast. Allah does not approve of mere abstention from food.

Holy Prophet (S)

When you are fasting, you should not speak ill of anybody, nor should you be rough and noisy. If anybody speaks ill of you or tries to pick a quarrel with you, reply him not, but say to him that you are fasting.

Holy Prophet (S)

A person gets the same reward by reciting in this month, one verse of the Holy Qur'an, as others do by reciting the whole of the Qur'an in other months.

Holy Prophet (S)

The day of your fast should not be like any ordinary day. When you fast, all your senses - eyes, ears, tongue,hands and feet must fast with you.

ImamJa` far as-Sadiq (a)

O Jabir! Whoever during the month ofRamadhan , fasts in its days, stands up for prayers in parts of the night, controls his desires and emotions, puts a rein on his tongue, keeps his eyes down, and does not injure the feelings of others, will become as free of sins as the day he was born.

Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (a)

The sleep of a fasting person is worship, his silence is glorification (of Allah), his prayers areanswered and his actions are multiplied.

Imam Ali (a)

The prayer of a fasting person at the time ofIftar is never rejected

Imam Ali (a)

Whoeveris prevented from food that he likes, because of his fast, Allah will feed him from the food of Heaven and from its drink.

Holy Prophet (S)

There are two pleasures for a fasting person; one when he breaks his fast, and one when he meets his Lord.

ImamJa` far as-Sadiq (a)

Unfortunate is the person whois deprived of the forgiveness of Allah during this great month (ofRamadhan )

Holy Prophet (S)

Fasting is a protection from the fire.

ImamJa` far as-Sadiq (a)

Fast, and you shall be healthy.

Holy Prophet (S)

If peopleunderstood what good there was in the month ofRamadhan , they would have liked that it last for a year.

Holy Prophet (S)

Whoever is not forgiven in the month ofRamadhan ,then in which month will he be forgiven?

Holy Prophet (S)

A Message from the Holy Prophet (S)

O People! The month of Allah has come with His mercies and blessings. Thisis the month that is the best of all months in the eyes of Allah. Its days are the best of days, its nights are the best of nights,its hours are the best of hours. This is a month in whichyou have been invited by Him . Youhave been given the opportunity in this month to receive the honors from Allah, the Merciful.

In this month if you fast as ordained by Allah, every breath you take has the reward ofTasbeeh , and your sleep has the reward of worship. Your good deedsare rewarded more than usual, and yourduas are accepted

Therefore you must invoke your Lord in earnest, with hearts that are free from sin and evil, and pray that Allah may help you keep the fasts, and to recite the Holy Qur'an.Surely the person who in this month does not receive the mercy and benevolence of Allah is most unfortunate.

O people! You have made your conscience the slave of your desires. Make it free by invoking Him for forgiveness. Your back is breaking under the heavy load of your sins, so prostrate yourself before Him for longintervals and make it lighter.

Anybody who does not annoy others in this month, Allah will keep him safe from His anger on the day ofJudgement . . Anybody who treats well his relatives in this month, Allah will bestow His mercy on him on the day ofJudgement .

Whoever offerssunnat prayers in this month, Allah will save him from Hell. Whoever, in this month, offers onewajib prayer, the angels will write the rewards of seventy such prayers thatwere offered by him in other months. Whoever recitessalawat often, Allah will keep the scales of his good deedsheavy . whoever recites in this month, only oneayat of the Holy Qur'an, he will be rewarded in a manner as if he had recited the entire Qur'an in other months.

ImamSajjad (a) Welcomes the Month ofRamadhan

Praisebe to Allah, who ordained this month, the month ofRamadhan , the month of fasting, the month of Islam, the month of purity, the month of purification, and the month of prayers. In thismonth the Qur'an was made to descend as a guidance to mankind and contains clear instructions and distinctions. He gave this month superiority over all other months by giving it abundant honor and dignity. He prohibited in it what He has allowed in other months in order to exalt it, and forbade in it food and drink in order to honor it.

O Lord! Bless Muhammad and his family, and inspire us to know this month's excellence, and to honor its dignity, and to abstain from whateverYou have forbidden in it.Help us to observe its fast, by restraining our limbs from disobeying You, and by employing them in that which would please You, so that we may not lend our ears to any vain speech, and may not direct our eyes, hands and feet towards anything forbidden, and that nothings fills our stomachs except what You have made lawful, and our tongues may not utter anything except what You have allowed.

O Lord! Bless Muhammad and his family, and give us grace to perform timely the five prayers with due regard to their limits whichYou have enjoined, and the rites which You have prescribed. In this respect, raise us to the rank of those who performed them with success, who duly observed their essential points, who always performed them at proper times, in most perfect and complete humility according to the rules laid down by Your Prophet, mayYou blessings be on him and his family.

And our Lord, give us grace in this month, to show favors to our relations, and do good to them, and to take care of our neighbors and do good to them, to take care of our neighbors with kindness and benevolence, to purge our property of obligations, and purify it by giving charity, and to call back those who have left us, and be just to those who were unjust to us, and make pace with those who were hostile to us.

O Lord! Erase our sins with the disappearance of this month's crescent, and free us from our penalties with the completion of its days, so that the month may pass from us whileYou have cleansed us of ourguilts , and freed us from our sins. O Lord! Fill this month with our worship of you alone, and adorn its moments with our service toYou , and help us in the daytime to observe the fast, and at night to pray and beseech You, help us to humble ourselves before you and lower ourselves in Your presence.

TheRamadhan Checklist

When starting on a journey, most people like to have a list of items that they will need. Beforedeparture they make sure they have all the items. That is to ensure they do not spoil their trip by forgetting something, or not being well equipped for the trip. A journey is usually exciting, andtravellers like to make the most of the opportunity to enjoy themselves.

Ramadhan is a spiritual journey for the believer. For the whole month, he travels to get nearer to Allah. On theway he will pass many obstacles and diversions which may hinder and slow his passage. To make sure that his journey is swift and progressive, he needs many items. Preparing forRamdhan means to ensure one has the necessary equipment for the journey.

The following are some of the necessary items for a believer's trip towards Allah.

An Attitude of Anticipation and Enthusiasm

A believer looks forward to the month ofRamadhan . He enjoys the beauty of spirit thatRamadhan begins, the warmth of carrying out the orders of Allah, the hope of achieving His pleasure, and the happiness at being able to obey the commands of Allah. He is happy when the month arrives and sad when it departs.

Flexible Time and Schedule

Ramadhan requires that we set aside more time than normal for worship and prayers. A believer plans his time in such a way that inRamadhan heis not overwhelmed by the demands of the world. He lessens work if possible and cuts down onactivities which can be put to a halt for a little while. The chance to earn rewards and blessings from Allah in this special time will only last a limited time. Believers must make sure their daily schedules allow maximum benefit of this special time.

A Qur'an with a good translation

An important part of worship inRamadhan includes reciting the Qur'an regularly. AHadith tells us,Ramadhan is theSpring of the Qur'an. Understanding the word of Allah, and pondering over it should be daily activities in this holy month. A believer makes sure he has a copy of the Qur'an which is easy to read, and which has a simpletranslation which he can understand. If time permits, he should also read the commentary of the Qur'an. It is also important to have the right books for theDuas andA` amaals for this month.

A Donation to a Worthwhile Charity

Ramadhan is the best time to donate in the way of Allah. To feed the hungry or give to the needy is an act of great reward, especially during the holy month. Before the month ofRamadhan , a believer decides how much he can afford to give, chooses a worthwhilecharity and sends his donation. This is a recommended charity, different from thezakatul Fitra which is obligatory forEid .Hadith tells us that charity cools the anger of Allah and brings down many blessings on the giver. In the month ofRamadhan this rewardsis multiplied many times.

A Determination to Avoid Sins

Fasting is not mere abstinence from food and drink, as we have heard many times. It is also staying away from all sins. While fasting, all the organs of the body fast, and refrain from doinganything which would displease Allah.

A believer makes a firm decision to avoid all sins that he commits most often, and plans how he will stay away from them during the month. This conscious preparation of a war against sins is a very necessary item in the baggage of a believer in his journey towards Allah.

A Desire to Help Others

In his sermon at the approach of the holy month ofRamadhan , the Prophet (S)said: Whoever lightens the work of his workers in this month, Allah will make easy his accounting on the Day ofJudgement .

This does not only apply to those who have workers working for them. To help and lessen the work of others: parents, siblings, relatives, friends, etc. during the holy month is an act of great virtue. It eases the load of the other person, and brings about kindness and affection. Cooperating and assisting one anotheris greatly loved by Allah.

These and other similar important items are necessary for a successful journey during the month ofRamadhan . Each believer must try to be prepared as possible, lest the opportunity to redeemhimself pass away. It is a great loss for the believer if the whole month of mercy and blessings passes, and he has not been able to achieve forgiveness of his sins, and has not won the pleasure of Allah, and the rewards that He gives so abundantly duringRamadhan . To avoid such a failure, it is necessary to keep aRamadhan checklist thatis regularly updated .

A Muslim's Thoughts onRamadhan

Ramadhan is always a great time forme . In my life,I'm always struggling with theideal of putting God first in every aspect of my life.I know that God Alone should matter in my life, but in the hectic pace of life, ordinary mundane things start to crowd that feeling out.

InRamdhan , fasting from food, water and other things sets a context within whichI can try to establish God's presence in my life.I also know that we are not supposed to only fast from food, drinks etc., but from all hypocrisy, all lies, all dishonesty, all backbiting and all evil. Tomy surprise, I am able to achieve that to some extent.I can carry that for some months.I think it is like the fourth or fifth month afterRamadhan that it starts to slacken.

Itwas once said that the true meaning of Fasting is to Fast from anything that distracts you from Remembrance of God.I have loved that ever since I first read it.I think this became a shortcut for me to evaluate every situation before I get involved.

Ramadhan also helps me in myday to day situation in one other way. No matter how bad the situation,I can look past it and say that as Quran says: “life of this world is but an illusion.” OnceI have done my best, I should give the rest to Him. I know that HisWill always work for my highest good, no matter how difficult it may seem at that time. His Will *always* work for our highest good.

Every time this faithhas been proven true, and as time passes this faith turns and matures into Conviction.Hopefully, this Conviction, thisYaqeen , will translate into the rest of my life and in every month.

I feel very close to other human beings and the rest of creation as well.I am much more forgiving and accepting of my coworkers.I am more liable to overlook their frailties and petty jealousies.I'm like a man who knows that at the end of the day there is a pot of gold that awaits him. Every offering of love we make to Him and Hiscreation, brings us that much closer to Goal. The Goal of The Eternal Bliss, where Allah, the Beloved God will lift the Veil from His Beautiful Face and reveal it to us in all its Splendor, Glory and Beauty.I long for that day. Yes,I do long for that day.

I long for the day that I will earn the privilege of being in company of the Prophets. Then all the worries and problems become petty annoyances.And the mind becomes a little quiet, a little more quiet and a little more quiet, until I hear the quiver of that fragile flame of love and faith in my heart of hearts. It is like when we go to Pilgrimage to Mecca we don our coffins by symbolizing our deaths from this world and we exclaim at the top of ourlungs: I have come my Lord, I have come.

If only Icould do a minor pilgrimage to Him every day of my life by exclaiming through my life and effort: I have come, my Lord, I have come. I have come to you and Iwon't go, I have come and don't let me stray.I have come, so make me yours. For verily Allah has promised in HisQuran: “Certainly we are His, and to Him shall we return.”

I hope this presence of God will persist all through the year until the nextRamadhan comes and I will have no room for anyone but Him and His Lovers and loved ones.

Seeking Nearness to God

The ultimate aim of the journey of a believer is to get close to Allah. To have a position with Him that is special. It is the cherished goal and hope of all those who love Allah. Life in this world is a journey towards that goal. Every action carried out, every deed performed is a step forward in that direction. Human beingshave been given life in this world, as an opportunity to achieve the pleasure of Allah, to serve and worship Him and to achieve nearness to Him.

The Holy Qur'an talks about the believers who enjoy a special position with Allah:

“Successful indeed are the believers, who are humble in their prayers, and who keep aloof from what is vain, and who are givers of the poor-rate. .” (23:1-3)

“Those only are believers whose hearts become full of awe when Allah is mentioned, and when His communications are recited to them, they increase them in faith, and in their Lord do they trust.” (8:2)

The followingHadithe Qudsi show how close the relationship between Allah the human being can be. Allah says:

When I find out that a person remembersMe frequently, I will look after his affairs, become his company, speak with him, and become his intimate friend.

Whenever I knowMy servant is frequently engaged in remembering Me, I will make him desire to pray and whisper to Me. WhenMy servant becomes such, I will prevent him from any wrongdoing when he decided upon it. Those areMy true friends. IfI intend to destroy the earth and punish men, I will forego destruction and punishment for their sake.

Why should a believer seek nearness to Allah?

The following are some reasons and benefits of seeking nearness to Allah.

1. Allah is Merciful and loves His Creatures

There is no beingwho loves the human being more and cares more for his needs than his Creator. Although people sometimes think that God putsa lot of demands on them, and is very strict with them, that He will punish us a soon as they do wrong, this is a great misconception. Allah wants only what is good for human beings.

Allah loves the best of His creations, the human being. One day the Holy Prophet (S) was walking with his companions when he saw a mother bird with her babies in a nest. The mother bird was feeding the small ones some worms. So tender and gentle were her actions, that the companions were awe-struck at this display of love. The Prophet (S) smiled and said, “Are you surprised at the love this mother bird has for her babies? Let me inform you that Allah loves His creatures, the human beings seventy times more than this mother!”

Because He loves the human being, Allah has bestowed upon him many favors. He has given him numerous blessings to enjoy in this world. He has sent rules for his guidance so that the human beingwill be assured of success in both the worlds. He has promised a great reward for those who obey, and punishment for those who disobey His rules.

In His infinite mercy, Almighty Allah has promised to multiply the reward of good deeds by ten, while the punishment of a sin will only be one. He has ordered the angels to record a good deed as soon as the intentionis made , while a sin is recorded only after it is done. A sincan be erased through seeking forgiveness. Allah has encouraged us to ask from Him, to pray to Him, to seek His forgiveness, so that we should be happy. None of this makes a difference to Him, for He is Needless of our prayers and worship.But it makes a big difference to us, to our status with Him, and consequently, our place in the eternal world to come.

When someone loves us, weare naturally drawn to him. We would like to be close to him, and enjoy a loving fulfilling relationship. Knowing that oneis loved brings great peace and joy to the human heart. What more could the human beingask for than to be loved by the Power that reigns Supreme in the universe?The One who has control of all things, and the One who invites the human being to Him and offers him love and mercy. Unfortunate is the person who does not recognize the great power of Allah's love, and does not seek nearness to Allah to ease the aches and pains of daily life.

The followinghadith tell us about the love and mercy of Allah for the human being:

Allah is more merciful on you than you are to yourselves.

Imam Ali (a)

2. It is the only achievement that will give true peace and happiness

People seek happiness and pleasure for themselves. They try out different ways of achieving that. Some believe it come with wealth, so they spend a lot of time amassing it. Others believe it comes from a good job, or a high position in society. They put ina lot of efforts to secure a prestigious job.But most people discover that this type of success does not really bring satisfaction to the human heart.

Material wealth and success are poor substitutes for the emptiness in the lives and hearts of people. The modern world is struggling furiously to achieve material success, to have access to all forms of comforts and pleasures for the human being. In this mad race to achieve and amass, human beings have strayed from the path of true happiness. That is why there is an increase in emotional and psychological problems in the world today.

True happinessis derived from faith and love for the God who created us. Almighty Allah says in the Holy Qur'an:

“Surely by the Remembrance of Allah are hearts set at rest” (13:28).

Ahadith of ImamJa` far as-Sadiq (a) says: Joy and peace lie in the Pleasure of Allah, and in certainty (of belief in Allah). Faith and trust in Allah bring the assurance of a support that will never fade or weaken. Withthat assurance comes the peace of mind that whatever happens, a human being is never alone. Allah, who loves him, is always with him to help and support him. No material possession or glory can bring that unfailing assurance of support.

3. It will guarantee success in the world and the Hereafter

A successful life is one that has accomplished its purpose of creation. Human beingshave been created to know the greatness of the Almighty and worship Him. The humanbeing who seeks nearness to Allah and achieves a degree of it, has fulfilled the purpose behind his creation.

Allah describes true success tobe achieved through His pleasure. He says:

Then give to the near of kin his due, and to the needy and the wayfarer, this is best for those who desire Allah's pleasure, and these it is who are successful. (30:38)

Only Allah can give success in both the worlds. Theone who relies totally on him and hopes only from Him, will achieve what he wants in this world as well as the Hereafter.

How to seek Nearness to Allah

In order to attain God's nearness, a believer uses various means. Some of these include:

• Reading and Understanding the Holy Qur'an

• Remembrance of Allah through Supplication and prayer

• Seeking forgiveness

Each of these means has been included as a separate lesson in this manual.

Seeking Nearness inRamadhan

This type of spiritual journeyis undertaken intensively during the month ofRamadhan . Through increased prayers and worship, a believer tries in this month to cover great distances in his lifelong journey towards God. The incentives to earn extra reward and mercy from Allah in this month encourage more good deeds and increased remembrance of Allah. This brings a believer very close to Allah.

Exercises

1. Write an essay on one of the following:

• The love of Allah for the human being

• How trust and faith in Allah brings peace to the human heart.

2. What are some signs of those who love Allah? Write down the deeds and actions that occupy their days.

3. Recite the followingDua fromSaheefa as-Sajjadiyyah :Dua no. 77, Whispered Prayer of those who love Allah. Name ten qualities of those who love Allah, according to this prayer.

TheSpring of the Holy Qur'an

The month ofRamadhan has been aptly named the spring of the Qur'an. During this month, believers set aside more time than usual to understand the word of Allah, to learn and ponder over its verses. Muslim homes and mosques ring with the beautiful recitation of this glorious book. It is the season of Qur'an reciting, when the desire to learn and understand the word of Allah blooms and flourishes, just as the natural world blossoms in theSpring .

The followingAhadith show the importance of reciting the Qur'an in the holy month:

• “Invoke your Lord in right earnest, with hearts that are free of sin and evil, to enable you to fast and to recite His Book (the Qur'an).”

Holy Prophet (S)

• “Whoever recites anayat from the Qur'an (inRamadhan ) will receive a similar reward as the one who recites the entire Qur'an in other months.”

Holy Prophet (S)

• “Everything has a springtime, and the springtime of the Qur'an is the month ofRamadhan .”

Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (a)

• “Invoke Allah, ask for forgiveness, recite the Qur'an, and repent to Allah for your sins more frequently, so that the blessings of the month ofRamadhan may come to you, while you are sincere to Allah, the Exalted.”

Imam Aliar-Ridha (a)

The Holy Qur'an contains great cures formankind, beautiful gems of wisdom for life, and the best instructions for happiness in this world and the Hereafter. God speaks to human beings through it, and it is incumbent upon all believers to find out for themselves what God has said to them.

Reciting the Holy Qur'an

Many Muslims like to complete the recitation of the entire Qur'an in this blessed month. If that is not possible, at least a portion of the holy Bookshould be read during this month. The reward for it is much greater than in other months.

Recitation of the Holy Qur'an has many benefits. The followingHadith illustrate some of these benefits:

• “Illuminate your homes by reciting the Holy Qur'an. . for if the Holy Qur'an is recited frequently in a house, it brings blessings for the family, and the house will give light to those in Heaven as the stars of Heaven give light to those on the earth.”

Holy Prophet (S)

• “The heart gathers rust like iron. Remove this rust by the recitation of the Qur'an.”

Holy Prophet (S)

• “Whoever derives pleasure from the recitation of Qur'an, will not be depressed by the departure of friends.”

Imam Ali (a)

How to recite the Qur'an

1. Dowudhu before reciting. Itis forbidden to touch the writings of Qur'an withoutwudhu . Even when not touching the writings, itis recommended to dowudhu before reciting the Qur'an.

2. See protection of Allah from theShaytan .

3. Recite with a beautiful voice. The Holy Qur'anshould be read slowly, with a beautiful voice and consideration for the rules of recitation. The Holy Prophet (S)says: Give beauty to the Qur'an with your voices.And when he was asked as to who had the best voice for recitation, he said: The person who, when you listen to him, you realize that he fears Allah. The Holy Prophet (S) has alsosaid: Everything has a decoration, and the decoration for the Qur'an is a beautiful voice.

4. Interact with the Qur'an. Another important point to remember is to interact with the Qur'an when reciting it. When readingverses which promise blessings and reward for the believers, one should be excited and hopeful.But on reading descriptions of punishments meted out to those who disbelieved and displeased Allah, a believer is fearful and seeks refuge in Allah.

Sometimes Allah asks a questions, as inSura ar -Rahman , Which of the bounties of your Lord will you two deny?. Commentators say arecitor of the Qur'an should answer that by sayingNone of your bounties, my Lord, do I deny. This type of interacting with the Qur'an makes the Qur'an alive, not just a book tobe read .

Understanding the Holy Qur'an

It is important that believers try to understand what Allah has revealed in the Holy Qur'an. It is a book of guidance, and to derive and act upon this guidance, we need to read and understand its verses. The fourth Imam (a) says:

• TheQur'anic verses are treasures of Knowledge and whenever a treasureis opened , you have to see what lies therein.

• Ponder over the verses of the Qur'an, and learn from them, for they are the best of lessons.

Understanding the Qur'ancould be done through reading the translation, thinking about the words used in the verse, the causes of revelation, and reading and discussing the commentary provided by knowledgeable scholars.

Understanding and pondering over the verses of the Holy Qur'an is an important duty of all Muslims. Allah talks to us through the Qur'an, and we need to read and understand what He says in it. Many Muslims believe that understanding the Qur'an is the duty of scholars, and they are contentto just recite the verses without giving them much thought. The Holy Prophet (S) will complain about such Muslims on the day ofJudgement . The Qur'an says he willsay: O my Lord!My people took the Qur'an very lightly. By studying and pondering over the verses of the Qur'an, we will not be among the group the Prophet (S) will complain about on the day ofJudgement .

Exercises

These exercises are to familiarize students with the contents of the Qur'an. This willInshallah bring an appreciation for the holy Book, and an increased understanding of what God has sent us for guidance.

1. Choose onesurah of the holy Qur'an for students to memorize, understand, ponder over, and read commentaryof .Surahs could be chosen according to Grade level and available material. Some good sources of commentary forsurahs are:

2. Choose someQur'anic verses on important topics for students to learn. They could memorize them, understand them, ponder over them, and read or discuss relevant commentary. Someverses which could be included are:

3. Let students make their own schedules forQuranic recital during the holy month. This could include reading of translation and/or commentary.

4. Let the students memorize thehadith on importance of reciting and understanding the Qur'an.

5. Discuss the following important topics with the students during the holy month:

• Revelation and compilation of the Qur'an

• Miracles of the Qur'an

• The need of guidance for human beings

3 Wahhabism in a British context

3.1 Biographical analysis of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab

In order to understand the generally accepted definition of Wahhabism, the endeavours of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab need to be put into context. Even if Ibn Abd al-Wahhab were to be regarded as the source of all Islamist activities, there is enough in his biography to disregard his influence on Muslims around the world.

Wahhabism is widely reported to have originated in eighteenth century Saudi Arabia as a purist Islamic movement which eventually dominated the various tribes and minority groups in the Najd area of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who was born in the town of Uyainah in 1702 or 1703 (Allen, 2007:42), was its founder. His early years were characterised by being a devoted student of religion (Allen, 2007:48) who at the age of ten could recite the whole Qur’an from memory. His father was a judge who followed the Hanbali School of jurisprudence and was descended from a long line of respected jurists who were also Hanbalis. One of the key influences on Ibn Abd al-Wahhab would appear to have been Abd Allah ibn Ibrahim ibn Sayf (d. unknown), an admirer of Ibn Taymiyya’s (d. 1328) theology. Ibn Sayf introduced him to a teacher ofhadith called Muhammad Hayat of Sindh (d. unknown) who was a follower of the Shafi’i School of jurisprudence and a Naqshbandi Sufi.

Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was already showing hard-line and intolerant tendencies in his twenties, apparently as a reaction to Sufism and there was an uncomfortable encounter with his father and his uncle who was also a religious teacher. He believed that Sufism’s teaching of tolerance towards people in general had weakened the militant streak in Arabs of the Najd region and this allowed colonialist powers to gain a foothold. He also came up against the scholars of the day with his puritanical approach to Islam. The scholars of his then dwelling place, Uyainah, denounced him as a schismatic, branded him a heretic and ordered him to leave the town. He went to live with his father who had moved to Huraymila but his views were not accepted there either. He thereafter kept his views to himself until his father’s death in 1740. After that he took over as judge and began to ‘act and pronounce judgement in accordance with his new teachings.’ (Allen, 2007:51). The populace turned on him and he fled Huraymila and sought refuge back in Uyainah.

Ibn Taymiyya’s (1263−1328) influence on Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was through his teacher Ibn Sayf. The former’s purist movement was as a result of the Mongol invasion in which thousands of Muslims were slaughtered at the hands of Hulaku Khan (d. 1265). Ibn Taymiyya’s desire to purify Islam was intended to pull the Muslim world out of its despair by returning it to the original teachings of Islam. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, although apparently one in a line of Islamist revivers, regarded Muslims whom he saw as apostates as the enemy of the religion.

Following his initial rejection by contemporary scholars, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab made a comeback through marriage ties to the ancestors of the current Saudi regime and it is this tactic throughout his remaining life that enabled him to stay at the centre of the political scene and establish his power in Saudi Arabia. Muhammad ibn Saud of the Aal Saud (Family of Saud) established close ties with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in 1744 and declared himself as Amir with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab as Imam. This Imam-Amir coalition was to form the basis of the ruling administration in the Kingdom today. It was an approach which was successful in oppressing minority groups such as Shiites and Sufis. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab successfully merged Islam and politics in the form of a holyjihad . In return for allegiance he promised Paradise.

Both Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Abd al-Wahhab allowedjihad against one’s (unjust) rulers even though both belonged to the Hanbali School offiqh and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855) prohibited this.

The intolerance of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab is shown in the attacks on the graves of prominent personalities of Islam’s history in 1802. Imam Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud’s eldest son, Saud ibn Saud, attacked the sacred shrine of the Shiites in which Husayn, grandson of the Prophet and son of Imam Ali is buried. Allen quotes Lieutenant Francis Warden as saying that they ‘pillaged…and plundered the Tomb of Hossein…slaying in the course of the day, with…cruelty, above five thousand of the inhabitants.’ (Allen, 2007:63). The Turkish government could take criticism as having failed to protect the tombs and the people that visited them, however, the trend of militancy shown by the followers of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was clear. Therefore Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’sjihad is a unique phenomenon in Islamic history and should be treated as such.

The hadith of the Prophet Muhammad in which the lesser jihad is compared and contrasted with the greater jihad highlights the inherent risk of jihadis turning off in periods of peace. [12] The Prophet explained how the jihad al-nafs (combat with the self) is superior to the jihad against a foe because the inner enemy is unseen, unexpected and requires self-appraisal which is harder on the ego ( nafs ) than appraising other people. Furthermore, the diversion of the Companions’ attention to themselves is a way of shutting down the frame of mind in which one is mentally prepared to kill or be killed. The original Wahhabi movement fell foul of this flaw and it is seen how the warring tendency within the Najdi tribe has not changed until this day. This tendency to wage war appears to have continued to this day with Arabs often being accused of promoting a ‘culture of violence’ [13] even in today’s society in which humanity prides itself in its civilised manners. This to an extent explains why the Taliban have continued in their quest for jihad after being supported by the United States against Russia during the 1980s.

Despite the Saudi administration’s bloody beginnings, it has endured as an ally to the West, supplying it with oil for the best part of a century along with opportunities for a growing number of expatriates.[14] Despite this, a cost cannot be put on the calamitous effect that the apparent oppression has had on the now minority groups within the Kingdom. In more recent years, it is reported that there is somewhat of a tolerance-through-ignorance policy in operation where the Kingdom chooses to turn a blind eye towards minority groups because it struggles to embrace them openly[15]

The current state of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia belies Delong-Bas’ (2004:17) portrayal of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab as a pacifist: how is it possible that Saudi Arabia, where Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s writings are venerated, is accused of oppression towards women and other minority Muslims in the name of Islam? Muslim women were not allowed until recent times to drive cars on their own under the ruling ofsad al-dharai . [16]

Some of the issues in the state of Arab society in the Najd area today with regard to women’s rights and the rights of minority Muslims may well be as a result of scholars selectively following the teachings of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab. If it is possible for this to occur with the original sources of Islam (Quran and Hadith) then it is also possible for it to occur with the works of someone such as Ibn Abd al-Wahhab.

Though so-called radical groups within Britain display a desire to purify Islam and for military and political dominance, any link with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab is untenable. Though, given that he is regarded highly, he must accept some culpability.

Allen’s (2007) depiction of a link between purist movements in the Najd area, the Indian sub-continent, Ikhwan reformers of Egypt and Afghan tribes is based on the relationship that Shah Waliullah (d. 1762), a key influential figure of purist movements within the Indian sub-continent, had with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab: they both studied with the same teachers in Madina and possibly even attended the same lectures together and discussed the same topics. He further claims a link between so-called Wahhabi groups and Deobandi[17] and Ahl-i-Hadith[18] preachers in the Indian sub-continent stretching back to the eighteenth century. This is also untenable because his writing contradicts itself when he goes on to say how the Ahl-i-Hadith of India refuted this link when they petitioned the Government of India to stop using the term ‘Wahhabi’ in relation to them and the group also denied any links with Wahhabism.

The circumstances regarding each instance of radical behaviour are different, whether it was in the case of Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab or Britons. In order to understand who the Wahhabis of Britain could be, an understanding of the main Islamist groups is needed.

3.2 Islamist groups of Britain

Anti-Wahhabists attempt and often fail to demonstrate clearly that there is a political link between acts of violence in the name of Islam and the influence of the Saudi administration. The Saudi government being Arab and the apparent 9/11 suicide bombers coming from Saudi Arabia is a very convenient correlation. The 7/7 attacks in London, however, began to challenge the Wahhabi-Saudi link. Modern literature has begun now to focus on what influences people of Britain. The difficulty in literature on this subject is in being able to identify clearly who in Britain are the candidates for the label of ‘Wahhabi’.

3.2.1 The Salafiyyah

The Salafiyyah could be regarded as similar to Ahl-i-hadith in their Islamic outlook. The Salafiyyah movement is often deemed to be closely linked with Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab due to the obvious reverence that they afford him by studying his famousKitab al-Tawhid , commentated on many times over by various Saudi shaykhs and selling on Salafi websites and in their bookshops. However, alongside Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s books one can at times also find Natana Delong-Bas’ book entitledWahhabi Islam [19] which portrays Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in a positive manner and as someone who did not actively promote any form of violence.

Geaves (2000: 54) writes how the origins of what is labelled as the Salafiyyah movement in the UK are based on the teachings of Egyptian reformers such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (d. 1897), Rashid Rida (d. 1935) and Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905). Strangely, Abduh was in favour of legal reform within the Muslim world and used rationality in the application ofmaslaha [20] to reform law. Three examples of controversial decrees of his are allowing Muslims to accept interest and dividends, to eat meat prepared by non-Muslims in foreign lands and to allow Muslims to wear non-traditional dress.[21] These views are liberal as compared to the likes of Rashid Rida. Though the Salafiyyah may be regarded as purist Muslims, in Britain their focus is on the teachings of Islam and they are not reliably known to be involved in Islamic political activism.

Geaves (2000:57) explains that according to Joffe (1998) the Salafi movement’s activities in attempting to purify Islam ‘coincided with socio-political and economic developments in the Middle East which paralleled the reforms in the Ottoman Empire and the Transformation of Egypt in the 1920s.’ Modern Salafis greatly identify themselves with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab; however, their identity is complicated because their scholars are also known to denounce terrorism,[22] although terrorists would also identify with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab. Terrorism or ‘extremist’ Islam therefore does not have a clear-cut face within the Salafi community. Geaves (2000:57) points out that ’[t]he main thrust of the attack was not directed at the West, but at the need to purify Islam from the teachings and practices of the Sufi tariqas’ − implying that although some of the initiatives of the Salafis may have been identical to the Wahhabis, that religious militancy has not necessarily translated into extremism or violence.

The writings of Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966) are often deemed to be an influence on the modern terrorist;[23] however, similarly to Ibn Taymiyyah, the context of Qutb’s writing was his reaction to colonialism within Egypt whereas within Britain, the immigrants from South Asia and the first and second generation Muslims are here by choice. Therefore, the link between Middle Eastern reformers and British Muslims is not reliable. Furthermore, Qutb’s intellectual ancestor was Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905) and as described above he espoused a more accommodating view of Islamic jurisprudence for Muslims. Abduh had been in favour oftalfīq . [24] Abduh himself was not averse to Sufism, having been involved in it during his life. He had always retained a respect for it.[25] The two approaches of Abduh and Qutb at times are in some ways different: Abduh’s desire to evolve Islamic law in a constantly changing world was not seen in the same way within the writing of Qutb who espoused a move away from thejahiliyyah (ignorance) of western societies and a return to original Islamic principles. Qutb’s writings should therefore be taken with some caution.

The mix of ideologies that were evolving in the Middle East during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have also appeared within Britain and often manifest themselves in fiery speeches delivered by impassioned imams at Friday prayers and other Muslim festivities such as the two Eid prayers and the twenty-seventh night of Ramadan and arguably also in the above mentioned suicide attack.[26]

3.2.2 Barelvis, Deobandis and Ahl-i-hadith

These groups originated in the Indian sub-continent. None of them accepts the label of ‘Wahhabi’ which they regard as a term that describes a zealot or excessively purist Muslim. The relationship between Deobandis, Barelvis and Ahl-i-hadith[27] is rarely amicable.

Barelvis[28] usually label the Deobandis, Ahl-i-hadith, Salafi and others who generally do not carry out themawlid or birthday celebrations of the Prophet Muhammad,urs (anniversary of death) of a dead Shaykh as Wahhabi. [29] Deobandis and Barelvis send blessings on the Prophet Muhammad regularly and Geaves’s (2000:54) statement that Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab banned such practises distances both these groups from Wahhabism.

This also challenges the impression that Geaves gives about the Deobandis being ‘Wahhabi-lites’.Deobandis use the term ‘Wahhabi’ to refer to the Ahl-i-hadith or Salafis whom they consider to be purists to a greater degree than themselves. The clearest manifestation of potential Wahhabi or radical tendencies among the Deobandis (and in some mosques populated by Arabs) is at the time for Jumuah prayer when the imams often decide to curse and even pray for destruction of the enemies of the Muslims. Such rhetoric is quite common within the mosques of Britain and is often the result of issues inherited from the Indian sub-continent. These issues are often, in a Qutbian way, ones which themawlawi s [30] display out of their zeal for freedom. From field research conducted as part of this dissertation, it is apparent that the most striking part of these sermons is that they are often in Arabic and the congregation being of Urdu, Hindi or Punjabi speaking backgrounds have little or no idea of what the imam is saying.

Barelvis are greatly influenced by Sufism and some purist Deobandi groups are also deeply influenced by it: the Husseini group of Lahore is one example and Shaykh al-Hadith Sufi Sarwar preachestasawwuf to other scholars and students from the University of al-Jamiah al-Ashrafiyyah. [31] This is indicative of the osmosis of Sufi thought into a number of other ‘purist’ Muslim groups and its appeal to a wide audience. This also challenges Geaves’ (2000:56) notion that ‘the reformed Sufi influence in the (Deobandi) movement does seem to have gone into decline after the advent of Muhammad Wahhab’s movement in Arabia with its strong anti-Sufi rhetoric’.

In terms oftaqlid , Barelvis and Deobandis are ardentmuqallid s (followers) of the Hanafi School which is rejected by the Salafis who regard Abu Hanifah as a misguided Imam of theahl al-ray . [32]

From a Salafi perspective, Deobandis and Barelvis are innovators in theD in (religion) and regard them as having close links with Sufis; for that reason, they could not be Wahhabis. Deobandi and Barelvi practises such as raising the hands for supplication in congregation after each prayer are reminiscent of the Sufis; Salafis consider thesebidah s (innovations) along with others such as the use ofmisbaha rosary beads fordhikr (divine remembrance) which often resemble the practices of Sufis as well as different religions.

The Salafis could be regarded superficially as the British equivalent of the Ahl-i-hadith, however, they dissociate themselves from the term ‘Wahhabi’, but this is not because they reject being called a follower of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab but at the incorrect use of al-Wahhab, one of Allah’s ninety names and of the incorrect use of the name of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab.

There would appear to be great influence in the Deobandi theology of Mawdudi and Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1624) but a general lack of understanding as to who Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab was.

In today’s UK, there is little difference apparent between the Sufism-oriented Barelvis and Deobandis, apart from when one enters the mosque in which the former have more influence, one sees ‘Ya Muhammad’ (O Muhammad) on the wall and usually at the entrance. This is indicative of the teachings of Ahmad Barelvi (d. 1831) who espoused that the Prophet Muhammad was alwayshazir (present) andnazir (watching). This is indicative of the theological difference between Barelvis and others who would regard this notion asshirk [33] .

The internal strife and competition between Deobandis and Barelvis can be said to have preoccupied these communities in Britain for the latter part of the twentieth century in their efforts to establish their own mosques within Muslim communities; the mosques of one group are not known to invite openly the worshippers of another group. The Salafis are especially looked upon suspiciously because they do not want to hold either study circles in any of the other two main groups’ mosques nor enthusiastically attend prayers there. When they do, they often sit in an isolated position and on discussion with some of them it has become apparent that they would only be willing to take over the running of the mosques completely but not be willing to engage or integrate into their communities.

3.2.3 Al-Muhajiroun and Hizb ut-Tahrir

The Deobandis, Barelvis and Salafis do not openly admit any type of political agenda. Al-Muhajiroun, deemed to be in support of radical Islamic thought and also militant, do have a political agenda. Omar Bakri Mohammed, who was the founder and worldwide leader of this group, openly declared the suicide bombers in the Israeli Café of Mike’s Bar as ‘heroes’ (Wiktorowicz, 2005:6). He displays a sense of pan-Islamism and supports the founding of an Islamic caliphate in Muslim lands. This group does not appear to have perpetrated violence in Britain as yet, though this may simply be intentional in order to maintain a presence in Britain by keeping it out of bounds.

Geaves identifies Hizb ut-Tahrir (HT) which is known for its desire to establish an Islamic state (Wiktorowicz, 2005:7) even in Britain as having the potential to ignite the fire of extremism or jihadist sentiments. Bakri joined this group in 1977. This group had been banned and severely suppressed in Saudi Arabia (Wiktorowicz, 2005:7) where Bakri had difficulty in recruiting people, hence, making it difficult to associate this group with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab or the Saudi administration. After being cast out of HT, Bakri continued work under the banner of al-Muhajiroun and over time it emerged as a group in its own right.

This desire to establish an Islamic caliphate for the implementation of Sharia is not extreme or jihadist nor does it pose a threat to British society or the British public. The comments from the Archbishop of Canterbury in 2008 that Sharia was inevitable in the UK[34] coupled with the emergence of Sharia law courts in Britain which are under the control of Dr. Shoaib Hasan,[35] who has no links with these groups, show that there is an untenable link made between the requirement to establish an Islamic way of life and the political activities of HT and al-Muhajiroun.

3.3 Summary

Given the cultural (and to a great extent, ideological and religious) gap between immigrants from the Indian sub-continent and the second generation Muslims, it can be said that British Muslims have not necessarily inherited the issues that their parents brought with them from the sub-continent. Contrary to common belief, the first-generation Muslims are not greatly influenced by Wahhabism, nor are they clearly linked to extremist or terrorist activities. This leaves a question hanging over the militant activities of groups such as al-Muhajiroun, HT, and others which supportjihadi or militant activities. Scholarly literature and media reports accuse militant groups of extremist activities but fail to pin-point how they influence the youth or analyse the factors that are contributing to underlying issues faced by Muslim youth in Britain.

The objective of establishing the success or failure of Wahhabism as an ideology is not possible because of the difficulties surrounding the definition of Wahhabism, as well as the erroneous link between the desire to live Islamically with the political agenda of some fringe groups that are labelled as Wahhabi by both writers on this topic as well as the media. Nevertheless, Britain is faced with a rise of extremist behaviour and in order to deal with it, a solution is required. Sufism is often discussed within the media and within political circles as being the cure and given that the British government recently supported the establishment of the Muslim Sufi Council of Britain. Given the sparse material on this topic, it needs to be discussed in some detail.

4 Sufism: an alternative perspective for British Muslims

4.1 The Wahhabi–Sufi rivalry

The second objective of this dissertation is to establish how Sufism as an alternative paradigm addresses the issues of Britain’s youth. There are underlying issues within Islamic theology whose contention goes back to the formative period within the early centuries of Islam. Geaves (2000:56) alludes to this point wherein questions about the nature of Allah, his non-corporeality, his anthropomorphism, his attributes and an understanding of what he desires, often become a bone of contention. This has been at the heart of the Sufi−non-Sufi divide: how far is Islam willing to accommodate hermeneutical interpretations of Quranic verses and Prophetic traditions? What exactly constitutesshirk ? How much freedom is allowed within religion to express one’s love for Allah? How literal is literal: does every verse within the Quran have an inner meaning and outer meaning or is there such thing as an outer meaning at all? Throughout these debates and attacks, Sufism has remained the one approach that has clearly stood the test of time and survived everywhere in the Muslim world working with all kinds of cultures. Ibn Arabi, a past Sufi master, even addressed the issue of equality between the sexes where traditional scholars often struggled to clear Islam’s name.[36] Sufism is greatly responsible for the spread of Islam in the Indian sub-continent and saw the flow of Sufism from the Khwajagan of Afghanistan[37] to India and back again in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It has survived purist movements and political turmoil in Arab countries and even the theological turmoil of the early centuries of Islam. The scholars of Islamicfiqh and Sufism claim that it goes back to the Adam himself (Geaves, 2000).

The focus on the oppression of Sufism by Muslim purists has recently come to the fore, accelerated by the search of the British Government for a solution to the rise in Islamic extremism in Britain recently manifesting in suicide bomb attacks. This has also brought to the public eye the tireless efforts of the Haqqani Sufi Shaykh Hisham Kabbani who campaigned in the pre−9/11 days to raise awareness of the pending attacks. This has provided the backdrop to allow the Shaykh to bring out the Sufi voice and ‘officially’ enter Sufism into mainstream Islam in Britain. His celebration of the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday in number 10 Downing Street has done a great deal to raise the profile of Sufism within Britain. His flourishing relationship with royalty[38] seen in his hosting of a Sufi event in Manchester on 4th February 2010 is another indication of harmonious relationships that Sufism can bring to the table. Despite the seeming division in the Muslim community caused by the polarisation into either non-Sufi and Sufi, there appears to be a benefit in that the moderate Muslim has a potential representative in the form of Sufism. This is also indicated by Geaves (2000:59) who has written about the potential of Sufism to counter the extremist tendencies as he analyses the writings of Sufi Shaykhs such as Kabbani (1998).

The immanent danger that needs addressing is the possibility of hard-line or extremist rhetoric that has already infiltrated Britain’s mosques remaining there. The Friday sermons of anger aimed at perceived enemies of Islam are indications that there are some remnants of the reaction to the colonialism of Muslim lands imported into Britain. This voice is increasingly becoming dated as British Muslims struggle to form an identity for themselves.

Geaves (interview conducted by this author, 2010) explains that there has been a fair amount of opportunism exhibited by Sufi groups in the wake of the issues of recent years especially after the 9/11 and 7/7 incidents. Sufis capitalised on the opportunity saying that Sufism would never support the violent actions of such radical groups. Furthermore, given that Sufis have also historically been involved in military conflicts, it cannot be simply said that Sufism is an apolitical, non-militant group of mystics.

4.2 Sufism: conclusion

The question as to whether or not Sufism is an alternative paradigm is a complex one on many levels. There is a plethora of writings on Sufism stretching back centuries: the scholarly writings on this subject have, as previously mentioned, traversed centuries, cultures, peoples, eras, languages and an array of other variable factors in society. The extant writings of the likes of Idries Shah (d. 1996) have been a companion to the British people from the mid-twentieth century until today. Book stores proliferate with both original writings in Arabic and Persian as well as interpretations in English by Orientalists, Westerners, Sufis and non-Sufis. Many writers such as Annemarie Schimmel (d. 2003) have given the best parts of their lives to the study of Sufism, taking up residency in centres of Sufi culture[39] and Islamic scholars to this day search to define the inner kernel of Islam through the Sufi way. Sufism’s roots are seen by some to emerge from the Hadith of Jibril narrated in theForty Ahadith [40] of Abu Zakaria Muhi al-Din Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (d. 1278) in which Jibril (the Angel Gabriel) comes to the Prophet Muhammad and asks him an array of questions, one of which is aboutIhsan to which the Prophet replies that it is to worship Allah as though one sees him and if one cannot see him then one should realise that Allah sees him. The clear message of this hadith is that Sufism is greatly experiential and it aims to bring one closer to Allah.

This section of the dissertation could not possibly hope to cover the vast amount of books on Sufism or the wide range of its topics. Given the lack of in-depth literature available on the possibility of Sufism being the alternative paradigm to extremism, it leads one to the following conclusions.

Some prominent Sufis in Britain such as Shaykh al-Kabbani have a good relationship with the British ruling administration and this will be viewed by politically-oriented Islamists as a political tool which politicians can use according to their whims and non-Islamic objectives if required. This will always be a point of contention and sticking point for supporting Sufism as an alternative perspective given that some such groups are receiving funding from the British government.[41]

Sufism promotes certain non-Orthodox activities such as the veneration of saints, which even non-extremist groups such as Deobandis can critically argue against using Islamic sources. Sufism would need to be able to accommodate such differences of opinion otherwise Sufis will fail to engage with other Islamic elements within British society.

Many Sufi Muslims uphold the British monarchy as divinely ordained rulers whereas there are anti-royalists even in Britain, given the monarchy’s German descent. This notion had its origin in the Banu Umayyad caliphate where the oppressive rulers espoused the view that Allah had supported their rule through predestination. This again is a contentious point which goes back to the heart of Islamic theology and the days of the Qadarite-Jabbarite debates.[42] The issue is where one draws the line between accepting a ruling establishment on the grounds that they are divinely ordained and opposing them on their oppressive policies. It has further ramifications for British citizens because of the pledge to the British monarchy and the British state which is expected from each citizen.[43] Despite the passing of centuries this point is still contentious and not likely to be resolved by simply promoting Sufi values.

Sufism is not necessarily averse to political involvement even by military means. Even a Sufi could interpret a political situation to justify the taking up of arms and possibly fighting for a bad cause. The Janissary Turkish troops were closely linked to Haji Bektashi Veli (d. 1270) and often called ‘Sons of Haji Bektash’[44] a well-known Sufi of the thirteenth century who came to Anatolia from Khorasan settling in the small village of Suluca Karahoyuk (Nasr, 1997:359). The Bektashi way became central to the Janissary corps because every man who joined them had to take an oath of loyalty to Haji Bektash Wali, thus this would in effect make them hismurid (follower).

Othman Dan Fodio (d. 1817) of the Qadiriyyah Order in West Africa launched ajihad to reform his followers and formed the Sokoto Caliphate in Nigeria[45] . Thisjihad was also instrumental in inspiring later Sufi leaders to form new states in Fouta Jallon in 1725, Fouta Toro in 1776 and Masina in 1810.

Is the relationship between prominent Sufis like Shaykh al-Kabbani and the ruling administration reciprocated in the same way by his counterparts? The whole-hearted backing by the British government of Sufis in the early twenty-first century does not appear to be as forthcoming now with some reports that the government is not considering Sufism as the only strand of the Muslim community with which it is willing to engage. This gives the impression that Sufis of Britain have not managed to maintain their once flourishing ties with the British ruling establishment. Furthermore, the recent function arranged by Shaykh al-Kabbani to which he invited Prince Charles has only been noted as a musical festival on his ‘official website’ as opposed to being promoted as an effort to spread Islam through love.[46] It would be too late for a personality such as Haqqani to preach an apolitical perspective because of the support he has already given to the likes of Prince Charles and solidarity shown to the British Government. To a typically non-Sufi group such as the Salafis Haqqani probably is regarded as a sell-out. Furthermore, even within Sufis, there are some such as al-Ghazali (d. 1111) who have espoused a general divide between rulers andwalis .[47] The implication is that there are some Sufis who would not regard Haqqani’s affiliation with royalty and ruling powers as legitimate and this could result in realignment with more extreme groups.

Sufism cannot therefore necessarily be deemed as an apolitical strand of Islam. Nasr (1997:163) writes that one of the prominent characteristics of the Naqshbanditariqa was the way in which it never hesitated in being critical of or confrontational towards political powers. He goes on to quote Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi as saying that ‘[t]he King is the soul and the people the body. If the King goes astray, the people will follow suit.’ Given that this strand of Sufism is traced back to either Abu Bakr or to Imam Ali, it is inevitable that there are political ties with the Naqshbandis and that they would even be willing to engage in combat for the right cause. The other Sufitariqas on the other hand may have had a slightly different approach in that their policy was ‘As you are, so shall be your rulers.’ (Nasr, 1997:163) which implies a focus on oneself rather than others, nevertheless, armed conflict cannot be ruled out of the Sufi theology.

The inference is that whereas a so-called Wahhabist Muslim was willing to fight against the British Government and its citizens in favour of the Afghan Taliban, the Naqshbandi Sufi might be willing to take the side of the British Government against the Afghan Taliban and this is a problematic situation for any Muslim if they were required to fight against a fellow Muslim even if given approval by their government. The well-known Prophetichadith is often quoted in this regard which states that if two Muslims fight amongst each other both of them are destined to hell-fire (Sunan Abi Dawud).[48]

Given the Naqshbandiyya principle of opposing one’s rulers if need be, there is no guarantee that even British Sufis can be stopped from joining forces with militant andjihadi groups in Afghanistan and other such places. The result is that militancy could possibly begin to occur even within the Sufi community of Britain. The Muslim world may well see the formation of ‘pro-War on Terror’ Naqshbandis and ‘anti-War on Terror’ Naqshbandis splitting the Muslim community even further.

It can be seen that the answer to the increase in radical Islam within Britain is therefore not necessarily Sufism; on the contrary, the over-promotion of Sufism to British Muslims could result in a total split within the Muslim community on more levels than simply a religious one: there would now be a theological and a political split.

The answer must therefore be sought from identifying the underlying reasons why the British youth are finding that they need to express themselves in such devastating ways. This is achieved in the next section through case studies and field research.


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