Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Philosophy

What Is Philosophy?

Literal and Semantic Definitions

The logicians say that when one asks about the whatness of a thing, one is actually asking various things. Sometimes one is asking the conceptual meaning of a word. That is, when we ask what a thing is, we are asking about the very word. In asking about its whatness, we seek to know the lexical or idiomatic meaning of that word. Suppose in reading a book we run across the word pupak (hoopoe) and do not know its meaning. We ask someone, “What is a pupak?” He replies, “Pupak is the name of a bird.”

Or suppose we run across the word kalima (word) in the terminology of the logicians and we ask some one, “What does kalima mean in the terminology of the logicians?” He says, “Kalima in the terminology of the logicians is equivalent to fi’l (verb) in the language of the grammarians.” Plainly, the relation between word and meaning is conventional and terminological, whether the terminology is restricted or general.

In answering such a question, one must search out instances of usage or consult a dictionary. Such a question may have numerous answers, all of them correct, because it is possible for a single word to have various meaning in various contexts. For instance, a word may have a special meaning in the usage of the logicians and the philosophers, and another in that of the grammarians.

The word kalima has one meaning in common usage and in the usage of grammarians and another meaning in the usage of the logicians. Or, the word qiyas (analogy, syllogism) has one meaning in the usage of the logicians and another in the usage of the jurists and the legists. When a word has two or more meanings within a single body of usages, one must say that it has this meaning in this expression, and that in that. Answers given to such questions are called verbal definitions.

Sometimes when one inquires into the whatness of a thing, what one seeks is not the meaning of the word, but the reality of its referent. We do not ask, “What is the meaning of this word?” We know the meaning of the word, but not the reality and suchness of its referent. For instance, if we ask, “What is man?” we do not seek to know what the word “man” has been coined to mean. We all know that this word is applied to this bipedal, upright-postured, speaking being. We seek instead to know the identity and the reality of man. Plainly, in this case there can be only one correct answer, called the real definition.

The verbal definition is prior to the real definition. That is, one must ascertain first the conceptual meaning of the word, and then the real definition of the referent so delineated. Otherwise fallacies and pointless disputes will arise because a word has numerous lexical and idiomatic meanings, and this multiplicity of meanings is easily overlooked. Any party may define a word by a special meaning and idiomatic usage, heedless of the fact that it is envisioning something different from what another party has envisioned. So they dispute pointlessly.

The failure to distinguish the meaning of the word from the reality of its referent sometimes results in the transformation and evolution that take place in the meaning of the word being ascribed to the reality of its referent. For instance, a certain word may at first be applied to a whole and then, through changes in usage, to a part of that whole. If one fails to distinguish the meaning of the word from the reality of its referent, he will suppose that that whole actually has been fragmented, whereas in fact no change has occurred in the whole, but rather the word applying to it has been displaced in meaning to apply to a part of that whole.

Just such an error in regard to the word “philosophy” has overtaken all of Western philosophy and its imitators in the East. Philosophy is an idiomatic word and has found numerous and various idiomatic meanings. Various parties of philosophers have defined philosophy each in a special way, but this discrepancy in definition does not bear on any reality. Each party has used this word in a special sense, which it has defined as its object. What one party calls philosophy, another does not call philosophy; the latter will completely deny its value, call it something else, or regard it as part of another science. So neither party will regard the other as philosophers. I shall take these various usages into account.

The Word “Philosophy”

Falsafa has a Greek origin. This word is an Arabic verbal noun derived from the Greek word philosophia, which is a compound of philos and sophia, the former meaning love, the latter, wisdom. Therefore, philosophia means love of wisdom. Plato called Socrates a philosophos in the sense of his being a lover of wisdom.1 Therefore, the word falsafa is an Arabicization, a verbal noun, meaning the work or pursuit of philosophers.

Before Socrates, a party appeared calling themselves the Sophists, meaning the scholars. They made human perception the measure of reality and used fallacious arguments in their deductions. Gradually, “sophist” (sophistes) lost its original meaning and came to mean one who makes use of fallacious arguments. Thus we have the word “sophistry,” which has the cognate in Arabic safsafa, with the same meaning.

Socrates, out of humility and also perhaps a desire to avoid being identified with the Sophists, forbade people to call him a sophistes, a scholar.2 He therefore called himself a philosophos, a lover of wisdom. Gradually, philosophos, with its original sense of lover of wisdom, displaced sophistes as meaning scholar, and the latter was downgraded to its modern sense of one who uses fallacious reasoning. Philosophia became synonymous with wisdom. Therefore, philosophos as a technical term had been applied to no one before Socrates, and it was not applied to anyone immediately after him. The term philosophia, too, had no definite meaning in those days; it is said that not even Aristotle used it. Later, use of the terms philosophia and philosophos became widespread.

Muslim Usage

The Muslims took the word “philosophy” from the Greeks. They gave it an Arabic form and an Eastern nuance, using it to mean pure rational knowledge. Philosophy in the common Muslim usage did not refer to a special discipline or science; it embraced all rational sciences, as opposed to transmitted sciences, such as etymology, syntax, declension, rhetoric, stylistics, prosody, exegesis, tradition, and jurisprudence. Because this word had a generic meaning, only one who comprehended all the rational sciences of his time, including theology, mathematics, the natural sciences, politics, ethics, and domestic economy, would be called a philosopher. Thus it was said, Whoever is a philosopher becomes a world of knowledge, analogous to the objective world.”

When Muslims sought to reproduce Aristotle's classification of the sciences, they used the words falsafa or hikma. They said, “Philosophy, that is, the rational science, has two divisions: the theoretical and the practical.”

Theoretical philosophy addresses things as they are; practical philosophy addresses man's actions as they ought to be. Theoretical philosophy is threefold: theology or high philosophy, mathematics or middle philosophy, and natural science or low philosophy. High philosophy, or theology, in turn comprehends two disciplines, general phenomenology and theology per se. Mathematics is fourfold, each of its areas being a science in itself: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Natural science has numerous divisions. Practical philosophy is divisible into ethics, domestic economy, and civics. The complete philosopher comprehends all these sciences.

True Philosophy

In the philosophers' view, one area enjoys a special prominence among the numerous areas of philosophy. It is called first philosophy, high philosophy, the supreme science, the universal science, theology, or metaphysics. The ancients believed that one of the features distinguishing this science from all others is its firmer foundation on demonstration and certainty. Another is that it presides over all other sciences; it is in truth the queen of the sciences because the others depend on it totally, but it has no such dependence on them. A third distinguishing feature is that it is more general and universal than any other science.3 According to these philosophers, this science is the true philosophy. Accordingly, sometimes the word “philosophy” is restricted in application to this science, but this usage is rare.

Therefore, in the view of the ancient philosophers, the word “philosophy” had two meanings: one, the prevalent meaning of rational knowledge as such, including all but the transmitted sciences, and the other the rare meaning of theology, or first philosophy, one of the three divisions of theoretical philosophy.

Accordingly, there are two possibilities if we choose to define philosophy according to the usage of the ancients. First, ifwe adopt the common usage, because here philosophy is a generic term applying to no special science or discipline, it will have no special definition. It will mean all nontransmitted science. To be a philosopher will mean to comprehend all such sciences. It was in accordance with such a generalised conception of philosophy that it was said, “Philosophy is the perfection of the soul of man from both a theoretical standpoint and a practical one.”

Second, if we adopt the rarer usage, defining philosophy as that activity the ancients called true philosophy, first philosophy, or the supreme science, this will constitute a special definition for philosophy. The answer to the question “What is philosophy?” will be that philosophy consists of a science of the states of being from the standpoint that is being, not from the standpoint of its having a special individuation, for instance, of its being body, quantity, quality, man, vegetable, or what have you.

Our knowledge of things is of two kinds: It may be restricted to a certain species or genus; it may apply to the special states, determinations (ahkam),4 and accidents (avariz) of a certain species or a certain genus, as does, for instance, our knowledge constituting the science of the determinations of numbers (arithmetic), of quantities (geometry), of the states and properties of plants (botany), or of the states, properties, and determinations of the human body (medicine or physiology). This sort of knowledge embraces the rest of the sciences, such as meteorology, geology, mineralogy, zoology, psychology, sociology, and atomics.

Or our knowledge may not be restricted to a certain species; that is, we may say that being has these determinations, states, and properties not from the standpoint that it is of a certain species but from the standpoint that it is being. Sometimes we study the universe from the standpoint of its plurality and discrete subjects, whereas sometimes we study it from the standpoint of unity; that is, we regard being from the standpoint that it is being as a unity, and we pursue our studies with a regard to this unity that embraces all things.

If we liken the universe to a body, we see that our studies of that body will be of two kinds. Some of our studies will pertain to the members of that body (for instance, its head, hands, feet, or eyes); others will pertain to the whole of that body, as we ask, for instance, “When did this body come into being, and how long will it persist?”

Or is it at all meaningful to ask when in relation to the body as an aggregate? Does this body have a real unity, the multiplicity of the members being an apparent, not a real, multiplicity? Or is its unity nominal, on the level of a mechanical interrelationship; that is, does it not exceed the unity of a manufactured device? Has this body a source member from whom the other members have sprung? For instance, has this body a head, which is the source for the other members?

Or is it a body without a head? If it has a head, does this head have a sensible and perceiving mind, or is it hollow and empty? Does the whole of the body down to the nails and bones enjoy a kind of life, or is the intelligence and perception of this body confined to some entities that have appeared by chance, like worms on a corpse - these worms being what we call the animals, including man?

Does this body as a whole pursue an end, course toward a perfection and a reality, or is it an aimless being? Are the appearance and decline of the members an accident, or does the law of causation govern them, no phenomenon being without cause and every particular effect arising from a particular cause? Is the system governing this body certain and inescapable? Or does no necessity or certainty govern this body? Is the order and priority of the members of this body real or not? How many are the basic organs of this body?

The portion of our studies that pertains to an organology of the universe of being is science, and the portion that pertains to a physiology of the universe as a whole is philosophy. There is thus a special class of questions that resemble those of none of the world's sciences, which investigate particular beings, but that compose a class of their own. When we take up the study of this class of questions as an exploration of the parts of the sciences, and when we wish to understand of what subject questions of this class are, technically speaking, accidents, we see that they are accidents of being qua being.

If one of us should ask, “What is philosophy?” before answering we must state that this word has a special sense in the usage of any given party. Among Muslims, it is most commonly a generic noun representing all the rational sciences, not the name of a particular science and less commonly a name for first philosophy, a science of the most universal aspects of being, pertaining to no particular subject but to all subjects. This is a science that investigates all of being as a unified subject.

Metaphysics

Aristotle was the first to discern a series of questions that belong to none of the natural, mathematical, ethical, social, or logical sciences and must be seen as belonging to a separate science. He may have been the first to discern the pivot on which all these questions turn as accidents and states, which is being qua being. He may also have been the first one to discover the factor that interconnects the questions of any one science and the standard by which they are to be distinguished from the questions of another science - in other words, what is called the subject of a science.

The questions of this science, like those of any other, were later to be greatly expanded and augmented. This fact grows clear through a comparison of the metaphysics of Aristotle with the metaphysics of Avicenna, not to mention the metaphysics of Mulla Sadra. But Aristotle was the first to elaborate this science as an independent field, to give it a special place among the sciences.

Aristotle gave this science no name. His works were posthumously compiled into an encyclopedia. The section in question followed that on natural philosophy in sequence and, having no special name, came to be known as metaphysika, meaning after physics. It was translated into Arabic as ma ba'd at-tabi 'a.

It was eventually forgotten that this name was given this science because it occurred after natural philosophy in Aristotle's work. It was supposed that this had occurred because at least some of the questions this science addresses, such as God and the pure intelligences, are external to nature. Accordingly, it occurred to some persons, such as Avicenna, that this science should be called not metaphysics but prophysics because it includes the subject of God, Who is prior to nature, not posterior to it.5

This verbal error in translation later led to an error in meaning among some modern students of philosophy. Many Europeans supposed that metaphysics is equivalent to hyperphysics and that the subject of this science consists of phenomena external to nature. In fact, this science includes the natural and the supernatural, in sum, all that exists. This group has erroneously defined this science as follows: Metaphysics is that science which deals solely with God and phenomena separate from nature.

Philosophy in Modern Times

The watershed between the modern era (beginning in the sixteenth Christian century) and the ancient was marked by the displacement of the syllogistic and rational method of science by the experimental and empirical method, a change instituted by a group foremost among whom were the Frenchman, Descartes, and the Englishman, Bacon. The natural sciences en bloc departed the domain of syllogistic reasoning and entered that of the experimental method. Mathematics took on a semi-syllogistic, semi-experimental character.

After this course of events, some decided that the syllogistic method is unreliable. So, if a science is beyond the reach of concrete experiment, if it calls exclusively for syllogistic reasoning, it is groundless. Because this is the case with metaphysics, that is, because concrete experiment has no place in it, this science is groundless. Its questions are beyond confirmation or refutation through research. These persons draw a red line through the science that once had stood above all others and had been called the most noble of sciences and the queen of the sciences. According to them, the science of metaphysics or first philosophy did not and could not exist. They took from man the questions his reason most keenly feels the need to address.

Others maintained that the syllogistic method is not in all cases unreliable and must be employed in metaphysics and ethics. They created a new terminology: “What could take the form of research through the experimental method they called science, and what had to be approached through the syllogistic method, including metaphysics, ethics, and logic, they called philosophy. Philosophy consists of those sciences that consist in research through the syllogistic method only and in which concrete experiment plays no part.

In this view, as in the view of the ancient scholars, philosophy is generic, not specific, in meaning: It is not the name of one science, but comprehends several sciences. But philosophy in this sense encompasses less than it did according to ancient usage. It includes metaphysics, ethics, logic, law, and perhaps a few others, but mathematics and the natural sciences are outside its compass.

Members of the first group totally denied metaphysics and the syllogistic method, trusting in the empirical and experimental sciences. In time, they realised that if all that is falls into the domain of the experimental sciences, and if the questions they address are restricted to particular subjects, then we are going to be wholly deprived of an overall understanding of the universe, which philosophy or metaphysics had undertaken to provide. Thus, they founded a scientific philosophy, that is, a philosophy resting completely on the sciences.

Through comparative study of the sciences, inquiry into how their questions connect to other questions, and discovery of the kind of relationships among the laws and questions of the sciences, the totality they compose, a range of more general questions would devolve. They called these more general questions philosophy. The Frenchman Auguste Comte and the Englishman Herbert Spencer took up this method.

Philosophy was no longer an autonomous science either in its subject matter or in its sources, since such an autonomous science had for its subject being qua being and had its sources - at least its chief source - in first axioms. Philosophy had become a science whose function was to study the products of the other sciences, to interrelate them, and to derive general questions from their more limited questions. Auguste Comte's philosophy of positivism and Herbert Spencer's synthetic philosophy are of this sort. According to this view, philosophy is not a science apart from the other sciences, but constitutes a broader and fuller view of things seen and learned through the sciences.

Some others, such as Kant, thought it necessary first to study knowledge itself, along with the faculty that is its source, that is, reason. They made a critique of human reason and designated their researches philosophy as such or critical philosophy. However, this, too, has nothing but the word in common with what the ancients called philosophy or with Comte's positivism or Spencer's synthetic philosophy. Kant’s philosophy has more to do with logic, which is a special form of ideology in the strict sense (fikr shinasi), than with philosophy in its original meaning, which is cosmology.

In the European cultural sphere, whatever was not science, that is, whatever did not fit into any of the natural or mathematical sciences but was a theory of the universe, man, or society, gradually came to be known as philosophy. If someone were to collect all the “isms” that have been called philosophy in Europe and America and list all their definitions, one would see that they have nothing in common except being not science.

The difference between ancient and modern philosophies is dissimilar in kind to the difference between ancient and modern sciences. Compare ancient and modern medicine, geometry, psychology, or botany. Ancient science is not different in identity from modern science (for example, the word “medicine” did not refer to one science in ancient times and another in modern times).

Ancient and modern medicine share a single definition; medicine has always consisted in knowledge of the states and symptomatic conditions of the human body. But ancient and modern medicine differ in how they approach questions. Modern medicine is the more empirical; ancient medicine is the more deductive and syllogistic. Modern medicine is also the more developed. This sort of difference holds for all other sciences.

The term “philosophy,” however, has had various referents, and a separate definition for each referent, in the course of the ancient and modern periods. In ancient times, philosophy sometimes designated rational science as such and sometimes had a specialised meaning applying to one of the branches of this science (such as metaphysics or first philosophy). In modern times, the word has been applied to numerous referents, having a different definition in accordance with each.

Divorce of the Sciences from Philosophy

An egregious but prevalent error of our time that arose in the West and has grown widespread among Eastern imitators of Western thinkers is the myth of the divorce of the sciences from philosophy.

A linguistic change pertaining to a convention of usage has been mistaken for a change of meaning pertaining to a real referent. In the language of the ancients, the words “philosophy” and “hikma” generally were used to mean rational, as opposed to transmitted knowledge. Thus, these words comprehended all of man's rational and intellectual ideas in their meanings. In this usage, philosophy was a generic, not a proper, noun.

In modern times, this word became restricted to metaphysics, logic, aesthetics, and the like. This change in the name has led some to suppose that in ancient times philosophy was a single science embracing theology and the natural, mathematical, and other sciences and that later the natural and mathematical sciences were divorced from philosophy and grew independent of it.

It is as if the word “body” once meant the human frame, as opposed to the spirit, and included the whole human form from head to feet and later acquired the secondary sense of the trunk and limbs, minus the head. Suppose some came to imagine that the head of man thus had become separated from his body. A linguistic change would have been mistaken for a change in meaning. Consider also the word “Fars,” which once referred to the whole of Iran but today refers only to one of its southern provinces. Someone might think the province of Fars had seceded from Iran.

This is the status of the divorce of the sciences from philosophy. The sciences were once lumped under the name “philosophy,” but today this name is applied to only one of the sciences. This change in name has nothing to do with a divorce of the sciences from philosophy. The sciences have never been part of philosophy proper; so they could not be divorced from it.

Illuminationism and Peripateticism

Islamic philosophers are divisible into two groups: illuminationists and peripateticists. Foremost among the illuminationist philosophers of Islam is the sixth century scholar Shaykh Shihab ad-Din Suhravardi (otherwise known as Shaykh-i Ishraq, but whom I shall refer to as Suhravardi), and foremost among the peripatetic philosophers of Islam is Shaykh ar-Ra'is Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna).

The illuminationists are considered to be followers of Plato and the peripatetics, of Aristotle. The principal and essential difference between the two methods is that the illuminationists consider deduction and rational thought insufficient for study of philosophical questions, especially of divine wisdom (hikmat-i ilahi), and the path of the heart, asceticism, and purification of the soul as incumbent if one is to realize inner realities. Peripatetics rely solely on deduction.

The word ishraq, meaning illumination, aptly conveys a sense of the illuminationist method, but the word mashsha' or peripatetic, which means ambulant or much ambulant, is purely arbitrary and conveys nothing of the peripatetic method. Aristotle and his followers were called the mashsha 'in, the peripatetics, because Aristotle held forth while taking walks. “Deductionist” actually describes the peripatetics' method. Thus, it is more accurate to label the two kinds of philosophers illuminationists and deductionists, although I shall continue to use the more common term, peripatetic.

The major questions over which illuminationists and peripatetics differ in Islam today generally pertain to Islam and not to Plato or Aristotle. They include the questions of essentialism (isalat-i mahiya) versus existentialism (isalat-i vujud), the unity versus the multiplicity of being, the question of fabrication (ja’l), the question of whether a body is compounded of matter and form, the question of ideas (muthul) and archetypes (arbab-i anva'), and the question of the principle of the more noble possibility (imkan-i ashraf).6

Did Plato and Aristotle actually have two different methods? Did such a difference in outlook exist between the master, Plato, and the pupil, Aristotle? Was Suhravardi's method, propounded in the Islamic era, actually Plato's method? Did Plato follow the way of the Heart, asceticism and the discipline of the soul, or the illumination and witness of the heart? Was he an exponent of what Suhravardi later called experiential wisdom (hikmat-i dhawqi)?

Do the questions that illuminationists and peripatetics have been known to differ over since the time of Suhravardi (questions of essence and existence, of fabrication, of the compoundedness or simplicity of the body, of the formula of the more noble possibility, and of the unity or multiplicity of being) actually date back to differences of opinion between Plato and Aristotle? Or are the questions, at least some of them, later developments unknown to Plato or Aristotle? There were certainly differences of opinion between the two; Aristotle refuted many of Plato's theories and countered them with different ones.

In the Alexandrian period, which was the watershed between the Hellenic and Islamic eras, the followers of Plato and Aristotle formed two opposed ranks. Farabi, in Al-Jam' Bayn Ra'yay al-Hakimayn (The reconciliation of the views of the two sages), discusses the questions over which the two philosophers disagree and strives to resolve these disagreements. There are three basic questions on which Plato and Aristotle differed, questions different from those discussed during the Islamic era.

It is highly doubtful that Plato advocated a spiritual way, with asceticism and discipline of the soul, and witness of the heart. Thus, the notion that Plato and Aristotle had two distinct methods, the illuminationist and the peripatetic, becomes highly debatable. It is by no means clear that Plato was recognised as an illuminationist, an exponent of inner illumination, in his own time or any time soon thereafter. It is not even clear that the term peripatetic was applied exclusively to Aristotle and his followers in his own time.

As Shahristani says: “Now the strict peripatetics then are the members of the Lyceum. Plato, honoured for his wisdom, always taught them while taking walks. Aristotle followed his example, and accordingly he [apparently Aristotle] and his followers were called peripatetics.”7 Aristotle and his followers surely were called peripatetics, and this usage was simply continued in Islamic times. However, it is doubtful and even deniable that Plato was called an illuminationist.

Prior to Suhravardi, we never find any of the philosophers, such as Farabi and Avicenna, or any of the historians of philosophy, such as Shahristani, speaking of Plato as a sage advocating experiential or illuminationist wisdom.8 It was Suhravardi who gave this term currency, and it was he who, in his Hikmat al-Ishraq (Wisdom of Illumination), called a party among the ancient sages, including Pythagoras and Plato, exponents of experiential and illuminationist wisdom and who called Plato chief of the illuminationists.

I believe Suhravardi adopted the illuminationist method under the influence of the ‘urafa 'and the Sufis; the admixture of illumination and deduction is his own invention. But he - perhaps in order to improve acceptance of his theory - spoke of a party among the ancient philosophers as having this same method. Suhravardi offers no sort of documentation on this subject, just as he offers none on the matter of the ancient Iranian sages. Certainly, if he possessed such documentation, he would have presented it and so avoided leaving an idea to which he was so devoted in ambiguity and doubt.

Some writers on the history of philosophy, in writing on Plato's beliefs and ideas, have not mentioned his supposed illuminationist method. Shahristani's Al-Milal wa'n-Nihal, Dr. Human's Tarikh-i Falsafa, Will Durant's History of Philosophy, and Muhammad Ali Furughi's Sayr-i Hikmat dar Urupa do not mention such a method in the sense Suhravardi intends. Furughi mentions Platonic love, which is a love of the beautiful that in Plato's belief - at least as expressed in the Symposium - is rooted in divinity. It bears no relation to what Suhravardi has said about the purification of the psyche and the Gnostic way to God. Plato is said to hold: “Before coming to the world, the spirit beheld absolute beauty; when in this world it sees outward beauty, it remembers absolute beauty and feels pain at its exile. Physical love, like formal beauty, is metaphysical. But true love is something else; it is the basis for illuminate perception and realisation of eternal life.”9

In his History of Western Philosophy, Bertrand Russell repeatedly mentions the admixture of ratiocination and illumination in the philosophy of Plato. However, he offers no documentation or quotations that would shed light on the question of whether Plato's illumination arises from discipline and purification of the soul or is just that experience born of love for the beautiful.10 Further investigation of this question must include direct study of Plato's entire corpus.

Pythagoras may have employed the illuminationist method, apparently under the inspiration of Oriental teachings. Russell, who regards Plato's method as illuminationistic, maintains that Plato came under the influence of Pythagoras in this regard.11

Whether or not we see Plato as an illuminationist in method, there are pivotal ideas among his beliefs that define his philosophy, all of which Aristotle opposed. One such concept is the theory of ideas, according to which all we witness in this world, substances and accidents alike, have their origin and reality in the other world. The individual beings of this world amount to shadows or reflections of other-worldly realities. For instance, all the human individuals who dwell in this world have a principle and reality in the other world; the real and substantive man is that man of the other world.

Plato called these realities ideas. In Islamic times, the Greek word for idea was translated as mithal (likeness, idea), and these realities were called collectively the muthul-i aflatuni (Platonic ideas). Avicenna strenuously opposed the theory of Platonic ideas, and Suhravardi just as strenuously advocated it. Among later philosophers holding to the theory of ideas are Mir Damad and Mulla Sadra. However, these two sages' definitions of idea, especially Mir Damad's, differ from Plato's and even from Suhravardi's.

Mir Findiriski is another advocate of the theory of ideas from the Safavid era. He has a well-known qasida in Persian in which he propounds his own views on this theory. Here is how it begins:

Lo! The star-studded wheel, so beauteous and splendid!

What's above has a form here below correspondent.

Should this lower form scale the ladder of gnosis,

It will ever find union above with its origin.

The intelligible form that is endless, eternal,

Is compendious and single with all or without all.

No external prehension will grasp this discussion,

Be it Bu Nasr Farabi or Bu Ali Sina.12

Another of Plato's pivotal theories concerns the human spirit. He believes that, prior to being attached to bodies, spirits were created and dwelt in a world above and beyond this, which is the world of ideas (or of similitudes, ‘alam-i muthul), and that they are attached to and settled in bodies subsequent to the latter's creation.

The third of Plato's theories is based on the first two and amounts to a corollary of them. It holds that knowledge comes through recollection, not through actual learning. Everything we learn in this world, although we suppose it to be something we were previously ignorant of and have learned for the first time, is in reality a recollection of those things we knew before in that, prior to being attached to the body in this world, the spirit dwelt in a higher world in which it witnessed ideas. Because the realities of all things are the ideas of those things, which the spirits perceived earlier, these spirits knew realities prior to coming to this world and finding attachment to bodies. After finding this attachment, we forgot these things.

For the spirit, the body is like a curtain hung across a mirror that prevents the transmission of light and the reflection of forms from the mirror. Through dialectics (discussion, argument, and rational method), through love, or, as Suhravardi and like-minded people infer, through asceticism, discipline of the soul, and the spiritual way, the curtain is lifted, the light shines through, and the forms are revealed.

Aristotle differs with Plato on all three of these ideas. First, he denies the existence of ideal, abstract, and celestial universals; he regards the universal, or, more properly speaking, the universality of the universal, as a purely subjective phenomenon. Second, he believes that the spirit is created after the body, that is, as the creation of the body is completed and perfected.

Third, Aristotle considers the body in no way a hindrance or curtain to the spirit; on the contrary, it is the means and instrument by which the spirit acquires new learning. The spirit acquires its learning by means of these senses and bodily instruments; it had no prior existence in another world in which to have learned anything.

Plato's and Aristotle's differences of opinion over these basic questions, as well as over some less important ones, were kept alive after them. They each had their followers in the Alexandrian school. Plato's followers there became known as neo-Platonists.

This school was founded by the Egyptian Ammonius Saccas. Its most celebrated and outstanding exponent was the Egyptian of Greek descent, Plotinus, whom the Islamic historians called the Greek master (Ash-Shaykh al-Yunani). The neo-Platonists introduced new topics, perhaps borrowing from ancient Oriental sources. Aristotle's Alexandrian followers and expositors were numerous. The most famous were Themistius and Alexander of Aphrodisias.

Islamic Methods of Thought

There have been other methods of thought in the Islamic world, at variance with the illuminationist and peripatetic methods, that have played genuine and basic roles in the development of Islamic culture. Two such methods are 'irfan (gnosis) and kalam (scholastic theology).

Neither the 'urafa' nor the mutakallimin have regarded themselves as followers of the philosophers, whether illuminationists or peripatetics. They have taken stands against the philosophers and clashed with them. These clashes have had an appreciable effect on the fate of Islamic philosophy. Irfan and kalam have both motivated Islamic philosophy through conflict and clashes and opened up new horizons for philosophy.

Four Islamic Approaches

Many of the questions Islamic philosophy addresses were first addressed by the mutakallimin or the 'urafa; although they express themselves in a way different from that of the philosophers. Islam comprehends four methods of thought, and Islamic thinkers are of any of four sorts. I am discussing methods of thought having a philosophical character in the most general sense, that is, constituting an ontology and a cosmology.

I am treating the universals of philosophy, and not the methods of thought of jurisprudence, exegesis, tradition, letters, politics, or ethics, which are another matter entirely. Each of these methods has taken on a special character under the influence of Islamic teachings and differs from its counterparts outside the Islamic sphere. The particular spirit of Islamic culture governs each.

One method is the deductive method of peripatetic philosophy. It has numerous adherents in history. Most Islamic philosophers, including Al-Kindi, Farabi, Avicenna, Khwaja Nasir ad-Din Tusi, Mir Damad, Ibn Rushd of Andalusia, Ibn Baja of Andalusia, and Ibn as-Sa'igh of Andalusia, have followed this method. The perfect exemplar of this school is Avicenna. Such philosophical works of his as the Kitab ash-Shifa' (The book of healing [the so called Sufficientia]), Isharat va Tanbihat (Allusions and admonitions), Najat (Deliverance), Danishnama-yi Ala'i (The book of knowledge, dedicated to 'Ala ad-Dawla), Mabda' va Ma 'ad (The source and the destination), Ta'liqat-i Mubahathat (Annotations to the discussions), and 'Uyun al-Hikma (Wellsprings of wisdom) are all works of peripateticism. This method relies exclusively on rational deduction and demonstration.

A second method is the illuminationist method. This has fewer adherents than the first method. It was revived by Shihab ad-Din Suhravardi and followed by Qutb ad-Din Shirazi, Shahrazuri, and a number of others. Suhravardi is considered the perfect exemplar of this school. He wrote numerous books) including the Hikmat al-lshraq (Wisdom of illumination), Talvihar (Intimations), Mutarahat (Conversations), Muqavamat (Oppositions), and Hayakil an-Nur (Temples of light). The best known of them is the Hikmat al-Ishraq; only this work is wholly devoted to the illuminationist method. Suhravardi has written some treatises in Persian, among them Avaz-i Par-i Jabra'il (The song of Gabriel's wing) and Aql-i Surkh (The red intelligence).

The illuminationist method rests on rational deduction and demonstration and on endeavour and purification of the soul. According to this method, one cannot discover the underlying realities of the universe through rational deduction and demonstration alone.

The wayfaring method of 'irfan, or Sufism, is the third method. It relies exclusively on a purification of the soul based on a concept of making one's way to God and drawing near to the Truth. This way is said to culminate in the attainment of Reality. The method of 'irfan places no confidence at all in rational deduction. The 'urafa' say that the deductionists stand on wooden legs. According to the method of ‘irfan, the goal is not just to uncover reality, but to reach it.

The method of 'irfan has numerous adherents, some of whom have grown famous in the Islamic world, including Bayazid Bistami, Hallaj, Shibli, Junayd of Baghdad, Dhu'n-Nun Misri, Abu Sa'id-i Abi'l-Khayr, Khwaja 'Abdullah Ansari, Abu Talib Makki, Abu Nasr Sarraj, Abu'l-Qasim Qushayri, Muhyi 'd-Din Ibn 'Arabi of Andalusia, Ibn Faridh of Egypt, and Mawlana Rumi. The perfect exemplar of Islamic ‘irfan, who codified it as a science and had a compelling influence on all who followed him, is Muhyi 'd-Din Ibn 'Arabi.

The wayfaring method of 'irfan has one feature in common with the illuminationist method and two features at variance with it. Their shared feature is reliance on reform, refinement, and purification of the soul. The distinguishing features of each are as follows:

The 'arif wholly rejects deduction; the illuminationist upholds it and uses thought and purification to aid each other. The illuminationist, like any other philosopher, seeks to discover reality; the ‘arif seeks to attain it.

Fourth is the deductive method of kalam. Like the peripatetic, the mutakallimin rely on rational deduction, but with two differences. First, the principles on which the mutakallimin base their reasoning are different from those on which the philosophers base theirs. The most important convention used by the mutakallimin, especially by the Mu'tazilites, is that of beauty and ugliness.

However, they differ among themselves as to the meaning of this convention: the Mu'tazilites regard the concept of beauty and ugliness as rational, but the Ash'arites regard it as canonical. The Mu'tazilites have derived a series of principles and formulae from this principle, such as the formula of grace (qa’ida-iy lutf) and the incumbency of the optimal (wujub-i aslah) upon God Most High.

The philosophers, however, regard the principle of beauty and ugliness as a nominal and human principle, like the pragmatic premises and intelligibles propounded in logic, which are useful only in polemics, not in demonstration. Accordingly, the philosophers call kalam “polemical wisdom,” as opposed to “demonstrational wisdom.”

Second, the mutakallimin, as opposed to the philosophers, regard themselves as committed, committed to the defence of the bounds of Islam. Philosophical discussion is free; that is, the philosopher has not the predetermined object of defending a particular belief, The mutakallim does have such an object. The method of kalam is subdivided into three methods: the Mu'tazilite, the Ash'arite, and the Shi'ite.

Mu'tazilites are numerous in history. There are Abu'l Hudhayl 'Allaf, Nazzam, Jahiz, Abu 'Ubayda, and Mu'ammar ibn Muthanna, all of whom lived in the second or third centuries of the Hijra. Qazi 'Abd al-Jabbar in the fourth century and Zamakhshari around the turn of the fifth-sixth centuries also exemplify this school.

Shaykh Abu'l-Hasan Ash'ari (d. 330) perfectly exemplifies the Ash'arite school. Qazi Abu Bakr Baqillani, Imam al-Haramayn Juvayni, Ghazali, and Fakhr ad-Din Razi all followed the Ash'ari method.

Shi'i mutakallimin are also numerous. Hisham ibn al-Hikam, a companion of Imam Ja'far Sadiq (upon whom be peace) was a Shi'i mutakallim. The Nawbakhti family, an Iranian Shi'i family, produced some outstanding mutakallims. Shaykh Mufid and Sayyid Murtadha 'Alam al-Huda are also ranked among Shi'i mutakallimin. The perfect exemplar of Shi'i kalam is Khwaja Nasir ad-Din Tusi. His Tajrid al-'Aqa 'id (Refinement of beliefs) is one of the most famous works of kalam. He was also a philosopher and mathematician. After him, kalam took a wholly different course and assumed a more philosophical character.

Among the Sunnis' works of kalam, the most famous is the Sharh-i Mavaqif (Elucidation of the stations), with text by Qazi 'Azud ad-Din Iji (a contemporary of Hafiz, who praised him in his poetry) and annotations by Sharif Jurjani. This work was deeply influenced by the Tajrid al- Aqa'id.

Sublime Wisdom

The four streams of thought continued in the Islamic world until they reached a point of confluence called “sublime wisdom” (hikmat-i muta‘aliya). The science of sublime wisdom was founded by Sadr al-Muta'allihin Shirazi (or Mulla Sadra) (d. l050/l640).13 The term “sublime wisdom” occurs in Avicenna's Isharat, but Avicenna's philosophy never became known by this name.

Mulla Sadra formally designated his philosophy sublime wisdom, and it became so known. His school resembles Suhravardi's in method in seeking to combine demonstration with mystic vision and direct witness, but it differs in its principles and conclusions.

In Mulla Sadra's school, many of the points of disagreement between peripateticism and illuminationism, between philosophy and 'irfan, or between philosophy and kalam have been definitively resolved. Mulla Sadra's philosophy is not a syncretism, however, but a unique philosophical system, that, although the various Islamic methods of thought had an impact on its formation, one must regard as autonomous.

Mulla Sadra has written numerous works, among them the Asfar-i Arba’a (The four journeys, or books), Ash-Shavahid ar-Rububiya (Witnesses to lordship), Mabda’ va Ma’ad (The source and the destination), ‘Arshiya (On the Empyrean), Masha'ir (The perceptual faculties), and Sharh-i Hidaya-yi Athir ad-Din Abhari (An elucidation of Athir ad-Din Abhari's guidance).

Among Mulla Sadra's followers is Hajj Mulla Hadi Sabzavari (1212/1798-1289/1878), author of the Kitab-i Manzuma (The rhymed book) and the Sharh-i Manzuma (The elucidation of the rhymed book). A typical basic library for study of the ancient sciences might consist of Sabzavari's Sharh-i Manzuma, Mulla Sadra's Asfar, Avicenna's Isharat and Shifa', and Suhravardi's Hikmat al-Ishraq.

Mulla Sadra organised the philosophical topics concerning the intellectual and rational way in a manner paralleling the manner in which the 'urafa' had propounded the way of the heart and spirit. The 'urafa’ hold that the wayfarer accomplishes four journeys in carrying through the method of the ‘arif:

1. The journey from creation to God. At this stage, the wayfarer attempts to transcend nature as well as certain supernatural worlds in order to reach the Divine Essence, leaving no veil between himself and God.

2. The journey by God in God. After the wayfarer attains proximate knowledge of God, with His help the wayfarer journeys through His phases, perfections, names, and attributes.

3. The journey from God to creation by God. In this journey, the wayfarer returns to creation and rejoins people, but this return does not mean separation and remoteness from the Divine Essence. Rather, the wayfarer sees the Divine Essence with all things and in all things.

4. The journey in Creation by God. In this journey, the wayfarer undertakes to guide the people and lead them to the Truth.

Mulla Sadra, considering that philosophical questions constitute a “way,” if a mental one, sorted them into four sets:

1. Topics that constitute a foundation or preliminary to the study of Tawhid. These (the ordinary matter of philosophy) constitute our mental journey from creation to God.

2. Topics of Tawhid, theology, and divine attributes-The journey by God in God.

3. Topics of the divine acts, the universal worlds of being-the journey from God to creation by God.

4. Topics of the soul and the Destination (ma 'ad)-the journey in creation by God.

The Asfar Arba 'a, which means the Four Journeys, is organised on this basis. Mulla Sadra, who called his special philosophical system sublime wisdom, referred to conventional philosophy, whether illuminationist or peripatetic, as common or conventional philosophy.

Overview of Philosophies and Wisdoms

Philosophy and wisdom, in the widest sense, are variously classified from different perspectives; but if we consider them from the standpoint of method, they fall under four headings: deductive wisdom3 experiential wisdom, experimental wisdom, and polemical wisdom.

Deductive wisdom rests on syllogism and demonstration. It has to do only with greater and lesser, result and concomitant, contradictory and contrary, and the like. Experiential wisdom pertains not only to deduction but to experience, inspiration, and illumination. It takes its inspiration more from the heart than from the reason.

Experimental wisdom pertains neither to a priori reasoning and deduction nor to the heart and its inspirations. It pertains to sense, trial, and experiment. It takes the products of the sciences, the fruits of trial and experiment, and, by interrelating them, welds them into wisdom and philosophy.

Polemical wisdom is deductive, but the premises for its deductions are what logicians call common knowledge (mashhurar) and accepted facts (maqbulat). There are several kinds of premises to deduction, including first axioms (badihiyat) and common knowledge. For instance, the idea that two things each equal to a third are equal to each other, which is expressed in the phrase “the equal to the equal are equal,” and the idea that it is absurd for a proposition and its contradictory to hold true at once are considered axiomatic. The idea that it is ugly to yawn in the presence of others is considered common knowledge.

Deduction on the basis of axioms is called demonstration, and deduction on the basis of common knowledge is considered an element of polemics. Therefore, polemical wisdom means a wisdom that deduces global and universal ideas from common knowledge.

The mutakallimin generally base their deductions on the beauty or the ugliness of a thing, on rational beauty and ugliness, so to speak. The hukama' hold that all beauty and ugliness relate to the sphere of human life; one cannot evaluate God, the universe, and being by these criteria. Thus, the hukama' call kalam polemical wisdom.

The hukama’ believe that the central principles of religion may be better deduced from the premises of demonstration and in reliance on first axioms than from the premises of common knowledge and polemics. In Islamic times, especially among the Shi'a, philosophy, without departing from its mission of free inquiry and committing itself in advance, gradually proved the best source of support for Islamic principles. Accordingly, polemical wisdom, in the hands of such persons as Khwaja Nasir ad-Din Tusi, gradually took on a demonstrational and illuminationistic character. Thus, kalam came to be overshadowed by philosophy.

Although experimental wisdom is extraordinarily valuable, it has two shortcomings. One is that its compass is confined to the experimental sciences, and the experimental sciences are confined to what is sensible and palpable. Man's philosophical needs extend beyond what is in the domain of sense experience. For instance, when we discuss the possibility of a beginning of time, an end to space, or an origin for causes, how are we to find what we seek in the laboratory or under the microscope? Thus, experimental wisdom cannot satiate man's philosophical instinct and must elect silence on basic philosophical questions.

The other shortcoming lies in the fact that the value of experimental questions is rendered precarious by their confinement to and dependence upon nature. Questions of experimental science have a time-bound value and may grow obsolescent at any moment. A wisdom based on experiment is naturally precarious and so does not meet a basic human need, the need for certainty. Certainty arises in questions having mathematical abstraction or philosophical abstraction, and the meanings of mathematical and philosophical abstractions can be clarified only by philosophy.

There remain deductive wisdom and experiential wisdom. The questions discussed in the following sections should elucidate these two wisdoms and spell out their value.

Problems in Philosophy

Being

Philosophical questions pivot on being. That which is to philosophy what the body is to medicine, number is to mathematics, or quantify is to geometry is being qua being. It is the subject of philosophy and all philosophical topics turn on it. In other words, philosophy has for its subject existence.

Several kinds of questions turn on being. One is questions pertaining to being, or existence, and its opposites in the two respective senses: nonbeing and essence (mahiya).14 There is nothing but being in the objective world. Being has no opposite outside the mind. But the conceptualising mind of man has formed two concepts vis-a-vis being or existence: nonbeing and essence (of course, essences). A range of philosophical questions, especially in sublime wisdom, pertains to existence and essence, and another range pertains to being and nonbeing.

A second group of questions pertains to divisions of being. Being in its turn has divisions that are regarded as amounting to species of being; in other words, being is divisible (for instance, into the objective and the subjective, the necessary and the possible, the eternal and the created in time, the stable and the changing, the singular and the plural, the potential and the act, and the substance and the accident). Of course, these are the primary divisions of being, that is, the divisions that enter into being by virtue of the fact that it is being.

To illustrate, divisions into black and white, large and small, equal and unequal, odd and even, or long and short are divisions not in being qua being but in being qua body or in being qua quantifiable. Corporeality in being corporeality, or quantity in being quantity, admits of such division. However, division into singular and plural, or division into necessary and possible, is division of being qua being.

Close research has been done in philosophy as to the criteria for these divisions, what distinguishes the divisions of being qua being from other divisions. Some philosophers have regarded certain divisions as applying to body qua body and thus falling outside the scope of first philosophy, but other philosophers for various reasons have regarded these divisions as applying to being qua being and thus falling under this same domain.

A third group of questions pertains to the universal laws governing being, such as causality, the correspondence of cause and effect, the necessity governing the system of cause and effect, and priority versus synchronism among the levels of being.

A fourth group of questions pertains to demonstration of the planes of being or worlds of being. Being has particular planes or worlds. The hukama' of Islam believe that there are four general worlds or four emergences (nash'a):

1. The world of nature, or the nasut

2. The world of ideas, or the malakut

3. The world of [separate] intelligences, or the jabarut

4. The world of divinity, or the lahut

The world of nasut is the world of matter, motion, and space-time. It is the world of nature and sense objects, this world. The world of [Platonic] ideas [similitudes], or the malakut, is a world superior to nature, having forms and dimensions, but lacking motion, time, and change.

The world of jabarut is the world of the [separate] intelligences or the world of the [abstract] idea (ma'na), free of forms and images and thus superior to the world of malakut. The world of lahut is the world of divinity and unity.

A fifth group of questions pertains to the relations between the world of nature and the worlds above it, the descent of being from lahut to nature, and to the ascent from nature to the higher worlds. With special reference to man, these are called questions of the destination (ma 'ad) and figure very prominently in sublime wisdom.

Existence and Essence

Is existence substantive, or is essence? We always distinguish two valid senses in which things may be spoken of: the isness of a thing and the whatness of a thing. For instance, we know that man is, the tree is, number is, and quantity is, but number has one whatness, one essence, and man has another.15 If we ask, “What is number?” we receive one answer. If we ask, “What is man?” we receive another.

Many things have a patent isness; that is, we know that they are. But we may not know what they are. For instance, we know that life is or that electricity is, but we may not know what life is or what electricity is. We know what many things are-for instance, we have a clear definition of a circle and so know what a circle is-but we do not know whether the circle exists in objective nature. Thus, isness is something other than whatness.

This plurality, this dichotomy of essence and existence, is purely subjective. In extensional reality, no thing is twofold. Therefore, one of these two is objectively so and substantive, and the other is nominal and not substantive.

The whole question of existentialism versus essentialism has no ancient historical antecedents. This topic originated in the Islamic world. None of the early philosophers, Farabi, Avicenna, Khwaja Nasir ad-Din Tusi, or even Suhravardi, discussed anything under this heading. The topic made its debut in philosophy in the time of Mir Damad (the beginning of the eleventh century of the Hijra.

Mir Damad was an essentialist. However, his famous pupil, Mulla Sadra, made a compelling case for existentialism, and from then onward, every philosopher of note has been an existentialist.16 In the third volume of UsuI-i Falsafa va Ravish-i Ri'alism, I have discussed the respective ideas of the 'urafa', the mutakallimin, and the philosophers as precursors to this philosophical conception of Mulla Sadra's.

Another philosophy sometimes known as existentialism has flourished in our own time. This form of existentialism pertains to man and has reference to the idea that man, by contrast with all other beings, has no definite, preassigned essence and no form determined by nature. Man designs and builds his own whatness.

This idea is largely correct and supported by Islamic philosophy, except that, what in Islamic philosophy is called existentialism does not apply to man alone, but to the whole universe, and, second, when we speak of existentialism or isalat-i vujud in an Islamic context, we are using the term isalat (-ism) in its sense of substantive reality or objective being, as opposed to nominal or mental existence. When we use it in the Western context of modern existentialism, we are using it in its sense of primacy or priority. One should by no means conflate the two senses.

The Objective and the Subjective

A thing is either objective or subjective. Objective being means being external to and independent of man's mind. We know, for instance, that mountain, sea, and plain have being external to our minds and independent of them. Whether our minds conceive of them or not, indeed, whether ourselves and our minds exist or not, mountain, sea, and plain exist.

But that mountain, sea, and plain have an existence in our minds as well. When we imagine them, we give them being in our minds. The being things find in our minds is called subjective being or mental being.

Two questions arise here. One is why the images of things appearing in our minds should be conceived of as a kind of being for those things in our minds. If they are, one might say that the image of a thing painted on a wall or printed on a sheet of paper deserves to be called another kind of being, a parietal being or a papyraceous being. If we term mental images a form of being for the thing imagined, to be just, we have employed a metaphor and not spoken the literal truth, but philosophy ought to deal with the literal truth.

The relation of a mental form to an external object (for instance, the relation of a mental mountain or sea to an external mountain or sea) is far more profound than the relation of the picture of a mountain or a sea on a sheet of paper or a wall to that external mountain or sea. If what appears in the mind were only a simple image, it would never give rise to consciousness, just as the image on the wall does not give rise to consciousness in the wall. Rather, the mental image is consciousness itself.

The other question is whether mental being, as a concept actually relating to man and the human psyche, belongs to the realm of psychology. Philosophy deals with general questions, and such particular questions pertain to the sciences.

Philosophers have demonstrated that we are conscious of external objects because our mental images, far from being simple, are a kind of realisation of existence in our minds for the essences (mahiya) of the objects. Although from one standpoint, the question of mental images is a question of the human psyche and so belongs to the field of psychology, from another standpoint, that man's mind is in fact another emergence (nash'a) of being, resulting in being in its essence taking two forms, subjective and objective, it is a question for philosophy.

Avicenna and Mulla Sadra have said (the former allusively, near the beginning of the “Ilahiyat” of his Shifa’ and the latter explicitly and at length in his commentary to the same work) that at times a question may pertain to two different disciplines from two standpoints; for instance, a question may pertain to philosophy from one standpoint and to the natural sciences from another.

Truth and Error

The question of mental being bas another angle that has been studied: It has to do with the validity of perceptions, the extent to which our perceptions, sensations, and conceptions of the external world are valid. From ancient times, philosophers have asked whether what we perceive of an object by means of our senses or our reason corresponds to actuality, the thing in itself.

Some postulate that some of our sense perceptions or rational perceptions do correspond to actuality, the thing in itself, and some do not. Those that correspond to actuality are termed “truth,” and those that do not are termed “error.” Sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell are all subject to error. But most of our sense perceptions correspond fully to reality. Through these same senses, we accurately distinguish night from day, far from near, large from small in volume, tough from smooth, and cold from hot.

Our reason is likewise subject to error. Logic was compiled to avert errors of the reason in its deductions. But most of our rational deductions are valid. When we add up all the debits and all the credits in a ledger and subtract the former from the latter, we are performing a mental and rational procedure that we are perfectly assured will hold true if we are sufficiently careful and exact.

However, the Sophists of Greece denied the distinction between truth and error. They said that whatever some person feels and thinks is for that person the truth. They said that man is the measure of all things. They radically denied reality and, having denied it, left nothing in corresponding to which man's perceptions and sensations could be true and in failing to correspond to which they could be erroneous.

The Sophists were contemporaries of Socrates (Socrates came along near the close of the Sophist period). Protagoras and Gorgias are two famous Sophists. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle rebelled against them.

After Aristotle's time, another group appeared in Alexandria, called the Skeptics, the most famous of whom is Pyrrho. The Skeptics did not deny actuality in principle but denied that human perceptions correspond to it. They said that one perceives an object in a certain way under the influence of internal states and certain external conditions. Sometimes two people experiencing different states or viewing from different angles will see the same event in two different ways. A thing may appear ugly in one's eyes and beautiful in another's, or single in one's eyes and double in another's. The air may feel warm to one and cold to another. A flavor may taste sweet to one and bitter to another. The Skeptics, like the Sophists, denied the validity of knowledge.

Bishop Berkeley wholly rejects external reality. No one has been able to refute his reasons for his position, although everyone knows they are fallacious.

Those who have sought a reply to the ancient Sophists exemplified by Berkeley have not taken the approach that could resolve the sophism. The philosophers of Islam have held that the basic approach to resolving this sophism consists in our perceiving the reality of mental being. Only thus is the puzzle solved.

In approaching mental being, the hukama’ of Islam first define knowledge, or perception, as consisting in a kind of being for the oblect perceived within the being of the perceiver. They go on to cite certain demonstrations in support of this position, and then they recount and reply to certain objections to mental being or allegations of problems in it.

This topic did not exist in this form early in the Islamic period and a fortiori did not exist in Hellenic times. Nasir ad-Din Tusi was the first to speak of the objective and the subjective in his works of philosophy and kalam. Thereafter, it came to occupy a major place in the works of such comparatively recent philosophers as Mulla Sadra and Mulla Hadi Sabzavari. Farabi, Avicenna, and even Suhravardi, as well as their followers, never broached the subject of mental being or even used the term in their works. The term first appeared after Avicenna's time.

However, what Farabi and Avicenna said on other subjects shows that they believed perception to consist of a simulacrum of the reality of the object perceived within the being of the perceiver. But they neither sought to demonstrate this point nor conceived of it as an independent question of being, an independent division of being.

The Created in Time and the Eternal

The Arabic word hadith has the lexical and customary meaning of new, and qadim means old. However, these words have other meanings in the terminologies of philosophy and kalam. Like other people, when philosophers speak of the hadith and the qadim, they seek to know what is new and what is old, but in speaking of a thing as new, they mean that before it was, it was not - that is, that first it was not, then it was.

In speaking of a thing as old, they mean that it always has been and never was not. Suppose there is a tree that has lived for billions of years. In common usage, it would be spoken of as old, quite old indeed, but according to the terminologies of philosophy and kalam, it is hadith (new) because there was a time billions of years ago when it was not.

Philosophers define createdness in time (huduth) as the precedence of a thing's nonbeing to its being, and they define eternality (qidam) as the nonprecedence of a thing's nonbeing to its being. Therefore, an entity is created in time whose nonbeing precedes its being, and an entity is eternal for which no nonbeing prior to its being can be conceived.

Discussion of the question of the created in time and the eternal turns on this point: Is everything in the universe created in time and nothing eternal, such that whatever we consider first was not and then was? Or is everything eternal and nothing created in time, such that everything has always been? Or are some things created in time, and some eternal, such that, for instance, shapes, forms, and externals are created in time, but matter, subjects, and invisible things are eternal? Or are individuals and parts created in time, whereas species and wholes are eternal? Or are natural and material phenomena created in time, whereas abstract and suprameterial phenomena are eternal? Or is only God, the Creator of the whole and Cause of causes, eternal, whereas all else is created in time? Overall, is the universe created in time, or is it eternal?

The mutakallimin of Islam believe that only God is eternal. All else - matter and form, individuals and species, parts and wholes, abstract and material - constitutes what is called the world or 'other' (masiva) and is created in time. The philosophers of Islam, however, believe that createdness in time is a property of the material world, whereas the supernatural worlds are abstract and eternal. In the world of nature, too, principles and universals are eternal, whereas the phenomena and particulars are created in time. Therefore, the universe is created in time with respect to its phenomena and particulars but eternal with respect to its principles and universals.

Debate over createdness in time and eternality has excited acrimonious disputes between the philosophers and the mutakallimin. Abu Hamid Ghazali, who, although leaning to 'irfan and Sufism in most of his works, leans to kalam in some, declares Avicenna an unbeliever for his stand on several questions, among them his belief in the eternality of the world. In his famous Tahafut al-Falsafa (The incoherence of the philosophers), Ghazali has criticised philosophers on twenty points and exposed what he believed to be the incoherencies in their thought. Ibn Rushd of Andalusia has rebutted Ghazali in Tahafut at-Tahafut (The incoherence of the “incoherence”).

The mutakallimin say that if a thing is not created in time but eternal - if it has always been and never not been - then that thing has no need of a creator and cause. Therefore, if we suppose other eternal things exist than the Essence of the Truth, it follows that they will have no need of a creator and so in reality be necessary beings in their essence, like God, and the demonstrations that show the Necessary Being in Essence to be singular do not permit us to profess more than one such Necessary Being. Accordingly, no more than one Eternal Being exists, and all else is created in time. Therefore, the universe is created in time, including the abstract and the material, principles and phenomena, species and individuals, wholes and parts, matter and form, visible and invisible.

The philosophers have rebutted the arguments of the mutakallimin decisively, saying that all the confusion turns on one point, which consists in supposing that, if a thing has a continuous existence into the indefinite past, it has no need of a cause, whereas this is not so. A thing's need or lack of need for a cause pertains to its essence, which makes it a necessary being or a possible being; it has nothing to do with its createdness in time or eternality.17 By analogy, the sun's radiance stems from the sun and cannot exist apart from it. Its existence depends on the sun's existence. It is the sun's luminance and issues from the sun whether we suppose there was a time this radiance did not exist or we suppose it has always existed, along with the sun. If we suppose that the sun's radiance has coexisted with the sun itself from preeternity to posteternity, this does not entail its having no need of the sun.

The philosophers maintain that the relation of the universe to God is as the relation of the radiance to the sun, with this difference: The sun is not conscious of itself or of its action and does not perform its function as an act of will; the contrary is true of God.

At times we encounter expressions in the primary texts of Islam that compare the relation of the universe and God to the relation of radiance and the sun. The noble verse of the Qur'an states,

“God is the Light of the heavens and the earth” (24:35).

Exegetes have interpreted this verse to mean that God is the light-giver of the heavens and the earth (that the being of heaven and earth is a ray of God).

The philosophers do not adduce any evidence for the eternality of the universe from the universe itself; rather, they approach this argument from the position that God is the Absolutely Effulgent and the Eternally Beneficent - we cannot possibly conceive of His effulgence (emanation) and beneficence as limited, as terminating somewhere. In other words, the theistic philosophers have arrived at the eternality of the universe through an a priori demonstration, that is, by making the being and attributes of God the premise to the eternality of the universe.

Generally, those disbelieving in God advance the position of the eternality of the universe, but the theistic philosophers say that the same thing nonbelievers adduce as a reason for God's non-existence in their view implies God's existence. The eternality of the universe is a hypothesis to nonbelievers, but it is an established fact to theistic philosophers.

The Mutable and the Constant

Change means transformation and constancy means uniformity. We continually witness changes in the universe. We ourselves continually make transitions from state to state, from period to period, beginning when we are born and ending when we die. The same holds for earth and sea, for mountains, trees, animals, stars, solar systems, and galaxies. Are these changes outward, pertaining to the configuration, form, and accidents of the universe, or are they profound and fundamental, such that no constant phenomenon exists in the universe? Are the changes that occur in the universe transient and instantaneous, or are they gradual and protracted?

These questions, too, date from remote times; they were discussed in ancient Greece. Democritus, known as the father of the atomic theory and also as the laughing philosopher, maintained that all change or transformation is superficial because natural being is based on atomic particles, which are forever in one state and unchangeable. The changes we witness are like those in a heap of gravel, massed sometimes in one shape, sometimes in another, but never changing in identity or real nature. This is the mechanistic outlook and constitutes a kind of mechanistic philosophy.

Another Greek philosopher, Heraclitus, maintains that nothing remains in the same state for two successive instants. As he says, you cannot set foot twice in the same river because at the second instant you are not who you were before and that river is not the same river. This philosophy stands opposite to Democritus's in seeing everything in a state of flux and inconstancy, but it says nothing contrary to mechanism; that is, it advances no idea of dynamics.

Aristotle's philosophy has no quarrel with the idea that all the parts of nature change, but undertakes to determine which changes are gradual and protracted and which are transient and instantaneous. It terms the gradual changes “motion” and the transient changes “generation and corruption” (that is, a transient coming into being is called generation, and a transient extinction is called corruption). Because Aristotle and his followers consider the basic changes occurring in this world, especially those that appear in substances, as transient, they term this “the world of generation and corruption.”

At other moments, constancy obtains. If we regard changes as transient, because they occur in an instant, although at other instants or through time things are constant, such mutable things have a relative mutability and a relative constancy. Therefore, if change is in the mode of motion, it is absolute change. If it is in the mode of generation and corruption, if it is in an instantaneous mode - it is relative.

According to the Aristotelians, although nothing absolutely constant and uniform exists in nature, but everything is mutable (contrary to the view of the Democriteans), because substances are basic to nature and changes in substances are transient, the world has a relative constancy along with relative change. But constancy governs the world to a greater extent than does change.

Aristotle and the Aristotelians regard all things as falling under ten basic generic classes, which they call the ten categories: substance, quantity, quality, determination in space, position, determination in time, relation, condition, action, and passion.

Motion occurs only in the categories of quantity, quality, and determination in space. In all other categories change is transient; in other words, all other categories enjoy a relative constancy. Even those three categories in which motion occurs - because the motion is intermittent - are governed by a relative constancy. Therefore, in Aristotle's philosophy, one encounters more constancy than change, more uniformity than transformation.

Avicenna believed that motion occurs in the category of position as well. He demonstrated that certain motions, such as the rotation of the earth about its axis, constitute a positional motion, not a motion in spatial determination. Thus, after Avicenna, motion in spatial determination was restricted to transferential motion. Avicenna did not demonstrate the existence of a new sort of motion, but reclassified as positional what had previously been categorised as a motion in spatial determination. His reclassification is generally accepted.

Mulla Sadra effected a major transformation in Islamic philosophy by demonstrating substantial motion. He demonstrated that, even on the basis of the Aristotelian principles of matter and form, we must accept that the substances of the world are in continuous motion; there is never so much as an instant of constancy and uniformity in the substances of the world. The accidents (that is, the nine other categories), as functions of the substances, are also in motion. According to Mulla Sadra, nature equals motion, and motion equals continuous, uninterrupted creation and extinction.

Through the principle of substantial motion, the visage of the Aristotelian universe is wholly transformed. According to this principle, nature, or matter, equals motion. Time consists in the measure or tensile force of this substantial motion, and constancy equals supernatural being. What exists consists of, on the one hand, absolute change (nature) and, on the other, absolute constancy (the supernatural).

The constancy of nature is the constancy of order, not the constancy of being; that is, a definite, immutable system governs the universe, and the contents of the system are all mutable (they are change itself). Both the being and the system of this universe stem from the supernal. Were it not for the governance of the other world, this world, which is wholly flux and mutation, would be cut off from its past and future. “Many times has the water exchanged in this stream,/Still the moon's and the stars' reflections remain.”18

Prior to Mulla Sadra, the topic of the mutable and the constant was felt to belong to the natural sciences, in that any determination or any division that applies to a body qua body belongs to the natural sciences. It was said that it is such-and-such a body that is either constant or mutable, or that is either still or in motion. In other words, motion and stasis are among the accidents of a body. Therefore, the topic of the constant and the mutable ought to fall wholly within the domain of the natural sciences.

This all changed with Mulla Sadra's realisation of existentialism (the substantive reality of being), his realisation of substantial motion, and his demonstration that the natures of the universe constitute the mobile qua mobile and the mutable qua mutable (that is, that a body is not something to which motion is merely added as an accident, whereby at times this motion can be annulled, leaving the motionless state we call stasis). Rather, the natures of the universe are motion itself, and the contrary of this substantial motion is constancy, not stasis.

Stasis holds for the accidental motions the state of whose absence we call stasis but is inconceivable in the case of essential, substantial motion. The contrary of this substantial motion that is the substance itself consists of substances for which constancy is the very essence. These are entities beyond space and time, devoid of spatiotemporal forces, potentialities, or dimensions. Therefore, it is not the body that is either constant or mutable. Rather, it is being qua being that appears either as constancy itself (as supramaterial beings) or as continuous flux/becoming/creation itself (the world of nature). Therefore, just as being is in its essence divisible into necessary and possible, so is it in its essence divisible into the constant and the fluid.

Thus, according to Mulla Sadra, only certain kinds of motions - the accidental motions of a body having stasis is for their opposite - ought to be studied under the heading of the natural sciences. Other motions, or indeed these very motions when not regarded from the standpoint of their being accidents of natural bodies, ought to be discussed and studied in first philosophy. Mulla Sadra himself brought in his discussions of motion under “general phenomena” in the Asfar in the course of discussing potentials and acts, although it warranted a chapter to itself.

Among the key conclusions arising from this great realization - basically, that being in its essence is divisible into the constant and the fluid and that constant being is one modality of being, while fluid being is another - is that becoming is precisely a plane of being. Although, nominally speaking, we may regard becoming as a synthesis of being and nonbeing, this synthesis is actually a kind of notion or metaphor.19

In truth it is the realisation of the substantive reality of being and of the nominal status of essences (mahiyat) that permits us to perceive this key reality. Without a grasp of the substantive reality of being, neither a conception of substantial motion nor a conception that flux and becoming are precisely a plane of being would be possible.

Motion has recovered its proper place in the modern philosophy of Europe by other avenues. Some philosophers came to believe that motion is the cornerstone of nature, that nature equals becoming. However, because this idea was not based on existentialism (the substantive reality of being) and the primary division of being into the constant and the fluid, these philosophers supposed that becommg was the same union of opposites that the ancients had deemed absurd. They likewise supposed that becoming falsified the principle of identity (huhuya), which the ancients had taken for granted.

These philosophers said that the presiding principle in the thought of the ancients was the principle of constancy and that, in deeming beings constant, the ancients had supposed that either being or nonbeing must hold sway over things. Therefore, one alone of these holds true (the principle of the impossibility of union and cancellation of opposites). That is, either there is always being or there is always nonbeing; no third alternative obtains.

Similarly, because the ancients thought things constant, they supposed of everything that is itself (the principle of identity). But with the realisation of the principle of motion and change in nature, the realisation that nature is continually in a state of becoming, the two principles are groundless because becoming is a union of being and nonbeing; where a thing is both being and non-being, becoming has been demonstrated.

A thing in a state of becoming both is and is not; at every instant, its self is its not-self; its self is at once its self and not its self; the self of its self is progressively negated. Therefore, if the principle governing things were that of being and nonbeing, both the principle of the impossibility of the union of opposites and the principle of identity would hold true. Because the principle governing things is the principle of becoming, neither of these other principles holds true.

The principle of the impossibility of the union of opposites and the principle of identity, which held unrivalled sway over the minds of the ancients, arose from a further principle that they also accepted implicitly: the principle of constancy. As the natural sciences showed the invalidity of the principle of constancy, these two principles, too, lost their credibility. This development represents the conception of many modern philosophers, from Hegel onward.

Mulla Sadra invalidated the principle of constancy by other means. Motion, according to his realisation, implies that nature equals inconstancy and constancy equals abstraction. Unlike the modern philosophers, however, he never concludes that because nature equals flux and becoming, the principle of the impossibility of the union and cancellation of opposites is falsified.

Although Mulla Sadra regards becoming as a kind of union of being and nonbeing, he does not treat this as a union of opposites because he has realized a more important principle: that being is divisible in its essence into the constant and the fluid. Constant being is a plane of being, not a synthesis of being and nonbeing. The synthesis of becoming from being and nonbeing is not a union of two opposites just as it is not the negation of the self of a thing.

The modern philosophers' confusion has two roots: their failure to perceive the division of being into the constant and the fluid and their inadequate conception of the principles of contradiction and contrariety.

Cause and Effect

The most ancient of philosophical questions is that of cause and effect. The concept of cause and effect appears in every philosophical system, unlike such concepts as existentialism and subjective being, which have a prominent place in some philosophies and pass unnoted in others, the concept of potential and act, which plays an important role in Aristotelianism, or the concept of the constant and the mutable, which has a deservedly prominent position in the philosophy of Mulla Sadra.

Causation is a kind of relation between two things, one of which we call the cause and the other, the effect. This is the most profound of relations. The relation of cause and effect consists in the cause's giving being to the effect. What the effect realises from the cause is its whole being, its whole reality; therefore, if the cause were not, the effect would not be. We find such a relation nowhere else. Therefore, the effect's need of the cause is the keenest of needs, a need at the root of being. Accordingly, if we would define cause, we must say, “A cause is that thing an effect needs in its essence and being.”

Every phenomenon is an effect, and every effect needs a cause; therefore, every phenomenon needs a cause. That is, if a thing is not being itself in its essence-if it has appeared as an accident, a phenomenon-it must have arisen through the intervention of a factor we call a cause. Therefore, no phenomenon is without a cause. The hypothesis contrary to this theory is that a phenomenon may appear without a cause. This hypothesis is called coincidence (sudfa) or chance (ittifaq). The philosophy of causality radically rejects this hypothesis.

Philosophers and mutakallimin concur that every phenomenon is an effect and needs a cause, but the mutakallinun define such a phenomenon as created in time (hadith), and the philosophers define it as possible (mumkin). That is, the mutakallimin say that whatever is created in time is an effect and needs a cause, and the philosophers say that whatever is possible is an effect and needs a cause. These two definitions lead to the different conclusions previously discussed in “The Created in Time and the Eternal.”

A certain cause produces only a certain effect, and a certain effect proceeds only from a certain cause. There are special relations of dependence among the beings of the universe such that any one thing cannot necessarily give rise to any other thing and any one thing cannot necessarily arise from any other thing. We rely on this truth in our everyday experience. For instance, eating is the cause of satiety, drinking water is the cause of quenching of thirst, and study is the cause of literacy. Therefore, if we wish to realise any of these qualities, we have resort to the appropriate cause. For instance, we never drink water or study for the sake of satiety, nor do we consider eating sufficient for the attainment of literacy.

Philosophy demonstrates that such a clear relation obtains among all the processes in the universe. It makes this point through this definition: A unique correspondence and symmetry govern every single cause-and-effect relation and appear in no other such relation. This is the single most important principle in giving order to our thought and in presenting the universe to our thought not as a chaotic aggregate in which nothing is conditional upon anything else but as an ordered, systematic cosmos in which every part has a special place, in which no one thing can displace another.

There are four kinds of cause in the philosophy of Aristotle: the efficient cause, the final cause, the material cause, and the formal cause. These four causes are well illustrated in human industry: If we build a house, the builder or workman is the efficient cause; to dwell in that house is the final cause; the building materials are the material cause; and the configuration of the house, in being appropriate to a dwelling and not, say, to a granary, a bathhouse, or a mosque, is the formal cause. In Aristotle's view, every natural phenomenon, whether a stone, a plant, or a human being, has these same four causes.

Cause as defined by natural scientists differs somewhat from cause as defined by theologians. In theology, or what we now call philosophy, cause means giver of existence. Philosophers call what brings something into existence its cause. Otherwise they do not call it cause, although they may at times call it contributory (mu'idd). The natural scientists, however, use the word “cause” even where the relation between two things is simply one of transfer of momentum.

Therefore, in the natural scientists' terminology, the builder is the cause of the house in being the point of issue for its construction, through a series of transfers of materials. The theologians, however, never call the builder the cause of the house, in that he does not bring the house into being. Rather, the materials for the house existed beforehand, and the builder's work has been confined to organizing them. Likewise, according to the natural scientists, the relation of mother and father to child is causal; but according to philosophy, it is that of an antecedent, a contributory factor, or a channel, not that of a cause.

The sequence of causes (causes in the terminology of the philosophers, not that of the natural scientists, that is, causes of being, not causes of motion) terminates. It is absurd that it should be interminable. If the being of a thing proceeds from a cause, arises from a cause, and if the being of that cause arises from a further cause, and if the being of that cause arises from a yet further cause, this process could go on through thousands, millions, billions of causes and more. However, it must finally terminate in a cause that arises through its own essence and not through another cause. Philosophers have often demonstrated that an endless regress of causes is absurd, which phrase they shorten to a regress of causes is absurd or usually even further to regress is absurd.

The word tasalsul (regress) is derived from the word silsila (sequence, series, range), with the root meaning of chain. Therefore, tasalsul means an endless chain of causes. Philosophers thus liken the ordered system of causes and effects to a chain whose links interlock in sequence.

The Necessary, the Possible, and the Impossible

Logicians say that if we attribute a predicate to a subject, if, for instance, we say a is b, the relation of b to a will have one of three qualities. First, it may be necessary, that is, certain, inevitable, and inviolable; in other words, reason may refuse to accept anything contrary to it. Second, the opposite may be true. That is, the relation may be impossible, meaning it is absurd that the predicate should be an accident of the subject. In other words, reason refuses to accept that it should be one.

Third, the relation may be such that it may be affirmed or negated; that is, it is susceptible both to affirmation and to negation. In other words, reason refuses to accept neither this relation nor its contrary.

For instance, if we consider the relation of the number four to evenness, we see that it is necessary and certain. Reason refuses to accept its contrary. Reason says that the number four is certainly and necessarily even. Therefore, necessity governs this relation.

But if we say that the number five is even, this relation is impossible. The number five has no possibility of being even, and our reason in perceiving this relation rejects it. Therefore, impossibility and inconceivability govern this relation.

But if we say that today the weather is sunny, this is a possible relation. That is, the nature of the day does not require that the weather be sunny or that it be cloudy. Either may accord with the nature of the day. Possibility governs this relation.

It follows that, whatever subject and whatever predicate we consider, their relation will not be devoid of these three qualities, which at times from a certain standpoint we term the three modalities. I have described the logicians' approach.

The philosophers, who study being, say that any idea or concept we consider, take as a subject, and predicate being of will fall under one of these three categories. The relation of being to that idea or concept may be necessary; that is, that thing must necessarily exist. We then call that thing a necessary being.

God is discussed in philosophy under the heading of proofs for necessary being. Philosophical demonstrations show that there is a Being for which nonexistence is absurd and existence is necessary.

If the relation of being to that idea is impossible, that is, if it is absurd that it should exist, we call it an impossible being. An example is a body that is at once spherical and cubical.

If the relation of being to that idea is possible, that is, if that idea is an essence for which reason rejects neither the existence nor the nonexistence, we call it a possible being. All the beings in the universe, in appearing and then disappearing according to a sequence of causes, are possible beings.

Every possible being in itself becomes a necessary being through its cause, but a being necessary through other, not a being necessary in itself. That is, whenever all the causes and preconditions for a possible being exist, it must exist and so becomes a being necessary through other. If it does not come into existence - if so much as one of its preconditions or one of the elements of its causal nexus is lacking - it becomes a being impossible through other.

The philosophers accordingly say that as long as a thing is not necessary, it does not exist. That is, until the existence of a thing reaches the stage of necessity, it will not come into being. Therefore, whatever comes into being does so according to necessity, within a definite and inviolable system. Thus, the system governing the universe and all that is in it is a necessary, certain, and inviolable system. In the language of modern philosophers, it is a determinate system.20

In discussing cause and effect, I said that the principle of correspondence between cause and effect imparts a special order to our thought and marks out a special connection between principles and ramifications, between causes and effects, in our minds. This principle - that every possible being gains necessity from its cause - which, from one standpoint, pertains to cause and effect and, from another, to necessity and possibility, impans a special character to the system of our cosmology in making it a necessary, certain, and inviolable system.

Philosophy succinctly terms this point the principle of cause-and effect necessity. If we accept the principle of the final cause in reference to nature (if we accept that nature pursues ends in its evolutionary journey and that all these ends revert to one primary end that is the end of ends), the system of our cosmology takes on a further special character.

Notes

1. See Muhammad Shahristani, Kitab-i Milal va Nihal (“Nations and Sects”) vol.2, p.231, and Dr. Human, Tarikh-i Falsafa (“History of Philosophy”) vol.1, p.20.

2. Human, Tarikh-i Falsafa, vol. 1, p.69.

3. To explicate or demonstrate these three features is beyond the scope of these brief discussions. See Avicenna, Danishnama-yi A’la’i: Ilahiyat, the first three chapters, and Mulla Sadra, Al-Asfar al-Arba’a, the first few sections.

4. Ahkam, the plural of hukm, a term in logic, meaning conformity to the affirmative or negative relation between subject and predicate. Trans.

5. See the Ilahiyat of ash-Shifa’ (old edition) p.15.

6. Existentialists are said to hold that what is “fabricated in itself” (ma’jul bi’dh dhat) is being, but essences are nominal. Essentialists are said to hold the contrary.

That “more base” (i.e. natural) possible beings should arise directly from the Essence of the Truth is said to violate the law of correspondence between cause and effect. Thus, “more noble” possible beings, such as intelligences and souls, must exist as intermediate causes. Suhravardi is said to have originated this idea, and Mulla Sadra to have endorsesd it. Trans.

7. Kitab-i Milal va Nihal, vol.2.

8. Henri Corbin believes that this word was used for the first time in the Islamic wold near the turn of the third-fourth centuries by Ibn Wahshiya. See Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Three Muslim Sages (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), pp.63 and 151, n.22. [Nasr cites for his source H.Corbin, Les Motifs Zoroastriens dans la philosophie de Suhrawardi (Tehran, 1946), p.18. See also Henri (sic) Corbin, Histoire de la philosophie Islamique (Paris, 1964), p.285. Trans.]

Sayyid Hasan Taqizada, in his “Yad Dashtha-yi Tarikh-i ‘Ulum dar Islam” (Notes on the History of the Sciences in Islam), in Majalla-yi Maqalat va Barrasiha (Monographs and Researches Bulletin), 3 and 4, Tehran, Publications Group of the College of Theology and Islamic sciences, p.213, after mentioning an unknown book attributed to this Ibn Wahshiya, says:

“Another book by Ibn Wahshiya the Nabataean has occasioned much discussion, titled Al-Falahat an-Nabatiya (Nabataean Agriculture), which has also been attributed to a sage of Babul named Quthami and which quotes older books from Babul, such as the writings of Zagrith and Yanbu Shad. Even Ibn Khaldun, with his flair for research, attributed this book to the Nabataean scholars and saw it as an Arabic translation from the Greek. But finally, through the researches of the German scholars Gutschmid and Noldeke and especially of the Italian Nallino it grew clear that this book is a fabrication and full of balderdash; Nallino goes so far as to hold that no Ibn Wahshiya ever existed and that Abu Talib Zayyat compiled all these fantasies and attributed them to an imaginary person. Researchers believe that such books are works of the Shu’ubiya, who sought to prove that the sciences belonged to non-Arab peoples and that the Arabs had no part in them.”

It is not unlikely that the source of Suhravardi’s error was Al-Falahat al-Nabatiya or some similar work of the Shu’ubiya. This book is not available to us at present so we cannot compare its contents with what Suhravardi has said on the subject.

9. Muhammad ‘Ali Furughi, Sayr-i Hikmat dar Urupa, 3 vols. in 1 (n.p., n.d.) vol.1, p.20.

10. Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York, 1945). See especially pp.119-143.

11. For further study of Pythagoras, see ibid., pp. 105, 120, 126, and Shahristani, Kitab-i Milal va Nihal, vol.2.

12. Tafsir al-Mizan (Arabic text) vol.7, sura An’am, verse 59.

13. For a detailed study of Mulla Sadra’s thought see Fazlur Rahman, The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra (Albany, N.Y., 1975). Trans.

14. There is no question here of a systematic distinction between being and existence. I merely have used the two English words to correspond to the two contexts in which being is discussed here. Mahiya has appeared throughout this work as identity, but here only essence serves the context. Trans.

15. Mahiya is an Arabic word, a contraction of ma huwiya. The phrase ma huwa means “What is it?” With the final letters ya’ and ta’ marbuta, it becomes the verbal noun mahuwiya, which is contracted to mahiya. Thus mahiya means “what is it-ness”, or “whatness”.

16. See Rahman, The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra, pp.27-34. Trans.

17. Here is how the hukama’ have expressed this point: “A thing’s need of cause hinges on possibility, not on createdness in time.” For detailed discussion of this point, see my ‘Ilal-i Girayish bi Maddigari (Causes of the Turn to Materialism). Mashhad, 1350 Sh./1971 [also many subsequent editions. Trans.]

18. Unknown. Trans.

19. See “Asl-i Tazadd dar Falsafa-yi Islami” (The Principle of Contradiction in Islamic Philosophy) in my Maqalati-Falsafati (Philosophic Essays)

20. This determinism is not opposed to free will in the case of man, and should not be confused with the form of determinism that is. The necessity of the system of the universe is not inimical to man’s free will.

CHAPTER VI: HIS TALENTS AND HIS GENIUS

The talents and genius of Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, resulted in great abilities of knowledge that included all sciences, such as the tradition, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, high maxims, and standard morals. Moreover, it included the events the Imam had predicted before they occurred. Then they happened on the arena of life. His knowledge was vast. Though the scholars learned a lot of his pure knowledge, he found narrowness in himself because of his many sciences for which he found no way to proclaim. He, as the narrators said, heaved deep sighs and said with grief:

“If I found (carriers) for my knowledge which Allah, the Great and Almighty, has given to me, I would proclaim monotheism, Islam, religion, and Islamic laws. How can I do that? My grandfather, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, found no carriers for his knowledge for his knowledge. Thus, he sighed deeply on the pulpit and said: ‘Question me before you lose me, for there is much knowledge among the ribs.’”[1]

The historians and the narrators have unanimously agreed that the Imam was the richest of all the thinkers and the scholars of his time in scientific abilities and talents. Besides, the biographers have mentioned that he proclaimed knowledge and discovered its treasures and facts, as we have mentioned in the previous chapters. Before discussing the sciences which he discovered, it is necessary for us to present some important points concerning the topic.

The Scientific Life at his Time

The scientific movement at the time of the Imam was afflicted with much inactivity and dullness. In other words, it had no shade on the arena of life. That is because the political parties turned the people away from knowledge. The high houses pounced upon winning the government. So, they threw their human and financial powers into astonishing, horrible, violent battles that afflicted the community with heavy causalities and disasters. The members of the community launched armed attacks against each other. So, they turned away from knowledge and thought. In other words, they abandoned that light which Islam brought for mankind, and abandoned its orders to follow it to achieve their aims in life, such as security, welfare, and development.

The Bright Role of the Imam

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, came to a world full of discords, disturbances, and events. He saw that the Islamic community had lost all of its qualities. It lost all the characteristics which Allah wanted for it, such as unity, perfection, and development in the fields of knowledge and production. So, through his spiritual leadership, the Imam did his best to renew the glory of the community and to rebuild its cultural entity. Thus, he proclaimed knowledge and thought. He refrained from practicing all political activities, and devoted himself to knowledge only. The orientalist, Rowit M. Ronaldson, said: “He (al-Baqir) lived honored. He dedicated himself to knowledge during his isolation in Medina. The people came to him to ask him about the Imamate.”[2]

Some notables of the community went to the Imam to study knowledge under him. Among them was the great scholar, Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi. When the Imam met him for the first time, he asked him:

-Where are you from?

- From Kufa.

- From which tribe?

- From Ju‘f.

- What has brought you here?

- Seeking knowledge.

- From whom?

- From you.[3]

Then knowledge-loving deputations came to the Imam frequently to learn knowledge and sciences from him. Shaykh Abu Zahra said: “All the scholars who went to (Medina), the city of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, went to him to learn the principal features of religion from him.”[4] The jurists learned from him the lawful and the unlawful.[5]

However, the Islamic world took from the Imam all the elements of its development and progress. The cultural movement that depended on the Imam was not confined to his time only. Rather it included all the times that followed him. Thus, the scientific life appeared, and sciences developed very much. For this reason, the scientific life in Islam prospered.

Surely, the cultural life in Islam is indebted to this great Imam, for he renewed and led it throughout history.

The Sciences the Imam Discussed

The Imam studied several sciences, and then he taught them to the scholars in the Mosque of the Prophet or in the yard of his house. Among these traditions are the following:

The Tradition:

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be no him, took great care of the traditions which were reported on the authority of his grandfather, the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, and on the authority of his pure grandfathers, peace be on them. That is because the tradition is the second source of the Islamic law after the Holy Koran. It is of great importance in the Islamic law, for it specifies the general (verses) of the Book, limits its absolute (verses), it distinguishes its abrogated (verses) from its abrogating (ones), and its vague (verses) from its clear (ones). The tradition also denotes the jurisprudential rules concerning worships and dealings. It gives the general rules which the jurists use to conclude the religious opinion. It has bright rules for individual and social behavior. It has rules for organizing the family and preserving it from committing sins. Moreover, it has all what people need for their individual and social life. For this reason, Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, took care of tradition and adopted it positively. Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi reported seventy thousand traditions on the authority of the Imam. Aban b. Taghlub reported a large group of them on his authority. Great figures from the Companions reported a large group of traditions on his authority.

The important thing is that Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, took care of understanding the meanings of the tradition. He regarded understanding the meanings of the tradition as a criterion for preferring the narration. Yazïd al-Razzaz reported on the authority of his father on the authority of Abu Abd Allah on the authority of his father, who said:

“Know the positions of the Shi‘ites according to their narration and their knowledge. Indeed knowledge is understanding the narration. Through understanding the narration, the believer reaches the maximum degree of belief. I looked at a letter that belonged to ‘Ali. I found in the letter that the value and importance of the person depend on that he should know that Allah will reckon people according to the reason He has given to them in the world.”[6]

That the narrator understands the meanings of the narration indicates his high scientific rank.

As the Imam took great care of the tradition, he put certain rules to distinguish the correct tradition from the incorrect one when they contradict each other. We will mention that when we talk about the science of the fundamentals which the Imam treated.

The Reports of the Imams

As for the traditions which were reported on the authority of the pure Imams, peace be on them, they do not denote the personal ideas of the Imams. Rather, they denote the words of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, and his ideas. Thus, the Shi‘ites have added the Imams' traditions to the sunna (practices of the Prophet). Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, referred to that in two traditions he told Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi.

1. He, peace be on him, said to Jabir: “If we speak to you according to our idea, we will be from the perished. However, we speak to you according to the traditions we gather on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, as they gather their gold and silver.[7]

2. He, peace be on him, said to Jabir: “By Allah, Jabir, if we speak to the people according to our opinion, then we will be from the perished. However, we speak to them according to the traditions we report on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family. We inherit the traditions successively. We gather them as they gather their gold and silver.[8] ”

Therefore, the Imams of the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them, did not ascribe the traditions to themselves. Rather they ascribed them to their grandfather, the Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family. Thus, it is they who preserved the Prophet's scientific heritage. In other words they gathered it as the people gathered their gold and silver.

The Traditions of Imam al-Baqir

As for the traditions which Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfather, Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, and on the authority of Imam (‘Ali), the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, they are of two kinds:

1. (Ahadith) mursala; they are the traditions which the Imam recorded without mentioning the chain of the narrators. The Imam attributed the tradition directly to the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, or Imam (‘Ali), the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him. The Imam, peace be on him, was asked about the chain (of the narrators), he said: “When I report a tradition, I do not mention the chain (of the reporters), for I report it on the authority of my father, Zayn al-‘Abidïn, on the authority of his father al-Husayn, the martyr, on the authority of his father, ‘Ali b. Abu Talib, on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, on the authority of Gabriel, on the authority of Allah, the Great and Almighty.”[9]

2. (Ahadith) musnada; they are the traditions which the Imam recorded on the authority of his pure grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family.

Whether the Imam's traditions are mursala or musnada, they are proof with the Shi‘ites without difference. That is if the chain (of the narrators who reported) on his authority is correct; otherwise they are treated like the other traditions that may be weak or reliable or acceptable.

His Traditions from the Prophet

As for his traditions from the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, they sometimes concern Islamic jurisprudence. The encyclopedias of jurisprudence and traditions have mentioned them. They sometimes concern behavior and morals. Some of them also concern the outstanding merits and obligatory love of the pure family (of the Prophet). The following are some of the Imam's traditions from the Prophet:

1. The Imam, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “The virtue of knowledge is more lovable with Allah than the virtue of worship. The best (thing) in your religion is piety.”[10]

This tradition summons and urges people to seek knowledge, for knowledge is better than worship of which its owner makes no use. The tradition also urges people to refrain from what Allah has forbidden and to turn away from the sins that corrupt the person and deviate him from the right path.

2. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Adding clemency to knowledge is better than adding a thing to a thing.”[11]

Indeed knowledge and clemency raise the level of the person. They distinguish him from other than him, for there is nothing better than these two qualities.

3. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “There is obedience over every obedience. However, when (the person) is killed for Allah, then there is no obedience over that. There is disobedience over every disobedience till the person kills one of his parents. If he kills one of them, then there is no disobedience over that.”[12]

Surely, the maximum degree of obedience is martyrdom for Allah. If the person is killed for that, then he will reach the maximum degree of obedience. Also the maximum degree of sin and disobedience is that when the person kills one of his parents. If he does that, then he will reach the maximum degree of sin and disobedience.

4. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “It is an act of generosity to reclaim property.”[13]

The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, urges the capitalists to invest their capitals to improve the general economy, to increase the individual income, and to meet the needs of the country. Meanwhile he prevents them from wasting and freezing capitals. That is because such acts harm the economy of the country.

5. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family said: “Indeed Allah, the Blessed and Most High, has given me and my community a gift which He had not given to any of the communities. It is dignity from Allah to us.”So, his Companions said: “O Apostle of Allah, what is that?”He said: “It is breaking the fast and shortening the prayers during the travel.”[14]

Indeed shortening the prayers and breaking the fast during the travel are among the favors of Allah, the Glorified, for this community. That is because the traveler suffers from tiredness during the travel. If Allah made it obligatory on the traveler to fast and complete the prayers, then He would add tiredness to his tiredness.

6. He, peace be on him, said: A man came to the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, and said to him: “Why do I not like death?”The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Have you a property?”The man said: “Yes.”The Prophet said: “Have you offered it?”The man said: “No.”The Prophet said: “For this reason, you do not like death.”[15]

Surely, if this person had offered his property for the hereafter and striven for it, he would have loved it to take the reward of what he had done. However, he had done nothing to approach him to Allah. So, he hated death and meeting Allah, the Most High.

7. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Indeed the wicked of my community are those who are honored for their wickedness. Indeed whom the people honor to avoid his wickedness does not belong to me.”[16]

Surely, the wicked of this community are those who are honored and respected not for a virtue in them or for kindness they do for the people, but to avoid their evil or for fear of their oppression. Thus, such a kind of people do not belong to Islam that has brought mercy and kindness for people.

8. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The head of intellect after the belief in Allah, the Great and Almighty, is showing love to people.”[17]

How wonderful and beautiful this wisdom is! Surely, showing love to people through meeting their needs or doing good for them or saving them from oppression results in spreading love among people and strengthening the links among them. This what Islam wants to establish its society.

9. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “O Group of the readers of the Koran, fear Allah, the Great and Almighty, in respect with His Book. I am responsible and you are responsible. I am responsible for conveying the message. You will be asked about undertaking the responsibility of the Book of Allah and my sunna (practices).”[18]

In this tradition (the Prophet) summons the readers of the Koran and all the men of religion to play an important role in guiding people and informing them of Allah's orders and prohibitions.

10. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “I and ‘Ali were created from the same light.”[19]

Indeed Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, and ‘Ali, peace be on him, were created from the same light that has illuminated the horizons of the universe. They are the source of thought and awareness of this community. They are the pioneers of people for all what they become high through.

11. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Allah's anger and my anger are intense against him who sheds my blood and hurts me in respect with my family.”[20]

Woe unto the traitorous group that did not keep the will of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, in respect with his family and his progeny! That is because this group killed them, cut off their limbs, took their women and children as prisoners, and violated their sacredness.

12. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “My (grand)father Abraham and ‘Ali will be gathered together. A caller will call: O Mohammed, the best (grand)father is your (grand)father and the best bother is your brother.”[21]

Indeed, blessed is that pure fatherhood of Abraham, the friend of the Merciful (Allah), and that truthful brotherhood of the Imam, the Commander of the Faithful, towards the great Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family. On the day when the people will be gathered together on the land of the truth and justice, a caller will call Abraham and ‘Ali to show their outstanding merits and their high rank with Allah.

13. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said to ‘Ali: “Were it not for you, the believers would not be known after me.”[22]

The Imam, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, is the criteria of faith, the truth, and justice. No one believes in him except those who believe in their Lord, their homeland, and their community. No one disbelieves in him except those who disbelieve in justice and the interest of their community, turn away from praising Allah, and take his communications as mockery.

14. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “My daughter Fatima will be raised from the dead. Blood stained clothes will be with here. She will cling to the pillar of the throne and say: O Almighty, judge between me and the killer of my son (i. e. al-Husayn). By the Lord of the Kaaba, He (Allah) will give a judgment in favor of my daughter.”[23]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, announced several times the murder of his great grandson, Imam Husayn, peace be on him, among the people. In this tradition, he announces that his part, the Mistress of the Women of the World, Fatima the Chaste, peace be on her, will raise on the Day of Judgment with her son's shirt stained with his pure blood. She will request the Just Judge (Allah) to judge between her and his killer. Woe unto him against whom the pure family will bring suit on the day when the liars will be losing.

15. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Indeed Allah created the progeny of Mohammed, may Allah bless him and his family, from ‘Ali's back.”[24]

Surely, blessed is that progeny through whom Allah strengthened the word of truth, through whom He illuminated the way, through whom He made clear the aim, and whom He made guides to His obedience and leaders to His way.

16. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Whoever performs his ritual ablution properly, performs his prayers well, pays the zakat (alms) of his property, stops his anger, prevents his tongue, does his favor, asks (Allah) to forgive him his sins, and is loyal to the members of my House meets the facts of belief and the doors of Paradise are open for him.”[25]

Indeed these deeds approach the servant to his Creator. The person reaches the fact of belief and is worthy of the gardens through them.

17. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Bear two strange (things): accept the word of wisdom from the fool and forgive the word of foolishness from the wise man.”[26]

It is strange that the fool says a wise word. If he says it, we must put it into effect regardless of him. It is also strange that the wise man says a foolish word, for he is wise and perfect. However, if he says it, we must not blame him for it.

18. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “(The people are) ungrateful for two blessings: security and good health.”[27]

Surely, the people are ungrateful for these two blessings while life is not good without them. Moreover, they do not thank Allah for them.

19. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “If two kinds (of people) from my community are righteous, my community is righteous. When they are corrupt, my community is corrupt. It was said: O Apostle of Allah, who are they? He said: the jurists and the rulers.”[28]

Surely, social righteousness depends on the righteousness of these two kinds of people. When they are righteous, the community is happy and achieves its aims. When they deviate from the laws of the truth and justice, the community will suffer from a quick decline in all fields.

20. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The smell of the garden is found from the walk of five hundred years. However, neither the disobedient one nor the cuckold

finds it. It was said: O Apostle of Allah, who is the cuckold? He said: He whose wife commits adultery and he knows (that).”[29]

Indeed the person who disobeys his parents and the cuckold who has no honor are not worthy of Paradise that is the abode of the prophets and the righteous. Rather they are not worthy of anything except that they are shackled in the Fire.

21. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “There is no good in livelihood except for two men: an obeyed scholar and an aware listener.”[30]

Surely, good in this world is for the scholar whom the people obey when he orders them to follow noble values and high ideals. When the scholar finds such a kind of people, he is successful in conveying his message and achieving his aims. Good in life is also for the listener who is aware of the noble objectives in the message of the righteous and puts them into practice.

22. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Whoever helps the poor and treats the people with justice is a true believer.”[31]

Indeed, to help the poor materially and spiritually indicates strong perfect faith. To treat the people with justice also indicates that the person is noble and is free from selfishness and all psychological diseases. This is the reality of faith and essence of Islam.

23. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The parents are ungrateful for their son when the son is righteous as the son is ungrateful for them.”[32]

Surely, ungratefulness is not confined to the son when he is ungrateful for his parents. Rather, it includes the parents when they treat their son illegally. Thus, they commit a sin when they treat him in such a way.

24. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The believer does not spend an expense more lovable with Allah, the Great and Almighty, than saying the truth during consent and anger.”[33]

How wonderful this wisdom is! It is the rule of Islam that orders people to prefer the truth and justice to anything else.

25. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Two kinds of my community have no share in Islam. (They are) : the extremists and the fatalists.”[34]

As for the extremists, the claim that the Imam, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, is Allah, the Exalted, or the son of Allah. The Shi‘ites say that they do not belong to them. Rather, the Shi‘ites say that they are unbelievers and are treated like them.

In satirizing them, Sayyid al-Himyari said:

(They) are the people who have gone too far in loving ‘Ali.

Woe unto them!

They say: He (‘Ali) is the son of Allah. Great is our Creator.

He has neither son nor father.[35]

As for the fatalists, they say that all good and evil are from Allah. (That happens) through his determination and will.[36] They have no share in Islam.

26. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Whoever has three qualities or one of them will be in the shade of the throne of Allah, the Great and Almighty, on the Day of Judgment, the day when there will be no shade except His shade. (These qualities are): He should treat people with justice. He should do no thing till he knows that (his deed) pleases Allah or angers Him. He should find no fault with his Moslem brother till he frees himself from that fault. For when he frees it from a fault, he finds another fault in it. It is enough for the person that his soul diverts him from the people.”[37]

This tradition summons the persons to cleave to high moral standards and good behavior towards people. It warns him of mentioning the faults of people.

27. He, peace be on him said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Lying is good in three (cases): the trick during war, your promise to your wife, and making peace between (two) people. Truthfulness is bad in three (cases): tale bearing, your telling the person about his wife with what he hates, and your accusing the person of lying (when he tells) about good. Sitting with three (kinds of people) deadens the heart: sitting with the low, conversation with women, and sitting with the rich.”[38]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, permitted telling lies in these cases because of the interests that result from them. The scholars said: “Telling lies is not the perfect cause of ugliness. Rather it is a necessity for it. So, when the interests that remove its ugliness are found, the person is permitted to it. Truthfulness is also ugly in these cases because of evil that arises from it.

28. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Every eye will weep on the Day of Judgment except three eyes: the eye that weeps out of the fear of Allah, the eye that blinks at what Allah has prohibited, and the eye that stays awake at night for Allah.”[39]

29. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The quickest good in reward is benefaction and the quickest evil in punishment is oppression. It is enough fault for the person that he looks at what the people have while he has it, that he disgraces the people with what he cannot leave, and that he hurts his friend with that which does not concern him.”[40]

This tradition urges people to do good, to be careful of evil and aggression against people, and to censure the person who looks for the faults of people and does not look for his own faults.

30. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “No staying up at night but for three (cases): spending the night in (reciting) the Koran or in seeking knowledge or in directing the bride to her husband.”[41]

31. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Whoever does not have three (traits) does not belong to me nor does he belong to Allah, the Great and Almighty. It was said: O Apostle of Allah, what are they? He said: clemency through which

he drives back the ignorance of the ignorant, good manners through he lives among the people, and piety that prevents him from disobeying Allah, the Great and Almighty.”[42]

This tradition summons the Moslem person to build his character according to noble foundations such as clemency, good manners, and refraining from what Allah has prohibited.

32. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Three (groups of people) have the right to intercede with Allah, the Great and Almighty: the prophets, the scholars, and the martyrs.”[43]

33. He, peace be no him, said: The Apostle of Allah bless him and his family, said: “Belief is appreciation with heart, acknowledgment with tongue, and action with limbs.”[44] Belief is not a word on everybody's lips. Rather, it is an affair settled in the depth of the heart and inner self. It motivates man to act out of conviction and loyalty.

34. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said to Abu Dharr: “O Abu Dharr, beware of begging, for it is present abasement and quickens poverty. There will be a long reckoning concerning it on the Day of Judgment. O Abu Dharr, you will live by yourself, die by yourself, and enter Paradise by yourself. Some Iraqis will be happy because of you. They will wash and prepare you for burial. Do not beg with the palm of your hand. When a thing comes, then accept it. Then he, may Allah bless him and his family, said to his Companions: Shall I tell you about your wicked ones?”

“Yes, O Apostle of Allah.”

“Those who go about with slander, sow division among the friends, and find fault with the innocent.”[45]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, advised Abu Dharr to cling to abstinence and self-esteem. He, may Allah bless him and his family, recognized from behind the unseen that this great reformer would suffer from severe punishments and persecutions because of carrying out his immortal reformative message. Thus, Abu Dharr was indignant with the Umayyads who turned away from the rights of the community and possessed alone its wealth. So, they inherited successively the property of Allah and enslaved His servants. Thus, Abu Dharr defended the rights of the oppressed and the persecuted and showed their sufferings. So, the Umayyads were unable to bear him. Accordingly, they banished him to al-Rabadha and imposed a house arrest. He lived at that barren area. Then this great revolutionist died of hunger. He was banished from the home of Allah and of His Apostle. However, the Umayyads possessed the gold of the land and the wealth of the community. They spent them on their pleasures.

Abu Dharr sacrificed his life for achieving social justice, finding equal opportunities for the people, removing poverty and oppression, and returning the government of the Koran and the justice of Islam to them.

35. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “O ‘Ali, four (persons) whose supplication is not refused are: the just Imam, the father (who invokes Allah) for his son, the man who invokes (Allah) for his absent brother, and the oppressed one to

Allah, the Great and Almighty, says: By My Greatness and Might, I will support you even after a while.”[46]

36. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said to ‘Ali: “O ‘Ali, indeed, Allah, the Great and Almighty, looked thoroughly over the people of the earth and chose me from them. Then He looked over them a second time and chose you from them after me. Then He looked over them a third time and chose from them the Imams from your children. Then He looked over them a forth time and chose Fatima from the women of the world.”[47]

Surely, Allah, the Most High, chose His great Prophet and his testamentary trustees, the pure Imams, from His creatures. He made them keepers for His knowledge, store for His wisdom, pillars for His monotheism, signpost (of knowledge) in His earth, and guides for His pleasure and obedience. May Allah bless them all.

37. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Whoever has four (attributes) is in Allah's great light: the protection of his affair is that there is no god but Allah and that I am the Apostle of Allah. When a misfortune hits him, he says: to Allah we belong and to Him is our return. When he gains good, he says: praise belongs to Allah. When he commits a sin, he says: I ask Allah's forgiveness and turn to Him in repentance.”[48]

38. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Whoever has four (traits), Allah spreads His protection over him and makes him enter the garden through His mercy: good manners through which he lives among people, leniency towards the grieved, piety for the parents, and kindness to the slave.”[49]

This tradition summons the people to cleave to good manners, good behavior among the people, and leniency and mercy towards the afflicted (with disaster) and the unfortunate.

39. He, peace be on him reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, who said: “Four (acts) deaden the heart: sin after sin, much talk with the women, disputing with the fool, (You say and he says, he never returns to good), and sitting with the dead. It was said to him: Who are the dead? He said: All the extravagant.”[50]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, warned (his community) of these affairs, for they deaden the conscience and stiffen the heart. However, Islam has taken great care of man's conscience. Meanwhile Islam wants man to be aware, free, educated, and merciful.

40. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said in his testamentary bequest to the Imam, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him: “O ‘Ali, act through four: your youth before your old age, your health before your illness, your riches before your poverty, and your life before your death.”[51]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, summoned (his community) to do good and to seize the opportunity to do what approaches

the servant to his Creator before it is too late, so man loses the blessings which Allah has prepared for him in the eternal abode.

41. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, peace be on him, who said: “Among the signs of unhappiness are: the impudence of the eye, the cruelty of the heart, the intensity of greediness in seeking livelihood, and the persistence of the sin.”[52]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, warned (the community) of these things that make man far from his Lord and throw him into great evil.

42. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said on his pulpit: “Indeed the best names are: ‘Abd Allah, ‘Abd al-Rahman, Haritha, and Hammam. The worst names are: Derar, Murah, Harb, and Zalim.”[53]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, ordered the Moslems to call their children with blessed names and prevented them from calling them with evil names.

43. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “The servant will be asked about four (things) on the Day of Judgment before his legs disappear: in what he used up his age, in what he wore out his youth, from where he earned his money and in what he spent it, and our love, we, the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt).”[54]

Indeed Allah, the Exalted, will ask man on the Day of Judgment about all the affairs of his life in this world. He will ask him about whether he had used up his age in the obedience and pleasure of Allah to reward him or he had used it up in committing sins and oppressing the creatures to punish him. He will especially ask him about in what he had worn out his youth. He will ask him about whether he had lawfully earned his money to reward him or he had unlawfully earned it to punish him. He will also ask him about his love for the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them, for they are the source of light and good in the earth. If he (man) loves them, he will be successful; otherwise he will be unsuccessful.

44. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers, who said that the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, addressed the people on the last Friday of the month of Sha‘ban. He thanked Allah, praised Him, and then said:

“O People, indeed, a month will shade you. In it there is a night (that) is better than a thousand months. It is the month of Ramadan. Allah has imposed the fasting in it (on you). He has made performing a prayer willingly in a night of it as performing prayers willingly in seventy nights in months other than it. He has made (the reward) of him who does willingly good and kindness as the reward of him who carries out a commandment of the Commandments of Allah. Whoever carries out a commandment of the Commandments of Allah is like him who carries out seventy commandments in (months) other than it. It is the month of patience. The reward of patience is the garden. It is the month of help. It is the month in

which Allah increases the livelihood of the believer. Whoever breaks the believer's fast, with that, has with Allah, the Great and Almighty, releasing a slave and forgiving his past sins.

“It was said to him: O Apostle of Allah, not all of us are able to break the believer's fast. He said: Indeed Allah, the Blessed, is generous. He gives this reward to those of you who have nothing to break someone's fast except milk mixed with water or a drink of fresh water or few dates. Whoever helps his slave in it, Allah will commute his punishment. It is the month whose beginning is mercy, whose middle is forgiveness, and whose end is answer and releasing from fire. In it you are in need of four qualities: Two qualities through which you please Allah. Two qualities are necessary for you. As for the two (qualities) through which you please Allah, they are: Testify that there is no god but Allah, and that I am the Apostle of Allah. As for the two (qualities) that are necessary for you, they are: In it ask Allah for your needs and Paradise. In it ask Allah for good health and seek refuge with Him from the Fire.”[55]

Surely, the month of Ramadan has holiness and sacredness with Allah. Thus, Allah has preferred it to the other months. In it the Apostle summoned the people to obey (Allah) and to do good and kindness to the poor. He distinguished it very much from the other months.

45. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said to ‘Ali in his testamentary bequest: “O ‘Ali, four (things) are in vain: eating after fullness, the lamp in the moon, planting in the salt ground, and doing a favor for the people who are not worthy of it.”[56]

46. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “I summon (my community to follow) five (practices) till death: I will eat with the slaves at the foot (of the mountain). I will ride the donkey with saddle. I will milk the she-goat with my hand. I will greet the boys so as to be a practice (sunna) after me.”[57]

These affairs were among the high morals through which the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, became the Lord of all the prophets and made the people believe in Islam.

47. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Whoever sells and buys should refrain from five qualities; other wise he should refrain from selling and buying: usury, swearing (by Allah), concealing the defect, praising when he sells, dispraising when he buys.”[58]

In the light of this tradition, the jurists have given religious opinions in the Chapter on Sale as follows:

1. The seller and the buyer should understand the affairs of dealings to avoid the usurious dealings that are among the great prohibitions in Islam.

2. They should avoid swearing (by Allah) during the dealing. If they are truthful, it is hateful for them to do that. If they are liars, they commit a sin and a prohibition.

3. They should not conceal the defect whether in the cost or in the goods. When concealment occurs and then it is discovered, the deceived one has the right to repudiate the dealing.

4. The seller should avoid praising his commodity.

5. The buyer should avoid dispraising what he has bought when it is sound.

48. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers, who said that a man came to the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, and asked him:

- O Apostle of Allah, what is knowledge?

- Listening.

- Then what?

- Listening to it.

- Then what?

- Memorizing it.

- Then what?

- Putting it into practice.

- Then what?

- Proclaiming it.[59]

49. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said to his Companions: “Feel shame before Allah very much. They said: What shall we do? He said: If you want to do (that), then no one of you should spend the night but he is in fear of Him. He should keep the head and what it has contained and the abdomen and what it has included. He should recall the grave and death. Whoever likes the hereafter should leave the embellishment of the world.”[60]

Indeed man can accomplish shame through fearing his Lord, holding back his tongue from telling lies, preventing his eyes from looking at the unlawful, and recalling the grave and the fright therein. When man does that, he feels shame before Allah.

50. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, was asked about the best servants. So, he said: “When they do good, they are cheerful (about it). When they misbehave, they ask Allah's forgiveness. When they are given, they thank. When they are tested, they are patient. When they are angered, they forgive.”[61]

51. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers, who said that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, said to ‘Ali in his commandment:

“O ‘Ali, there are six qualities in fornication: three of them are in the world, and the others are in the hereafter. As for those in the world, they take away glory, hasten ruin, and stop livelihood. As for those in the hereafter, (they will lead to) evil reckoning, the wrath of the Merciful (Allah), and immortality in the Fire.”[62]

Indeed fornication is a social catastrophe that destroy morals. Thus, Islam has intensely forbidden it and threatened those who commit it with various kinds of torment in the hereafter.

52. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Monopoly is in six things: Wheat, barley, dates, raisins, (cooking) fat, and (animal) oil.”[63]

Monopoly is among the factors that paralyze the economic movement in the country and spread poverty and need among the people. Islam has severely forbidden monopoly, and ordered the rulers of the Moslems to price commodities so as not to harm the people.

53. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Ill-gotten property is the price of the dead animal, of the dog, and of wine. (It is) the prostitution rate, the bribery in government, and the wage of the magician.”[64]

Islam has forbidden spending money on these affairs, for they ruin morals and spread corruption in the earth.

54. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfather on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Allah and every prophet with accepted (prayers) have cursed six (persons): the one who increases the Book of Allah, the one who accuses the determination of Allah of lying, the one who leaves my practices (sunna), the one who regards as lawful what Allah has prohibited concerning the members of my House (ahl al-Bayt), the one who dominates through tyranny to degrade those whom Allah has consolidated, to strengthen him whom Allah has lowered, and to possess alone the booty the Moslems gain without fighting and regards it as lawful.”[65]

55. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said to ‘Ali: “O ‘Ali, seven things of the sheep are prohibited: blood, the penis, the bladder, the spinal cord, the glands, the spleen, and the gall bladder.”[66]

Islam has forbidden these parts to preserve public health and to guard society against diseases. Modern medicine has proved that they harm public health. Thus, it advises people to refrain from eating them.

56. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said to ‘Ali: “O ‘Ali, indeed, Allah has given me seven qualities concerning you: You and I are the first to whom the grave will split open. You will be the first to stop with me on the path. You will be the first to be clothed when I will be clothed and to live when I will live. You will be the first to dwell with me in the highest gardens. You will be the first to drink with me from the pure drink that is sealed (to others), whose sealing is musk.”[67]

57. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostles of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Allah, the Great and Almighty, is not worshipped with a thing better than reason. The believer is not wise till ten qualities come together in him: good from him is hoped, evil from him is safe, regards little good from other than him as much, regards his own good as little, is not tired of

seeking knowledge throughout his life, is not fed up with those who request needs from, humbleness is more lovable for him than high rank, poverty is more lovable for him than riches, his portion of the world is food, the tenth (quality), what is the tenth (quality)? When he sees someone, he says: he is better and more pious than me. People are two men- one man is better and more pious than him, the other is more evil and lower than him. So, if he sees the one who is better and more pious than him, he should behave humbly towards him to follow him. If he sees the one who is more evil and lower than him, he should say: perhaps the good of this (person) is hidden, and his evil hidden. May (Allah) make his final result good. If he does that, his glory becomes high and he is the lord of the people of his time.”[68]

This traditions, like the other Prophetic traditions, urges (people) to reform their souls and to educate them with good manners and deeds to be the source of guidance for people.

58. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Ten (persons) are cursed because of wine: the one who plants it, the one who guards it, the one who presses it, the one who gives it, the one who drinks it, the one who carries it, the one to whom it is carried, the one who sells it, the one who buys it, and the one who takes its price.”[69]

Islam has strictly prohibited all the above-mentioned cases of wine. That is because wine is among the social catastrophes that harm public health and corrupt values and morals.

59. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Blessing is ten parts: ten parts are in trade and one part is in the skins (i. e. sheep).”[70]

60. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Islam has been built on ten parts: Testifying that there is no god but Allah- it is the religion, the prayer- it is the religious duty, fasting - it is the garden, zakat (alms)- it is purity, the hajj- it is the Islamic law, jihad (armed struggle) - it is invasion, enjoining (people) to do good deeds - it is the fulfillment, forbidding (them) from doing bad deeds - it is the proof, unity - it is familiarity, and infallibility - it is obedience.”[71]

61. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “When you ask Allah, then you ask Him with the palm of the hand. When you ask him for protection, then do not ask him with the outside of the hand. ”[72]

62. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “If my community does fifteen qualities, the tribulation will afflict it: if they steal properties successively, regard the deposit of booty and zakat (alms) as loss, the men obey their wives and disobey theirs mothers, treats his friend with kindness and turns away from his brother, the voices become loud in the mosques, a man is honored out of fear of his evil, the leader of the people is the lowest of them, silk is worn, wine is drunk, female singers and stringed instruments are adopted, and the last

(generation) of this community curses the earlier (generation) of it, after that, they must look forward to three qualities: red wind, transformation, and humiliation.”[73]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, warned (his community) of these affairs, for they ruin nations and peoples. If the Islamic community commits them, then Allah will punish it.

63. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Whoever spends the night tired from earning the lawful spends the night forgiven.”[74]

Islam has also urged the community to earn its livelihood lawfully. It has regarded such a kind of livelihood as jihad and honor for its owner. Whoever strives to earn (the livelihood) of his family spends the night forgiven.

64. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, was asked about the best creatures. So, he, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “When they do good, they are cheerful. When they are given, they are grateful. When they are tested, they are patient. When they are angered, they forgive.”[75]

Whoever has these qualities is the best of all the people and the most honorable than them. In other words he possesses the rein of his soul and his reason controls his desire.

65. He, peace be on him said, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “You are unable to encompass the people with your money, so encompass them with your ethics.”[76]

How high this wisdom is! It makes people love each other and unifies their feelings and sentiments. The power of money is unable to achieve that. However, morals are the strongest factor in building society on sound bases.

66. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, passed by a group of people raising stones, so he said: “What is this?” “With that we know the strongest of us,”they said. “Shall I tell you about the strongest of you?”asked the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family. “Yes,”they said. He, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The strongest of you is he whose content enters him in neither sin nor falsehood when he is pleased, he whose discontent does not prevent him from saying the truth when he is displeased, who he does not take other than his right when he is powerful.”[77]

Islam takes care of only the strength of conscience towards the truth. As for the boast of the muscles is among the customs of the pre-Islamic times. However, Islam has forbidden them.

67. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Sitting with the people of religion is the honor of here and the hereafter.”[78]

Sociology has proven that man has an effect on the environment. Meanwhile the environment has an effect on him. Thus, it is natural that the righteous have an effect on those who makes friends with them. They protect them from practicing evil habits and make them love doing good. So, with that, they obtain the honor of here and hereafter.

68. He, peace be on him, said: [The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said:] “Indeed this religion is strong. So, go deeply into it gradually. Do not make the servants of Allah hate worshipping Allah.”[79]

69. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Whoever wants to seek access through me (to Allah) and that there will be a hand for him, through which I intercede for him (with Allah) on the Day of Judgment, then he should keep in contact with the members of my family and make them happy.”[80]

70. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said to ‘Ali: “O ‘Ali, I am the city of knowledge and you are the gate. He who claims that he can reach the city not through the gate tells lies.”[81]

71. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of Umm Salama on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “The hajj is the jihad of every weak (person).”[82]

72. He, peace be on him, said: [The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said:] “Whomever Allah moves from the abasement of sins to the glory of (religious) devotion, then He (Allah) makes him rich without money, strong without a tribe, and entertains him without a close friend. Whoever fears Allah, Allah makes everything afraid of him. Whoever does not fear Allah, Allah makes him afraid of everything. Whoever is satisfied with the little livelihood of the property of Allah, He (Allah) is satisfied with his little deed.”[83]

73. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Indeed I and twelve members from my family, of whom ‘Ali is the first, are the stakes through which Allah prevents the earth and its people from sinking. If the twelve members from my family depart, the earth and its people will sink.”[84]

74. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Twelve chiefs are from my family. They narrate traditions. Among them will be the one who will undertake (bring about) the truth (al-Qa'm bi al-Haqq).”[85]

With this we end our talk about the traditions Imam al-Baqir, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfather, the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family.

His Traditions on the Authority of the Imam, the Commander of the Faithful

On the authority of his grandfathers, Imam al-Baqir, peace be on him, reported a group of the maxims of his grandfather, Imam (‘Ali), the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him. The following are some of them:

1. He, peace be on him, said: A man from the people of Basrah rose and said to Imam (‘Ali), the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him:

“O Commander of the Faithful, tell us about the brothers (i. e. friends).”

The Imam, peace be on him, answered him: “The brothers are of two kinds: the reliable brothers and the laughing brothers. As for the reliable brothers, they are the hand, the wing, the family, and the property. If you have a reliable brother, then sacrifice for him your property and your body, be sincere to those who are sincere to him, make an enemy of those who make an enemy of him, conceal his secret and defect, and show his good (deeds). O Questioner, know that they are less than red sulfur. As for laughing brothers, you obtain your pleasure from them. Do not stop that from them. Do not request what is beyond that from the most lowly of them. Give them what they give you such as cheerfulness and sweet words.”[86]

As for the laughing brothers at this time, they are the overwhelming majority. Ambitions, interests, and desires move them. As for the aspects of their friendship, they are cheerfulness and smooth words, as Imam ‘Ali said.

2. He, peace be on him, said: The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, said: “The temptations are three (kinds): the love of women- it is the sword of the Satan, drinking wine- it is the brain of the Satan, the love of the dirham and the dinar- it is the arrow of the Satan. Whoever loves women does not make use of his livelihood. Whoever likes drinking (wine) is deprived of Paradise. However loves the dirham and the dinar is the slave of the dinar. He, peace be on him, added: Jesus, son of Marry, said: The ailment of religion is in the dinar. The (religious) scholar is the doctor of religion. When you see the doctor perform the ailment against himself, then accuse him. Know that he is not loyal to other than him.”[87]

3. He, peace be on him, in ‘Ali's letter there are three qualities: Their owner will never die till he sees their evil results: oppression, estranging blood relatives, and false oath through which (the person) fights with Allah. Linking blood relatives is the quickest obedience in reward. Perhaps the people are sinners. However, they link each other. Thus, their properties grow. They treat each other with kindness. So, their lives increase. False oath and estranging blood relatives make houses empty of their people. They disturb blood relatives. Disturbing blood relatives stops birth.”[88]

This paragraph of the letter of Imam ‘Ali, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, is full of commandments on kindness, religious devotion, and what does general good for man in this life.

4. He, peace be on him, said: The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, said: “Religion depends on four (persons): The scholar who proclaims and uses it. The rich one who does not refrain from granting his favor to the people of the religion of Allah. The poor one who does not sell his life in the hereafter for his life in this world. The ignorant one who does not abstain from seeking knowledge. If the scholar conceals his knowledge, the rich one refrains from granting his money, the poor one sells his life in the hereafter for his life in this world, and the ignorant one abstains from seeking knowledge, then the world moves backward. So, many mosques and the different bodies of a certain group of people should not tempt you. It was said: How will (we) live at that time? He, peace be on him said: Associate with them apparently and oppose them internally. The person will have what he earns. He will be with those whom he loves. Nevertheless, wait for the ease from Allah, the Great and Almighty.”[89]

Indeed such kinds of people are able to reform the world when they shoulder their responsibilities and carry out their religious duties. However, if they deviate from that, life will move backward and all the high values in it decline.

5. He, peace be on him, said: The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, was questioned: “How much is between truth and falsehood.”He, peace be on him, replied: “Four fingers.”He put his hand on his eyes and ears, and then he said: “What your eyes see is true. Most of what your ears hear is false.”[90]

6. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, who said: “The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, mentioned ten qualities concerning me. Each is more lovable for me than what the sun rises over. He said to me: You are my brother here and in the hereafter. You are the closest of all the creatures to me in the standing. You are my helper and successor and inheritor about my family and property. You are the carrier of my standard here and in the hereafter. Your friend is mine. My friend is Allah's. Your enemy is mine. My enemy is Allah's.”[91] Allah, singled out Imam (‘Ali), the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, with many outstanding merits. He granted him many favors. The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, mentioned some of them in this tradition.

7. He, peace be on him, said: [The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, said:] “The pious have signs. They are known with them: truthful talk, paying the deposit, fulfilling the promise, little pride, miserliness, consideration for blood relatives, having pity on the weak, little sleeping with women, doing favors, good manners, vast clemency, adopting knowledge that bring (them) closer to Allah, the Great and Almighty. ‘A good final state and a goodly return shall be theirs.’”[92]

8. He, peace be on him said: [The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him said:] “Indeed ambitions control the hearts of the ignorant. Desires take them as security. Tricks cling to them.”[93]

This tradition pictures the condition of the ignorant. It includes their qualities of which are: ambitions control their feelings and sentiments. Desires take their hearts as security. Tricks convince them easily, for they have little experience and knowledge.

9. He, peace be on him, said: [The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him said:] “All good has been gathered in three qualities: thinking, silence, and speech. So, every thinking that has no viewpoint is inattention. Every silence that has no idea is heedlessness. Every speech that has no praise (of Allah) is nonsense. Therefore, a good final state shall be for him whose thinking is a viewpoint, silence is an idea, and speech is praise (of Allah), who weeps over his sin, of whose evil people are safe.”[94]

These are the qualities of those who know their Lord and turn to Him in repentance. They are appropriate for the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them, and those who follow them.

10. He, peace be on him, said: The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, said: “We, the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), are the tree of

the Prophet, staying place of (Divine) Message, descending place of angels, sources of knowledge.”[95]

11. He, peace be on him, said: [The Commander, peace be on him, said:] “The one who acts with oppression, the one who supports him, and the one who is satisfied with him are three partners.”[96]

His Narration from his Grandfather al-Husayn

He (Imam al-Baqir), peace be on him, reported on the authority of his father on the authority of his grandfather Imam Husayn, peace be on him, who said: [I heard my grandfather Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, say:]

“Act according to Allah's obligations to be the most pious of all people. Be satisfied with Allah's apportionment to be the richest of all people. Refrain from what Allah has forbidden to be a believer. Be a good friend of him who makes friends with you to be a Moslem.”[97]

His Narration from his Father

He reported on the authority of his father ‘Ali b. al-Husayn, peace be on him, who said: “He whose eyes shed tears for the murder of al-Husayn, Allah will settle him at the highest place in the garden. The believer whose eyes are filled with tears for the persecution our enemy practiced against us, Allah will settle him in the seat of honor. The believer who suffers from persecution for us and then his eyes shed tears for us, Allah will not punish him on the Day of Judgment and make will him safe from the wrath of the Fire.”[98]

His Narration from Jabir al-Ansari

 He, peace be on him, reported a group of traditions and events on the authority of Jabir b. ‘Abd Allah. Among them are:

1. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of Jabir, who said: “Indeed, when Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, stopped at al-Safa (a hill in Mecca near the Kaaba), he exclaimed three times:‘Allah is Great’, and then he said: ‘There is no god but Allah. He is One. There is no partner with Him. Supreme power and praise belong to Him. He has power over all things.’ He (the Prophet) did that three time. He did the like of that at al-Marwah (a hill near the Kaaba).”[99]

2. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of Jabir, who said: “Indeed, the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, wore a ring on his right finger.”[100]

3. He, peace be on him, asked Jabir about what had happened between ‘Ali and ‘A'isha. So, Jabir said: “One day I went to ‘A'isha and asked her about her opinion concerning ‘Ali. She bowed her head. Then she raised it and composed:

 When gold is rubbed against a touchstone

its adulteration appears without doubt.

Corruption is in us, and ‘Ali, the purified gold,

is like the touchstone among us.”[101]

His Narration from ‘Umar

He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of ‘Umar b. al-Khattab, who said: [I heard the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, say:] “Every means and lineage will break on the Day of Judgment except my means and lineage.”[102]

His Narration from b. ‘Abbas

He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of ‘Abd Allah b. ‘Abbas, who said: [‘Ali looked at the faces of the people, and then he said:] “Indeed I am the brother of Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, and his helper. You know that I was the first to believe in Allah and his Apostle. Then you entered Islam one by one after me. I am the cousin of Allah's Apostle may Allah bless him and his family, his brother, and his partner in his lineage. (I am) the father of his (grand)sons, and his son-in-law (being married to his) daughter, the mistress of his children and of the women of the garden. You know that when we went out with Allah's Apostle and came back, he loved and trusted me more than you. I was the most intense of you in defeating the enemy and affecting the equipment. You know when he sent me to Bara'a. He made the Moslems associate with each other as brothers. He chose nobody other than me. Then he said to me: ‘You are my brother and I am your brother in this life and the hereafter.’ He took the people out of the mosque and left me. Then he said to me: ‘Your position to me is as Aaron with Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me.’”[103]

His Narration from Zayd b. Arqam

He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of Zayd b. Arqam, who said: [We were sitting before the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family. He, peace be on him, said:] “Shall I show you him whom if you ask for advice you will not go astray nor will you perish?” “Yes, O Allah's Apostle,”they said. He said: “This.” He pointed to ‘Ali b. Abï Talib. Then he said: “Associate with him as brothers, help him, believe him, and be loyal to him. Indeed Gabriel has told me about what I have said to you.”[104]

His Narration From Abï Dharr

He, peace be on him, reported a group of sayings of the great reformer, Companion (of the Prophet), Abï Dharr. Among them are the following:

“O you who seek knowledge, do not let your family and your money divert you from your soul. On the day when you leave them, you will be like the guest. (You will) spend the night among them, then you will leave them to other than them. Here and hereafter are like the house from which you move to other than it. There is nothing between death and raising from the dead except a short sleep, then you will wake up. O You who seek knowledge, indeed, the heart without knowledge is like the ruined house.”[105]

These are some of the traditions which have been reported on his authority. They concern the rules of conduct, morals, and the outstanding merits of the pure family that is equal to the Holy Book.

The Exegesis of the Holy Koran

Among the sciences which Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, presented during his lectures was the exegesis of the Holy Koran. Indeed he devoted a time of his times to it. He discussed all of its affairs. The scholars of exegesis, though they had different opinions and trends, studied under him. Thus, he was the most brilliant explainer in Islam. Among his studies on the Koran are the following:

The Virtue of Reciting the Koran

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, urged (the community) to recite the Holy Book, for it is the abundant source that guides people to righteousness, enlivens their hearts, and supplies them with abilities of light and awareness. He, peace be on him, reported what his grandfather Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, said concerning the virtue of reciting the Koran. He, peace be on him, said: [Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, said:] “Whoever recites ten verses on a night is not written among the heedless. Whoever recites fifty verses is written among those who praise (Allah). Whoever recites a hundred verses is written among the obedient. Whoever recites two hundred verses is written among the humble. Whoever recites three hundred verses is written among the successful. Whoever recites five hundred verses is written among the strivers. Whoever recites a thousand verses, a hundredweight of gold is written for him.”[106]

Traditions similar to this have been reported on the authority of the Imams of the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them. They urge Moslems to recite the Koran and to consider carefully its verses and to understand their secrets. Without doubt the verses of the Koran develop intellect, educate souls, protect them from deviation, and guide them to the right path.

Repetition of Reciting the Koran

As for repeating and reciting the Koran with a good voice, it penetrates the depth of the heart and inner self. It reacts with sentiments, for the Koran has maxims and sciences necessary for life.

The Imams of the members of the House (ahl al Bayt), peace be on them, took care of reciting the Holy Koran. Thus, Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, was the best of all the people in reciting the Koran with a good voice.[107]

Abu Basïr reported: I said to Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir): “When I recite the Koran loudly, Satan comes to me and says: with this (recitation) you want to please your family and the people.”Imam al-Baqir, peace be on him, said: “Recite the Koran in an intermediate recitation. Let your family listen (to that). Read the Koran with a good voice. Indeed Allah likes reciting the Koran with a good voice.”[108]

The Koran far above Falsehood

The Holy Koran is the great miracle of Islam. “(This is) a Book, whose verses are made decisive, then are they made plain, from One Wise, All-aware.” “(This Book), there is no doubt in it, is a guide to those who guard (against evil).”There is no contradiction in its rules nor is there any incompatibility in its verses. “And if it were from any other than Allah, they

would have found in it many a discrepancy.” “Surely this Koran guides to that which is most upright.” “Falsehood shall not come to it from before it nor from behind it.”Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, explained this verse, saying : “Falsehood does not come to it from before the Torah nor before the Bible and the Zabur (David's psalms). Nor from behind it means that no Book will come after it to abrogate it.”In a narration from al-Sadiq, peace be on him: “There is no falsehood in what the Koran has told about the past nor is there falsehood in what it has told about what will happen in the future.”

The Imam dispraised those who distort the Koran

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, dispraised those who distort Allah's Book. It is they who interpret its verses according to their own desires. Thus, he, peace be on him, wrote a letter to Sa‘d al-Khayr: “Among their neglecting the Book is that they have rectified its letters and distorted its penal law. Indeed they see the Koran but they do not conform to it. The ignorant admire memorizing the narration. The religious scholars are sad when they leave the care.”[109]

Figurative Usage in the Koran

Figurative usages are famous in the language of Arabs. They are famous in many matters such as figurative predication, figurative word. Among them is the chapter on allusions. It is said that allusions are more eloquent than direct expressions. These expressions are among the nice usage and beauties of this language. The Holy Koran has a large group of figurative usage. Among them is the following Words of Allah, the Exalted: “He said: O Iblis! what prevented you that you should do obeisance to him whom I created with My two hands?”The meaning of the word hand is the special organ. However, this is impossible for Allah, the Most High. That is because the hand is in need of a body, while this is rationally impossible for Allah, the Exalted. Mohammed b. Moslem asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) about that. So, he, peace be on him, replied: “The word hand (yad) in the speech of Arabs means power and blessing. Allah, the Exalted, said: “And remember Our servant Dauwd with hands.”He said: “And the sky We built it with hands.”It is said: “So-and-so has many hands with me, favors and kindness. He has a white hand with me, meaning blessing.”[110]

This means that the word hand (yad) is not used in its real meaning. Rather it is used in other than it, either figuratively or truly. That is because it includes all these meanings the Imam mentioned.

The Basmalah is Part of the Suras of the Koran

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, and all the Imams of the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them, believed that the basmalah (i. e., in the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful) is part of the chapters of the Holy Koran. A large mass of the Moslem scholars and readers followed them in that.[111] Yahya b. Abï ‘Umran al-Hamadani wrote a letter to Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him. In the letter he mentioned: “May I be your ransom, what is your opinion of a man (who) started his prayers with: In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful, in the mother of the Book (i. e., the first

sura of the Holy Koran), and when he reached to a sura other than the mother of the Book, he left it (the basmalah)? The ‘Abbasid (man) said: There is no harm in that.”So, the Imam, peace be on him, replied to him with a letter in which he mentioned: “He (i. e., the man who left the basmalah) should repeat it twice in spite of him (the ‘Abbasid man).[112] The traditions of the two parties (Sunna and Shi‘a) have unanimously agreed on that the basmalah is part of the suras of the Holy Koran. Those who deny that are irregular.

The Koran was revealed in Seven Letters

The commentators have made known that the Koran was revealed in seven letters. They claimed that Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, said: “The Koran was revealed in seven letters.”[113] The ideas in this connection are so many that Abu Hatam has mentioned that they are thirty-five.[114]

It is necessary for us to give a brief idea about the meanings of the seven letters to know whether they are truly attributed to Imam Mohammed al-Baqir, peace be on him, or not.

The Seven Letters

There are various views about the meanings of the seven letters. The following are some of them:

1. The seven letters are: promise, threat, order, prohibition, stories, controversy, and proverbs. Ibn ‘Atiya weakened this idea. He said: “These are not called letters.”[115]

2. They are the differing words that have close meanings such as aqbil and halum (come! come on!), ‘ajjil and asri‘ (be quick). Al-Tabari chose this meaning.[116] However, this meaning is untrue. That is because man, according to this meaning, has the right to read the Koran in various ways. So, this will lead to a big difference such as adding a verse or omitting it. That is because the differing words bring about differing sentences, as al-Qurtubi said.[117]

3. They are the seven chapters which the Koran brought: the prevention, the order, lawful, the unlawful, the clearly defined (verses), the ambiguous (verses), and the proverbs.[118] These chapters are not called letters. Besides the prevention and the unlawful are one chapter. They are therefore not seven chapters.

4. They are the classical dialects from the dialects of the Arab. They are differing in the Koran. So, some of the Koran was revealed in the dialect of Quraysh; some of it in the dialect of Hudhayl; some of it in the dialect of Hawzan; some of it in the dialect of the Yemen; some of it in the dialect of Kinana; some of it in the dialect of Tamïm; some of it in the dialect of Thaqïf. This idea is ascribed to al-Bayqahi, al-Abhari, and the author of al-Qamus. However, ‘Umar opposed this idea when he said that the Koran was revealed in the dialect of Madar.[119]

5. They are seven recitations. Our master, the Professor, opposed that when he said that the famous recitations are more than seven.[120]

These are some of the opinions. Our master, the Professor, numbered ten opinions. However, he disproved them and proved that they did not lead to

any result. Abu Shama wrote a book on these meanings and refuted most of them.

The Imam denied the Seven Letters

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, denied the seven letters. What was attributed to him that he reported them is incorrect. In the (book) al-Sahïh, Zarara reported on the authority of the Imam, who said: “Indeed the Koran is one. The One (Allah) revealed it. However, the reporters have brought about these differences.”[121] It was reported on the authority of the Imam al-Sadiq, peace be on him, that he denied that. Al-Fudayl b. Yasar asked him: “Surely, the people say: The Koran was revealed in seven letters.”So, al-Sadiq, peace be on him, said: “The enemies of Allah have told lies. However, the Koran was revealed in one letter from the One and Only.”[122]

The Method of Exegesis

The trends of the commentators of the Holy Koran are different. In that they followed differing methods. Among them are:

The Exegesis through the transmitted Sayings

By that we mean interpreting the Koran through the traditions reported on the authority of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, and the Imams of guidance. Most Shi‘ite commentators followed this method. Among them were al-Qummi, al-‘Askari, and the like. Their proof was that the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them, were professional in the real knowledge of the Koran. Those other than them had no share in that. Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, referred to that when he said: “No one can claim that he has the deep and the surface (knowledge) of the Koran except the testamentary trustees of authority.”[123] It is therefore the testamentary trustees of the authority who had the deep and surface knowledge of the Book. The proofs have unanimously agreed that it is incumbent on the explainers to refer to them on interpreting the Koran. Shaykh al-Tusi said: “Interpreting the Koran is not permitted except through the authentic traditions from the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, and the Imams whose words were similar to those of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family.”[124]

The Exegesis through the Opinion

By that we mean following the hypothetical rational considerations that belong to the approbation.[125] The Mu‘tazilite and the Batanian commentators adopted that. They did not follow the traditions reported on the testamentary trustees of Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, in their exegesis. Rather, they depended on the rational approbation. Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, prevented them from that. Qattada, the famous jurist, came to the Imam. So, the Imam said to him:

“Are you the jurist of the people of Basrah?”

“Yes, such they claim.”

“I have heard that you interpret the Koran.”

“Yes.”

So, the Imam blamed him for that, saying:

“O Qattada, If you interpret according to your own opinion, then you will be perished and perish (the people). If you interpret it according to the opinions of the men, then you will be perished and perish (the people). Qattada, woe unto you! Those who have been addressed in the Koran know it.”[126]

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, confined the knowledge of the Holy Book to the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them. That is because they knew the clearly defined (verses), the ambiguous (verses), the abrogating (verses), and the abrogated (verses). The people other than them had not such knowledge. It was reported on the authority of the Imams, peace be on him, who said: “There is nothing farther from the mind of the men than the exegesis of the Koran. The beginning of the verse is on a thing and its end is on other thing. It is a coherent speech with various meanings.”[127]

As for following the surface of the Book is not numbered of the exegesis through the opinion which is forbidden. Some traditionalists opposed its proof. They cleaved to proofs which the fundamentalists refuted.[128]

Imam al-Baqir's Exegesis

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, wrote a book on the exegesis of the Holy Koran. Mohammed b. Ishaq al-Nadïm mentioned the book in his book al-Fihrast when he mentioned the books written on the exegesis of the Holy Koran. He said: “Abu al-Jarud Zyad b. al-Munzir, the head of the Jarudiya, reported the book of al-Baqir Mohammed b. ‘Ali b. al-Husayn.”Sayyd Hasan al-Sadr said: “A group of the reliable Shi‘ites reported the book from him from the days of his righteousness. Among them was Abu Basïr Yahya b. al-Qasim al-Asadi. ‘Ali b. Ibrahïm b. Hashim al-Qummi mentioned it in his book al-Tafsïr on the authority of Abu Basïr.[129] The narrators said: “Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi wrote a book on the exegesis of the Holy Koran. He learnt the exegesis from the Imam.”[130]

Examples of al-Baqir's Exegesis

The explainers reported many verses of the Holy Koran interpreted by the Imam. The following are some of them:

1. The Words of Allah, the Exalted, : “These shall be rewarded with the ghurfa (house) because they were patient.”[131] Al-Baqir, peace be on him, said: “The ghurfa (house) is the garden. It is a reward for them, for they were patient towards poverty in the world.”[132]

2. The Words of Allah, the Most High: “And to whomsoever My wrath is due he shall perish indeed.”[133] Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, was asked about the wrath of Allah. So, he peace be on him, replied: “His dismissal and His punishment.”[134]

3. The Words of Allah, the Exalted, “And most surely I am most Forgiving to him who repents and believes and does goods, then continues to follow the right direction.”[135] The Imam, peace be on him, interpreted “following the right direction”as following the Imams of the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt). Then he said: “By Allah, if a person worships Allah throughout his life between the corner (of the Kaaba) and the standing place

(of Abraham) and does not follow us, Allah will throw him down on his face into the fire.”[136]

4. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “O Apostle, deliver what has been revealed to you from your Lord.”[137] He, peace be on him, said: “By that Allah meant what He revealed to the Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, concerning the outstanding merits of ‘Ali.”[138] He, peace be on him, reported that Allah revealed to His Apostle to appoint ‘Ali successor. However, he was afraid that that would be difficult for a group of his Companions. So, Allah, the Most High, revealed this verse to encourage him to carry out His order.[139]

5. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Leave Me and him whom I created alone.”[140] This verse was revealed concerning al-Walïd b. al-Mughïra al-Makhzumi, who accused the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, of magic. The people called al-Walïd the alone. Thus, the verse was revealed to threaten him. Mohammed b. Moslem reported on the authority of Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), who said: “The alone is the illegitimate child.”Zarara said: “Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) was told that one of the Hashimites said in his oration: “I am the son of the alone.”So, the Imam said: “Woe unto him! If he knew who the alone was, he would not boast of him.”Thus, we said to him: “Who is he?”He said: “The unfathered child.”[141]

6. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “The angels and Gabriel descend in it by the permission of their Lord.”[142] He, peace be on him, said: “The angels and the recorders descend to the lower world. They record the affairs that hit people within a year. That is up to Allah's will.”Allah makes to pass away and establishes what He pleases, and with Him is the mother of the Book.”[143]

7. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “So, they shall be thrown down into it, they and they erring ones.”[144] The meaning of the verse is that the erring ones and the atheist powers will be thrown all together into the fire. Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, said: “The verse was revealed concerning the people who described just things with their tongues, and then they did other than them.”[145]

8. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “And they did not do Us any harm, but they made their own souls suffer loss.”[146] Interpreting this verse, the Imam, peace be on him, said: “Allah is not oppressed, for He is Great and Powerful. However, He mixed us with Himself. So, He regarded the oppression against us as oppression against Him and our authority as His authority. So, He said: ‘Only Allah is your authority and His apostle and those who believe.’”He meant the Imams from us. In another place He said: “And they did not do Us any harm, but they made their own souls suffer loss.”[147]

9. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “So, ask the people of the reminder if you do not know.”[148] Mohammed b. Moslem said: I said to Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir): “Some of us claim that this verse concerns the Jews and the Christians.”He said: “Therefore they summon you to their religion.”Then he, peace be on him, pointed to his chest and said: “We are the people of the reminder and we are the people who are questioned.”[149]

10. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Are those who know and those who do not know alike? Only the men of understanding are mindful.”[150] He, peace be on him, said: “It is we who know and our enemy is he who does not know. Our followers are the men of understanding.”[151]

11. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Nay! these are clear communications in the breasts of those who are granted knowledge.”[152] Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) said that “those who are granted knowledge”concerns the Imams of the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them.[153] Abu Basïr reported that Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) recited this verse and pointed with his hand to his chest.[154]

12. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “(Remember) the day when We will call every people with their Imam.”[155] Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi reported on the authority of Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, who said: When this verse was revealed, the Moslems said: “O Allah's Apostle, are you not the Imam of all people?”He, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “I am the Apostle of Allah for all people. However, there will be Imams over the people. They will be from my Household. They will assume the Imam over the people. However, the people will accuse them of lying. The Imams of unbelief and misguidance and their followers will oppress them. So, whoever supports, follows, and believes them will belong to me, be with me, and meet me. Whoever oppresses them, accuses them of lying will not belong to me nor will he be with me. Moreover, I will disown myself of him.”[156]

13. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Then We gave the Book for an inheritance to those whom We chose from among Our servants, but of them is he who makes his soul suffer a loss, and of them is he who takes a middle course, and of them is he who is foremost in deeds of goodness by Allah's permission.”[157] Salim asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) about this verse. So, he, peace be on him, said: “He who is foremost in deeds of goodness is the Imam. He who takes a middle course is he who knows the Imam. He who makes his soul suffer a loss is he who does not know the Imam.”[158] Zyad b. al-Munzir reported on the authority of the Imam, peace be on him, who said: “As for him who makes his soul suffer a loss is he who does a good deed and another bad one. As for him who takes a middle course is he who worships (Allah) very much. As for those who are foremost in deeds of goodness are ‘Ali, al-Hasan, al-Husayn, and those who died martyrs from the family of Mohammed, may Allah bless him and his family.”[159]

14. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Surely in this are signs for those who examine.”[160] He, peace be on him, said: The Commander of the Faithful said: “Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, was the one who examined. I, after him, and the Imams from my progeny are the ones who examine.”[161]

15. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “And that if they should keep to the (right) way, We would certainly give them to drink of abundant water.”[162] He (al-Baqir), peace be on him, said: “By that Allah meant that if they should keep to the authority of ‘Ali b. Abï Talib, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, and the testamentary trustees of authority from his sons, and obey their orders and prohibitions, He would certainly give

them to drink of abundant water, namely He would fill their hearts with belief. The (right) way is the belief in the authority of ‘Ali and the testamentary trustees.”[163]

16. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Say: Allah is sufficient as a witness between me and you and whoever has knowledge of the Book.”[164] Barïd b. Mu‘awiya asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, about those whom the Words of Allah the Exalted: “And whoever has knowledge of the Book” concern. So, he, peace be on him, said: “He meant us. ‘Ali was the first of us, the most meritorious of us, and the best of us after the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family.”[165]

17. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “But indeed We have given to Abraham's children the Book and the wisdom, and We have given them a grand kingdom.”[166] Barïd al-‘Ajali asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, about this verse. So, he, peace be on him said: “He made Abraham's children Apostles, Prophets, and Imams. Why do they accept that in the family of Abraham and refuse to accept it in the family of Mohammed, may Allah bless him and his family?”Barïd said: “What is the meaning of ‘And We have given them a grand kingdom?’”The Imam replied: “llah made them Imams. Whoever obeys them obeys Allah. Whoever disobeys them disobeys Allah. That is the grand kingdom.”[167]

18. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “And I breathed into him of My spirit.”[168] The Imam, peace be on him, was asked about the spirit. So, he said: “It is the power.”[169]

19. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Were it not for that he had seen the manifest evidence of his Lord.”[170] The Imam, peace be on him, said to Jabir al-Ju‘fi: “What do the Iraqi jurists say concerning this verse?”Jabir replied: “He (Joseph) saw Jacob biting his thumb.”Thus, the Imam, peace be on him, said: [My father related to me on the authority of my grandfather, ‘Ali b. Abï Talib, who said:] “As for the manifest evidence which Joseph saw when she made for him and he made for her was that she went to an idol crowned with pearls and corundum in the house to cover it with a white garment so that it would not see her or she felt shame of it.”So, Joseph asked her: “What is this?”She replied: “It is my lord. I feel shame of it when it see in this manner.”So, Joseph said: “Do you feel shame of an idol that does not avail nor does it harm nor does it see? Then why do I not feel shame of my Lord Who has the power over every soul? By Allah, you will never obtain that from me.”That is the manifest evidence.[171]

These are some of the verses which Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, interpreted. With this we end our talk about his exegesis of the Holy Koran.

Theology

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) researched many theological matters during his lectures. He was asked about the most complicated matters in this science. He answered them. Worth mentioning, the time of the Imam was the most sensitive of all the times. That is because the Islamic conquer included most areas of the world and the peoples of the earth. That moved a wave of spite in the souls of the enemies of Islam, from the helpless peoples and other than them. Thus, they launched a propagating campaign against

the Islamic thought. They proclaimed doubts and imaginations among the children of the Moslems. Meanwhile the Umayyad governments encouraged anti-Islam thoughts. No one has mentioned that the Umayyad rulers resisted these thoughts and prevented them from spreading among the Moslems. In the meantime nobody was ready to save the Moslems from these thoughts except Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, who refuted them with strong proofs. We will mention that in detail when we talk about the time of the Imam.

However, the following are some of the theological researches which the Imam did:

Monotheism

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, studied the most important matters of monotheism. He uncovered them. He refuted the doubts and imaginations which were raised about them. Among what he studied are:

1. Allah is not attained through Reason The unquestionable thing is that man is unable to know with all his intellectual the reality of Allah, for reason has limited imaginations. Al-Shafi‘i said: “Indeed reason has a limited end as the eye has.”

All things which man senses are found at a certain place and time. Reason cannot imagine beings without a place or things without time. Thus, reason is unable to attain the reality of Allah, for neither time nor place can encompass it. In other words, Allah created the time and the place. Besides reason is unable to understand the reality of many things in the universe. Among them is the unseen reality which reason has not understood yet.

The conceptualization of the heart, though it has vast imagination, is unable to attain the essence of Allah. The eye is unable to attain it, too. Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, stated that when he was asked about these words of Allah, the Exalted: “The eyes attain Him not, but He attains the eyes.”[172] He, peace be on him: “The conceptualization of hearts are keener and sharper than the perceptions of the eyes. Through the conceptualization of the heart you can perceive countries like Sind, Hind (India) and other cities which you have never visited, although you have not seen them with your eyes. How can your eyes see Him when the conceptualization of your heart cannot attain Him?”[173]

Indeed the eye shall come back confused and fatigued when it tries to perceive the essence of Allah, the Most High, the Creator of the cosmos, and giver of life. Ibn Abï al-Haddïd said:

O Miracle of the cosmos, thinking has become unsound concerning You.

Whenever my thinking moves toward You a span of the hand, it escapes for a mile.

You have perplexed men of understanding and confused intellect.[174]

There is nothing remoter than attaining the essence of Allah, the Exalted, for reason is unable to attain it. Thus, ‘Abd al-Rahman b. Abï al-Najran asked Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, about Allah, the Most High. He said: “Should I think of anything (to understand Allah)?”The Imam, peace be on him, replied: “Yes, but you have to imagine a thing which the mind cannot contain and which is without limit. He is unlike whatever comes into your mind. Nothing resembles Him nor can any thought reach

Him. How can He be perceived when He is totally different from whatever is conceived and is the reverse of whatever is imagined. (Because Allah cannot be limited through the limitations of the mind or the senses.) Certainly, the thing which cannot be encompassed by the mind and which is without limits is that which should be imagined.”[175]

 2. The Eternity of the Necessary Being As for the Eternity of the Necessary Being, it is among the keenest theological and philosophical studies. A man asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him: “Tell me from when your Lord has been in existence?”The Imam replied: “Woe unto You! The question when and how long arises only in respect of things that (previously) were non-existant. Verily, my lord, the Blessed and Exalted, has always been Ever-living, without time or modality. Coming into existence does not apply to Him Who exists eternally nor does ‘how He exists’ apply to His existence nor does ‘where He exists’ apply to him, for He is neither in a thing nor on a thing. He did not invent a place for His location, nor was there any enhancement in His might after He had created the universe, nor had He been weak before its creation, nor was He alone before His act of creation, nor does He resemble anything that can be remembered, nor was He without dominion before creating the universe, nor will He be bereft of dominion after the universe passes away. He is Ever-living, Self-subsisting, the Almighty Lord without the category of life. He was the Almighty Lord before creating things, and He is the Absolute Lord after the creation of the universe. None of the categories of ‘how’ or ‘where’ or ‘when’ or ‘how much’ nor any ‘limit’ apply to his existence. He is not recognized by resemblance with anything nor does He become decrepit due to His endless existence. Nothing can strike awe in Him. Rather, all things are awe-struck by fearing Him. He was in existence before the appearance of life as such. Neither is He in existence such as can be described, nor can it be confined to any state and condition. He does not rest anywhere nor does He abide at a place that is in the neighborhood of another place. However, He is known as Living, the Lord whose might and dominion will never end. He has created of His own will whatever and whenever He desired. He can neither be confined, nor fractioned, nor can He be destroyed. He is the First without any modality and the Last without any space. ‘And all things are perishable except His face.’ ‘His are the creation and the command. Blessed be Allah, the Lord of all beings.’

“O Questioner, woe unto you! Surely, my Lord can never be encompassed by the imagination. Doubts cannot descend upon him. Nor can He be affected (by anything). Nor is He anybody's neighbor. Nor can events happen to Him. He can neither be questioned about anything nor is He ashamed of anything. ‘Slumber seize Him not, neither sleep.’ ‘To Him belong all that is in the heavens and the earth and all that is between them, and all that is underneath the soil.’”[176]

This wonderful paragraph of the speech of the great Imam has encompassed the eternity of the Necessary Being and His Unity. It has deemed Him far above comparison with His creatures which genus and species limit, and which are in need of the cause in their existence and non-existence. Moreover, they are in need of time and place. Allah is far above

all that, for He is the first and the last, outward and inward, and He knows all things. A researcher asked the Imam: “Who is Allah?” He replied: “The One and Only.” It was said to him: “How is He?” He answered: “He is a Powerful King.” It was said to him: “Where is He?” He replied: “He is watching.” So, the researcher said: “I am not asking you about this.” He said: “These are the attributes of Allah. Other than them are the attributes of creatures.”

They wanted to know the essence of Allah through their senses and reason. They did not know that He was far above what reason attains and what conceptualization perceives. There is no god but He, the Ever living, the Self-subsisting.

However, in this speech, the Imam, peace be on him, discussed the most important theological matters which no one of the Moslem theologians and philosopher had discussed before him except his grandfather Imam ‘Ali, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him. As for encompassing and explaining the speech of the Imam, peace be on him, it needs a detailed study. The Moslem philosophers have taken care of the points which the Imam has mentioned in his speech. They have produced evidence in support of them.[177]

3. Talking about the Essence of Allah is forbidden Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, prevented Moslems from talking about the essence of Allah, the Most High. That is because that depends on a deep philosophy which the reason of the simple people is unable to understand. In other words they have little knowledge. Thus, they fall into the tricks of the Satan. Then they go out of belief and come into polytheism. In this connection the Imam, peace be on him, said: “Talk about all things, but do not talk about the essence of Allah.”[178]

He, peace be on him, said: “Talk about the creation of Allah, but do not talk about Allah Himself, for that increases the owner of the talk nothing except perplexity.”[179]

Indeed talking about the essence of Allah increases man nothing except perplexity and throwing destructive manners and doubts. As for thinking of the creation of Allah and considering carefully the universe, they will lead man to belief in Allah. That is because the creation of all creature indicates the Great Creator. Darwin said: “It seems that all the creatures that live in the earth belong to one eternal shape. The Creator has breathed life into them.”[180] It is false to say that chance has created all these worlds. It is impossible for chance to find a well-woven regulation that depends on knowledge. Why does chance not create the plane and modern sets which thinking and science have found?

4. The Knowledge of Allah The knowledge of Allah has encompassed all things. The knowledge of Allah is the same before and after the creation of things. That is because He has created them. He knows what souls and hearts have. Mohammed b. Moslem reported on the authority of Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, who said: “Allah, the Great and Almighty, was there when nothing else existed. He has been eternally knowing whatever come into being. And His knowledge of a thing before it comes into being is exactly the same as it is after its being.”[181]

5. The Essence of Monotheism Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, to teach him something of monotheism. So, he, peace be on him, said: “Indeed Allah, whose names are blessed and Who is Exalted in the transcendence of His Essence, is the One (the only One). He is unique in Oneness, and He attributed Oneness to Himself when He was alone. Then, He made His Unity evidently known to His creatures. Thus, Allah is One, Unique, Self-dependent, and All-holy. All things worship Him and turn to Him in repentance. And His knowledge embraces all things.”[182]

6. The Attributes of Allah Surely, the attributes of the Wise Creator are exactly the same as His Essence. There is no number among them, as it has been proved in theology. Some Iraqis deviated from the right path. So, they proclaimed that Allah, the Most High, heard with other than with He saw, and saw with other than with He heard. In that He is similar to His creatures. Mohammed b. Moslem told Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on, about that. So, the Imam said: “They have told lies, become atheists, and likened (Allah to His creatures). Far is Allah above that. Indeed He is All-Hearing, All-Seeing. He hears with what He sees, and sees with what He hears.”

Then Mohammed b. Salim said: “They claim that He sees according to what they think.”So, the Imam, peace be on him, refuted their claims, saying: “Be Allah Exalted, the one who has the attribute of the creature perceive, but Allah is not such.”[183]

7. Doubt and Unbelief Surely, the doubt and unbelief in Allah, the Creator of the skies and the earth, have bad final results. Among them is that no deed is accepted from the one who doubts Allah and the one who disbelieves in Him. Their deeds will not avail them on the Day of Judgment. For this reason, the Imam, peace be on him, said: “The deed with doubt and unbelief is useless.”[184]

With this we end our talk about the words of Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, on monotheism.

CHAPTER VI: HIS TALENTS AND HIS GENIUS

The talents and genius of Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, resulted in great abilities of knowledge that included all sciences, such as the tradition, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, high maxims, and standard morals. Moreover, it included the events the Imam had predicted before they occurred. Then they happened on the arena of life. His knowledge was vast. Though the scholars learned a lot of his pure knowledge, he found narrowness in himself because of his many sciences for which he found no way to proclaim. He, as the narrators said, heaved deep sighs and said with grief:

“If I found (carriers) for my knowledge which Allah, the Great and Almighty, has given to me, I would proclaim monotheism, Islam, religion, and Islamic laws. How can I do that? My grandfather, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, found no carriers for his knowledge for his knowledge. Thus, he sighed deeply on the pulpit and said: ‘Question me before you lose me, for there is much knowledge among the ribs.’”[1]

The historians and the narrators have unanimously agreed that the Imam was the richest of all the thinkers and the scholars of his time in scientific abilities and talents. Besides, the biographers have mentioned that he proclaimed knowledge and discovered its treasures and facts, as we have mentioned in the previous chapters. Before discussing the sciences which he discovered, it is necessary for us to present some important points concerning the topic.

The Scientific Life at his Time

The scientific movement at the time of the Imam was afflicted with much inactivity and dullness. In other words, it had no shade on the arena of life. That is because the political parties turned the people away from knowledge. The high houses pounced upon winning the government. So, they threw their human and financial powers into astonishing, horrible, violent battles that afflicted the community with heavy causalities and disasters. The members of the community launched armed attacks against each other. So, they turned away from knowledge and thought. In other words, they abandoned that light which Islam brought for mankind, and abandoned its orders to follow it to achieve their aims in life, such as security, welfare, and development.

The Bright Role of the Imam

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, came to a world full of discords, disturbances, and events. He saw that the Islamic community had lost all of its qualities. It lost all the characteristics which Allah wanted for it, such as unity, perfection, and development in the fields of knowledge and production. So, through his spiritual leadership, the Imam did his best to renew the glory of the community and to rebuild its cultural entity. Thus, he proclaimed knowledge and thought. He refrained from practicing all political activities, and devoted himself to knowledge only. The orientalist, Rowit M. Ronaldson, said: “He (al-Baqir) lived honored. He dedicated himself to knowledge during his isolation in Medina. The people came to him to ask him about the Imamate.”[2]

Some notables of the community went to the Imam to study knowledge under him. Among them was the great scholar, Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi. When the Imam met him for the first time, he asked him:

-Where are you from?

- From Kufa.

- From which tribe?

- From Ju‘f.

- What has brought you here?

- Seeking knowledge.

- From whom?

- From you.[3]

Then knowledge-loving deputations came to the Imam frequently to learn knowledge and sciences from him. Shaykh Abu Zahra said: “All the scholars who went to (Medina), the city of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, went to him to learn the principal features of religion from him.”[4] The jurists learned from him the lawful and the unlawful.[5]

However, the Islamic world took from the Imam all the elements of its development and progress. The cultural movement that depended on the Imam was not confined to his time only. Rather it included all the times that followed him. Thus, the scientific life appeared, and sciences developed very much. For this reason, the scientific life in Islam prospered.

Surely, the cultural life in Islam is indebted to this great Imam, for he renewed and led it throughout history.

The Sciences the Imam Discussed

The Imam studied several sciences, and then he taught them to the scholars in the Mosque of the Prophet or in the yard of his house. Among these traditions are the following:

The Tradition:

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be no him, took great care of the traditions which were reported on the authority of his grandfather, the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, and on the authority of his pure grandfathers, peace be on them. That is because the tradition is the second source of the Islamic law after the Holy Koran. It is of great importance in the Islamic law, for it specifies the general (verses) of the Book, limits its absolute (verses), it distinguishes its abrogated (verses) from its abrogating (ones), and its vague (verses) from its clear (ones). The tradition also denotes the jurisprudential rules concerning worships and dealings. It gives the general rules which the jurists use to conclude the religious opinion. It has bright rules for individual and social behavior. It has rules for organizing the family and preserving it from committing sins. Moreover, it has all what people need for their individual and social life. For this reason, Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, took care of tradition and adopted it positively. Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi reported seventy thousand traditions on the authority of the Imam. Aban b. Taghlub reported a large group of them on his authority. Great figures from the Companions reported a large group of traditions on his authority.

The important thing is that Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, took care of understanding the meanings of the tradition. He regarded understanding the meanings of the tradition as a criterion for preferring the narration. Yazïd al-Razzaz reported on the authority of his father on the authority of Abu Abd Allah on the authority of his father, who said:

“Know the positions of the Shi‘ites according to their narration and their knowledge. Indeed knowledge is understanding the narration. Through understanding the narration, the believer reaches the maximum degree of belief. I looked at a letter that belonged to ‘Ali. I found in the letter that the value and importance of the person depend on that he should know that Allah will reckon people according to the reason He has given to them in the world.”[6]

That the narrator understands the meanings of the narration indicates his high scientific rank.

As the Imam took great care of the tradition, he put certain rules to distinguish the correct tradition from the incorrect one when they contradict each other. We will mention that when we talk about the science of the fundamentals which the Imam treated.

The Reports of the Imams

As for the traditions which were reported on the authority of the pure Imams, peace be on them, they do not denote the personal ideas of the Imams. Rather, they denote the words of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, and his ideas. Thus, the Shi‘ites have added the Imams' traditions to the sunna (practices of the Prophet). Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, referred to that in two traditions he told Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi.

1. He, peace be on him, said to Jabir: “If we speak to you according to our idea, we will be from the perished. However, we speak to you according to the traditions we gather on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, as they gather their gold and silver.[7]

2. He, peace be on him, said to Jabir: “By Allah, Jabir, if we speak to the people according to our opinion, then we will be from the perished. However, we speak to them according to the traditions we report on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family. We inherit the traditions successively. We gather them as they gather their gold and silver.[8] ”

Therefore, the Imams of the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them, did not ascribe the traditions to themselves. Rather they ascribed them to their grandfather, the Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family. Thus, it is they who preserved the Prophet's scientific heritage. In other words they gathered it as the people gathered their gold and silver.

The Traditions of Imam al-Baqir

As for the traditions which Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfather, Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, and on the authority of Imam (‘Ali), the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, they are of two kinds:

1. (Ahadith) mursala; they are the traditions which the Imam recorded without mentioning the chain of the narrators. The Imam attributed the tradition directly to the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, or Imam (‘Ali), the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him. The Imam, peace be on him, was asked about the chain (of the narrators), he said: “When I report a tradition, I do not mention the chain (of the reporters), for I report it on the authority of my father, Zayn al-‘Abidïn, on the authority of his father al-Husayn, the martyr, on the authority of his father, ‘Ali b. Abu Talib, on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, on the authority of Gabriel, on the authority of Allah, the Great and Almighty.”[9]

2. (Ahadith) musnada; they are the traditions which the Imam recorded on the authority of his pure grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family.

Whether the Imam's traditions are mursala or musnada, they are proof with the Shi‘ites without difference. That is if the chain (of the narrators who reported) on his authority is correct; otherwise they are treated like the other traditions that may be weak or reliable or acceptable.

His Traditions from the Prophet

As for his traditions from the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, they sometimes concern Islamic jurisprudence. The encyclopedias of jurisprudence and traditions have mentioned them. They sometimes concern behavior and morals. Some of them also concern the outstanding merits and obligatory love of the pure family (of the Prophet). The following are some of the Imam's traditions from the Prophet:

1. The Imam, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “The virtue of knowledge is more lovable with Allah than the virtue of worship. The best (thing) in your religion is piety.”[10]

This tradition summons and urges people to seek knowledge, for knowledge is better than worship of which its owner makes no use. The tradition also urges people to refrain from what Allah has forbidden and to turn away from the sins that corrupt the person and deviate him from the right path.

2. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Adding clemency to knowledge is better than adding a thing to a thing.”[11]

Indeed knowledge and clemency raise the level of the person. They distinguish him from other than him, for there is nothing better than these two qualities.

3. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “There is obedience over every obedience. However, when (the person) is killed for Allah, then there is no obedience over that. There is disobedience over every disobedience till the person kills one of his parents. If he kills one of them, then there is no disobedience over that.”[12]

Surely, the maximum degree of obedience is martyrdom for Allah. If the person is killed for that, then he will reach the maximum degree of obedience. Also the maximum degree of sin and disobedience is that when the person kills one of his parents. If he does that, then he will reach the maximum degree of sin and disobedience.

4. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “It is an act of generosity to reclaim property.”[13]

The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, urges the capitalists to invest their capitals to improve the general economy, to increase the individual income, and to meet the needs of the country. Meanwhile he prevents them from wasting and freezing capitals. That is because such acts harm the economy of the country.

5. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family said: “Indeed Allah, the Blessed and Most High, has given me and my community a gift which He had not given to any of the communities. It is dignity from Allah to us.”So, his Companions said: “O Apostle of Allah, what is that?”He said: “It is breaking the fast and shortening the prayers during the travel.”[14]

Indeed shortening the prayers and breaking the fast during the travel are among the favors of Allah, the Glorified, for this community. That is because the traveler suffers from tiredness during the travel. If Allah made it obligatory on the traveler to fast and complete the prayers, then He would add tiredness to his tiredness.

6. He, peace be on him, said: A man came to the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, and said to him: “Why do I not like death?”The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Have you a property?”The man said: “Yes.”The Prophet said: “Have you offered it?”The man said: “No.”The Prophet said: “For this reason, you do not like death.”[15]

Surely, if this person had offered his property for the hereafter and striven for it, he would have loved it to take the reward of what he had done. However, he had done nothing to approach him to Allah. So, he hated death and meeting Allah, the Most High.

7. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Indeed the wicked of my community are those who are honored for their wickedness. Indeed whom the people honor to avoid his wickedness does not belong to me.”[16]

Surely, the wicked of this community are those who are honored and respected not for a virtue in them or for kindness they do for the people, but to avoid their evil or for fear of their oppression. Thus, such a kind of people do not belong to Islam that has brought mercy and kindness for people.

8. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The head of intellect after the belief in Allah, the Great and Almighty, is showing love to people.”[17]

How wonderful and beautiful this wisdom is! Surely, showing love to people through meeting their needs or doing good for them or saving them from oppression results in spreading love among people and strengthening the links among them. This what Islam wants to establish its society.

9. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “O Group of the readers of the Koran, fear Allah, the Great and Almighty, in respect with His Book. I am responsible and you are responsible. I am responsible for conveying the message. You will be asked about undertaking the responsibility of the Book of Allah and my sunna (practices).”[18]

In this tradition (the Prophet) summons the readers of the Koran and all the men of religion to play an important role in guiding people and informing them of Allah's orders and prohibitions.

10. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “I and ‘Ali were created from the same light.”[19]

Indeed Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, and ‘Ali, peace be on him, were created from the same light that has illuminated the horizons of the universe. They are the source of thought and awareness of this community. They are the pioneers of people for all what they become high through.

11. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Allah's anger and my anger are intense against him who sheds my blood and hurts me in respect with my family.”[20]

Woe unto the traitorous group that did not keep the will of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, in respect with his family and his progeny! That is because this group killed them, cut off their limbs, took their women and children as prisoners, and violated their sacredness.

12. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “My (grand)father Abraham and ‘Ali will be gathered together. A caller will call: O Mohammed, the best (grand)father is your (grand)father and the best bother is your brother.”[21]

Indeed, blessed is that pure fatherhood of Abraham, the friend of the Merciful (Allah), and that truthful brotherhood of the Imam, the Commander of the Faithful, towards the great Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family. On the day when the people will be gathered together on the land of the truth and justice, a caller will call Abraham and ‘Ali to show their outstanding merits and their high rank with Allah.

13. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said to ‘Ali: “Were it not for you, the believers would not be known after me.”[22]

The Imam, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, is the criteria of faith, the truth, and justice. No one believes in him except those who believe in their Lord, their homeland, and their community. No one disbelieves in him except those who disbelieve in justice and the interest of their community, turn away from praising Allah, and take his communications as mockery.

14. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “My daughter Fatima will be raised from the dead. Blood stained clothes will be with here. She will cling to the pillar of the throne and say: O Almighty, judge between me and the killer of my son (i. e. al-Husayn). By the Lord of the Kaaba, He (Allah) will give a judgment in favor of my daughter.”[23]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, announced several times the murder of his great grandson, Imam Husayn, peace be on him, among the people. In this tradition, he announces that his part, the Mistress of the Women of the World, Fatima the Chaste, peace be on her, will raise on the Day of Judgment with her son's shirt stained with his pure blood. She will request the Just Judge (Allah) to judge between her and his killer. Woe unto him against whom the pure family will bring suit on the day when the liars will be losing.

15. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Indeed Allah created the progeny of Mohammed, may Allah bless him and his family, from ‘Ali's back.”[24]

Surely, blessed is that progeny through whom Allah strengthened the word of truth, through whom He illuminated the way, through whom He made clear the aim, and whom He made guides to His obedience and leaders to His way.

16. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Whoever performs his ritual ablution properly, performs his prayers well, pays the zakat (alms) of his property, stops his anger, prevents his tongue, does his favor, asks (Allah) to forgive him his sins, and is loyal to the members of my House meets the facts of belief and the doors of Paradise are open for him.”[25]

Indeed these deeds approach the servant to his Creator. The person reaches the fact of belief and is worthy of the gardens through them.

17. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Bear two strange (things): accept the word of wisdom from the fool and forgive the word of foolishness from the wise man.”[26]

It is strange that the fool says a wise word. If he says it, we must put it into effect regardless of him. It is also strange that the wise man says a foolish word, for he is wise and perfect. However, if he says it, we must not blame him for it.

18. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “(The people are) ungrateful for two blessings: security and good health.”[27]

Surely, the people are ungrateful for these two blessings while life is not good without them. Moreover, they do not thank Allah for them.

19. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “If two kinds (of people) from my community are righteous, my community is righteous. When they are corrupt, my community is corrupt. It was said: O Apostle of Allah, who are they? He said: the jurists and the rulers.”[28]

Surely, social righteousness depends on the righteousness of these two kinds of people. When they are righteous, the community is happy and achieves its aims. When they deviate from the laws of the truth and justice, the community will suffer from a quick decline in all fields.

20. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The smell of the garden is found from the walk of five hundred years. However, neither the disobedient one nor the cuckold

finds it. It was said: O Apostle of Allah, who is the cuckold? He said: He whose wife commits adultery and he knows (that).”[29]

Indeed the person who disobeys his parents and the cuckold who has no honor are not worthy of Paradise that is the abode of the prophets and the righteous. Rather they are not worthy of anything except that they are shackled in the Fire.

21. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “There is no good in livelihood except for two men: an obeyed scholar and an aware listener.”[30]

Surely, good in this world is for the scholar whom the people obey when he orders them to follow noble values and high ideals. When the scholar finds such a kind of people, he is successful in conveying his message and achieving his aims. Good in life is also for the listener who is aware of the noble objectives in the message of the righteous and puts them into practice.

22. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Whoever helps the poor and treats the people with justice is a true believer.”[31]

Indeed, to help the poor materially and spiritually indicates strong perfect faith. To treat the people with justice also indicates that the person is noble and is free from selfishness and all psychological diseases. This is the reality of faith and essence of Islam.

23. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The parents are ungrateful for their son when the son is righteous as the son is ungrateful for them.”[32]

Surely, ungratefulness is not confined to the son when he is ungrateful for his parents. Rather, it includes the parents when they treat their son illegally. Thus, they commit a sin when they treat him in such a way.

24. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The believer does not spend an expense more lovable with Allah, the Great and Almighty, than saying the truth during consent and anger.”[33]

How wonderful this wisdom is! It is the rule of Islam that orders people to prefer the truth and justice to anything else.

25. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Two kinds of my community have no share in Islam. (They are) : the extremists and the fatalists.”[34]

As for the extremists, the claim that the Imam, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, is Allah, the Exalted, or the son of Allah. The Shi‘ites say that they do not belong to them. Rather, the Shi‘ites say that they are unbelievers and are treated like them.

In satirizing them, Sayyid al-Himyari said:

(They) are the people who have gone too far in loving ‘Ali.

Woe unto them!

They say: He (‘Ali) is the son of Allah. Great is our Creator.

He has neither son nor father.[35]

As for the fatalists, they say that all good and evil are from Allah. (That happens) through his determination and will.[36] They have no share in Islam.

26. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Whoever has three qualities or one of them will be in the shade of the throne of Allah, the Great and Almighty, on the Day of Judgment, the day when there will be no shade except His shade. (These qualities are): He should treat people with justice. He should do no thing till he knows that (his deed) pleases Allah or angers Him. He should find no fault with his Moslem brother till he frees himself from that fault. For when he frees it from a fault, he finds another fault in it. It is enough for the person that his soul diverts him from the people.”[37]

This tradition summons the persons to cleave to high moral standards and good behavior towards people. It warns him of mentioning the faults of people.

27. He, peace be on him said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Lying is good in three (cases): the trick during war, your promise to your wife, and making peace between (two) people. Truthfulness is bad in three (cases): tale bearing, your telling the person about his wife with what he hates, and your accusing the person of lying (when he tells) about good. Sitting with three (kinds of people) deadens the heart: sitting with the low, conversation with women, and sitting with the rich.”[38]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, permitted telling lies in these cases because of the interests that result from them. The scholars said: “Telling lies is not the perfect cause of ugliness. Rather it is a necessity for it. So, when the interests that remove its ugliness are found, the person is permitted to it. Truthfulness is also ugly in these cases because of evil that arises from it.

28. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Every eye will weep on the Day of Judgment except three eyes: the eye that weeps out of the fear of Allah, the eye that blinks at what Allah has prohibited, and the eye that stays awake at night for Allah.”[39]

29. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The quickest good in reward is benefaction and the quickest evil in punishment is oppression. It is enough fault for the person that he looks at what the people have while he has it, that he disgraces the people with what he cannot leave, and that he hurts his friend with that which does not concern him.”[40]

This tradition urges people to do good, to be careful of evil and aggression against people, and to censure the person who looks for the faults of people and does not look for his own faults.

30. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “No staying up at night but for three (cases): spending the night in (reciting) the Koran or in seeking knowledge or in directing the bride to her husband.”[41]

31. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Whoever does not have three (traits) does not belong to me nor does he belong to Allah, the Great and Almighty. It was said: O Apostle of Allah, what are they? He said: clemency through which

he drives back the ignorance of the ignorant, good manners through he lives among the people, and piety that prevents him from disobeying Allah, the Great and Almighty.”[42]

This tradition summons the Moslem person to build his character according to noble foundations such as clemency, good manners, and refraining from what Allah has prohibited.

32. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Three (groups of people) have the right to intercede with Allah, the Great and Almighty: the prophets, the scholars, and the martyrs.”[43]

33. He, peace be no him, said: The Apostle of Allah bless him and his family, said: “Belief is appreciation with heart, acknowledgment with tongue, and action with limbs.”[44] Belief is not a word on everybody's lips. Rather, it is an affair settled in the depth of the heart and inner self. It motivates man to act out of conviction and loyalty.

34. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said to Abu Dharr: “O Abu Dharr, beware of begging, for it is present abasement and quickens poverty. There will be a long reckoning concerning it on the Day of Judgment. O Abu Dharr, you will live by yourself, die by yourself, and enter Paradise by yourself. Some Iraqis will be happy because of you. They will wash and prepare you for burial. Do not beg with the palm of your hand. When a thing comes, then accept it. Then he, may Allah bless him and his family, said to his Companions: Shall I tell you about your wicked ones?”

“Yes, O Apostle of Allah.”

“Those who go about with slander, sow division among the friends, and find fault with the innocent.”[45]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, advised Abu Dharr to cling to abstinence and self-esteem. He, may Allah bless him and his family, recognized from behind the unseen that this great reformer would suffer from severe punishments and persecutions because of carrying out his immortal reformative message. Thus, Abu Dharr was indignant with the Umayyads who turned away from the rights of the community and possessed alone its wealth. So, they inherited successively the property of Allah and enslaved His servants. Thus, Abu Dharr defended the rights of the oppressed and the persecuted and showed their sufferings. So, the Umayyads were unable to bear him. Accordingly, they banished him to al-Rabadha and imposed a house arrest. He lived at that barren area. Then this great revolutionist died of hunger. He was banished from the home of Allah and of His Apostle. However, the Umayyads possessed the gold of the land and the wealth of the community. They spent them on their pleasures.

Abu Dharr sacrificed his life for achieving social justice, finding equal opportunities for the people, removing poverty and oppression, and returning the government of the Koran and the justice of Islam to them.

35. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “O ‘Ali, four (persons) whose supplication is not refused are: the just Imam, the father (who invokes Allah) for his son, the man who invokes (Allah) for his absent brother, and the oppressed one to

Allah, the Great and Almighty, says: By My Greatness and Might, I will support you even after a while.”[46]

36. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said to ‘Ali: “O ‘Ali, indeed, Allah, the Great and Almighty, looked thoroughly over the people of the earth and chose me from them. Then He looked over them a second time and chose you from them after me. Then He looked over them a third time and chose from them the Imams from your children. Then He looked over them a forth time and chose Fatima from the women of the world.”[47]

Surely, Allah, the Most High, chose His great Prophet and his testamentary trustees, the pure Imams, from His creatures. He made them keepers for His knowledge, store for His wisdom, pillars for His monotheism, signpost (of knowledge) in His earth, and guides for His pleasure and obedience. May Allah bless them all.

37. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Whoever has four (attributes) is in Allah's great light: the protection of his affair is that there is no god but Allah and that I am the Apostle of Allah. When a misfortune hits him, he says: to Allah we belong and to Him is our return. When he gains good, he says: praise belongs to Allah. When he commits a sin, he says: I ask Allah's forgiveness and turn to Him in repentance.”[48]

38. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Whoever has four (traits), Allah spreads His protection over him and makes him enter the garden through His mercy: good manners through which he lives among people, leniency towards the grieved, piety for the parents, and kindness to the slave.”[49]

This tradition summons the people to cleave to good manners, good behavior among the people, and leniency and mercy towards the afflicted (with disaster) and the unfortunate.

39. He, peace be on him reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, who said: “Four (acts) deaden the heart: sin after sin, much talk with the women, disputing with the fool, (You say and he says, he never returns to good), and sitting with the dead. It was said to him: Who are the dead? He said: All the extravagant.”[50]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, warned (his community) of these affairs, for they deaden the conscience and stiffen the heart. However, Islam has taken great care of man's conscience. Meanwhile Islam wants man to be aware, free, educated, and merciful.

40. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said in his testamentary bequest to the Imam, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him: “O ‘Ali, act through four: your youth before your old age, your health before your illness, your riches before your poverty, and your life before your death.”[51]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, summoned (his community) to do good and to seize the opportunity to do what approaches

the servant to his Creator before it is too late, so man loses the blessings which Allah has prepared for him in the eternal abode.

41. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, peace be on him, who said: “Among the signs of unhappiness are: the impudence of the eye, the cruelty of the heart, the intensity of greediness in seeking livelihood, and the persistence of the sin.”[52]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, warned (the community) of these things that make man far from his Lord and throw him into great evil.

42. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said on his pulpit: “Indeed the best names are: ‘Abd Allah, ‘Abd al-Rahman, Haritha, and Hammam. The worst names are: Derar, Murah, Harb, and Zalim.”[53]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, ordered the Moslems to call their children with blessed names and prevented them from calling them with evil names.

43. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “The servant will be asked about four (things) on the Day of Judgment before his legs disappear: in what he used up his age, in what he wore out his youth, from where he earned his money and in what he spent it, and our love, we, the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt).”[54]

Indeed Allah, the Exalted, will ask man on the Day of Judgment about all the affairs of his life in this world. He will ask him about whether he had used up his age in the obedience and pleasure of Allah to reward him or he had used it up in committing sins and oppressing the creatures to punish him. He will especially ask him about in what he had worn out his youth. He will ask him about whether he had lawfully earned his money to reward him or he had unlawfully earned it to punish him. He will also ask him about his love for the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them, for they are the source of light and good in the earth. If he (man) loves them, he will be successful; otherwise he will be unsuccessful.

44. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers, who said that the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, addressed the people on the last Friday of the month of Sha‘ban. He thanked Allah, praised Him, and then said:

“O People, indeed, a month will shade you. In it there is a night (that) is better than a thousand months. It is the month of Ramadan. Allah has imposed the fasting in it (on you). He has made performing a prayer willingly in a night of it as performing prayers willingly in seventy nights in months other than it. He has made (the reward) of him who does willingly good and kindness as the reward of him who carries out a commandment of the Commandments of Allah. Whoever carries out a commandment of the Commandments of Allah is like him who carries out seventy commandments in (months) other than it. It is the month of patience. The reward of patience is the garden. It is the month of help. It is the month in

which Allah increases the livelihood of the believer. Whoever breaks the believer's fast, with that, has with Allah, the Great and Almighty, releasing a slave and forgiving his past sins.

“It was said to him: O Apostle of Allah, not all of us are able to break the believer's fast. He said: Indeed Allah, the Blessed, is generous. He gives this reward to those of you who have nothing to break someone's fast except milk mixed with water or a drink of fresh water or few dates. Whoever helps his slave in it, Allah will commute his punishment. It is the month whose beginning is mercy, whose middle is forgiveness, and whose end is answer and releasing from fire. In it you are in need of four qualities: Two qualities through which you please Allah. Two qualities are necessary for you. As for the two (qualities) through which you please Allah, they are: Testify that there is no god but Allah, and that I am the Apostle of Allah. As for the two (qualities) that are necessary for you, they are: In it ask Allah for your needs and Paradise. In it ask Allah for good health and seek refuge with Him from the Fire.”[55]

Surely, the month of Ramadan has holiness and sacredness with Allah. Thus, Allah has preferred it to the other months. In it the Apostle summoned the people to obey (Allah) and to do good and kindness to the poor. He distinguished it very much from the other months.

45. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said to ‘Ali in his testamentary bequest: “O ‘Ali, four (things) are in vain: eating after fullness, the lamp in the moon, planting in the salt ground, and doing a favor for the people who are not worthy of it.”[56]

46. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “I summon (my community to follow) five (practices) till death: I will eat with the slaves at the foot (of the mountain). I will ride the donkey with saddle. I will milk the she-goat with my hand. I will greet the boys so as to be a practice (sunna) after me.”[57]

These affairs were among the high morals through which the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, became the Lord of all the prophets and made the people believe in Islam.

47. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Whoever sells and buys should refrain from five qualities; other wise he should refrain from selling and buying: usury, swearing (by Allah), concealing the defect, praising when he sells, dispraising when he buys.”[58]

In the light of this tradition, the jurists have given religious opinions in the Chapter on Sale as follows:

1. The seller and the buyer should understand the affairs of dealings to avoid the usurious dealings that are among the great prohibitions in Islam.

2. They should avoid swearing (by Allah) during the dealing. If they are truthful, it is hateful for them to do that. If they are liars, they commit a sin and a prohibition.

3. They should not conceal the defect whether in the cost or in the goods. When concealment occurs and then it is discovered, the deceived one has the right to repudiate the dealing.

4. The seller should avoid praising his commodity.

5. The buyer should avoid dispraising what he has bought when it is sound.

48. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers, who said that a man came to the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, and asked him:

- O Apostle of Allah, what is knowledge?

- Listening.

- Then what?

- Listening to it.

- Then what?

- Memorizing it.

- Then what?

- Putting it into practice.

- Then what?

- Proclaiming it.[59]

49. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said to his Companions: “Feel shame before Allah very much. They said: What shall we do? He said: If you want to do (that), then no one of you should spend the night but he is in fear of Him. He should keep the head and what it has contained and the abdomen and what it has included. He should recall the grave and death. Whoever likes the hereafter should leave the embellishment of the world.”[60]

Indeed man can accomplish shame through fearing his Lord, holding back his tongue from telling lies, preventing his eyes from looking at the unlawful, and recalling the grave and the fright therein. When man does that, he feels shame before Allah.

50. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, was asked about the best servants. So, he said: “When they do good, they are cheerful (about it). When they misbehave, they ask Allah's forgiveness. When they are given, they thank. When they are tested, they are patient. When they are angered, they forgive.”[61]

51. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers, who said that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, said to ‘Ali in his commandment:

“O ‘Ali, there are six qualities in fornication: three of them are in the world, and the others are in the hereafter. As for those in the world, they take away glory, hasten ruin, and stop livelihood. As for those in the hereafter, (they will lead to) evil reckoning, the wrath of the Merciful (Allah), and immortality in the Fire.”[62]

Indeed fornication is a social catastrophe that destroy morals. Thus, Islam has intensely forbidden it and threatened those who commit it with various kinds of torment in the hereafter.

52. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Monopoly is in six things: Wheat, barley, dates, raisins, (cooking) fat, and (animal) oil.”[63]

Monopoly is among the factors that paralyze the economic movement in the country and spread poverty and need among the people. Islam has severely forbidden monopoly, and ordered the rulers of the Moslems to price commodities so as not to harm the people.

53. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Ill-gotten property is the price of the dead animal, of the dog, and of wine. (It is) the prostitution rate, the bribery in government, and the wage of the magician.”[64]

Islam has forbidden spending money on these affairs, for they ruin morals and spread corruption in the earth.

54. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfather on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Allah and every prophet with accepted (prayers) have cursed six (persons): the one who increases the Book of Allah, the one who accuses the determination of Allah of lying, the one who leaves my practices (sunna), the one who regards as lawful what Allah has prohibited concerning the members of my House (ahl al-Bayt), the one who dominates through tyranny to degrade those whom Allah has consolidated, to strengthen him whom Allah has lowered, and to possess alone the booty the Moslems gain without fighting and regards it as lawful.”[65]

55. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said to ‘Ali: “O ‘Ali, seven things of the sheep are prohibited: blood, the penis, the bladder, the spinal cord, the glands, the spleen, and the gall bladder.”[66]

Islam has forbidden these parts to preserve public health and to guard society against diseases. Modern medicine has proved that they harm public health. Thus, it advises people to refrain from eating them.

56. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said to ‘Ali: “O ‘Ali, indeed, Allah has given me seven qualities concerning you: You and I are the first to whom the grave will split open. You will be the first to stop with me on the path. You will be the first to be clothed when I will be clothed and to live when I will live. You will be the first to dwell with me in the highest gardens. You will be the first to drink with me from the pure drink that is sealed (to others), whose sealing is musk.”[67]

57. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostles of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Allah, the Great and Almighty, is not worshipped with a thing better than reason. The believer is not wise till ten qualities come together in him: good from him is hoped, evil from him is safe, regards little good from other than him as much, regards his own good as little, is not tired of

seeking knowledge throughout his life, is not fed up with those who request needs from, humbleness is more lovable for him than high rank, poverty is more lovable for him than riches, his portion of the world is food, the tenth (quality), what is the tenth (quality)? When he sees someone, he says: he is better and more pious than me. People are two men- one man is better and more pious than him, the other is more evil and lower than him. So, if he sees the one who is better and more pious than him, he should behave humbly towards him to follow him. If he sees the one who is more evil and lower than him, he should say: perhaps the good of this (person) is hidden, and his evil hidden. May (Allah) make his final result good. If he does that, his glory becomes high and he is the lord of the people of his time.”[68]

This traditions, like the other Prophetic traditions, urges (people) to reform their souls and to educate them with good manners and deeds to be the source of guidance for people.

58. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Ten (persons) are cursed because of wine: the one who plants it, the one who guards it, the one who presses it, the one who gives it, the one who drinks it, the one who carries it, the one to whom it is carried, the one who sells it, the one who buys it, and the one who takes its price.”[69]

Islam has strictly prohibited all the above-mentioned cases of wine. That is because wine is among the social catastrophes that harm public health and corrupt values and morals.

59. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Blessing is ten parts: ten parts are in trade and one part is in the skins (i. e. sheep).”[70]

60. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Islam has been built on ten parts: Testifying that there is no god but Allah- it is the religion, the prayer- it is the religious duty, fasting - it is the garden, zakat (alms)- it is purity, the hajj- it is the Islamic law, jihad (armed struggle) - it is invasion, enjoining (people) to do good deeds - it is the fulfillment, forbidding (them) from doing bad deeds - it is the proof, unity - it is familiarity, and infallibility - it is obedience.”[71]

61. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “When you ask Allah, then you ask Him with the palm of the hand. When you ask him for protection, then do not ask him with the outside of the hand. ”[72]

62. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “If my community does fifteen qualities, the tribulation will afflict it: if they steal properties successively, regard the deposit of booty and zakat (alms) as loss, the men obey their wives and disobey theirs mothers, treats his friend with kindness and turns away from his brother, the voices become loud in the mosques, a man is honored out of fear of his evil, the leader of the people is the lowest of them, silk is worn, wine is drunk, female singers and stringed instruments are adopted, and the last

(generation) of this community curses the earlier (generation) of it, after that, they must look forward to three qualities: red wind, transformation, and humiliation.”[73]

The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, warned (his community) of these affairs, for they ruin nations and peoples. If the Islamic community commits them, then Allah will punish it.

63. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Whoever spends the night tired from earning the lawful spends the night forgiven.”[74]

Islam has also urged the community to earn its livelihood lawfully. It has regarded such a kind of livelihood as jihad and honor for its owner. Whoever strives to earn (the livelihood) of his family spends the night forgiven.

64. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, was asked about the best creatures. So, he, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “When they do good, they are cheerful. When they are given, they are grateful. When they are tested, they are patient. When they are angered, they forgive.”[75]

Whoever has these qualities is the best of all the people and the most honorable than them. In other words he possesses the rein of his soul and his reason controls his desire.

65. He, peace be on him said, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “You are unable to encompass the people with your money, so encompass them with your ethics.”[76]

How high this wisdom is! It makes people love each other and unifies their feelings and sentiments. The power of money is unable to achieve that. However, morals are the strongest factor in building society on sound bases.

66. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, passed by a group of people raising stones, so he said: “What is this?” “With that we know the strongest of us,”they said. “Shall I tell you about the strongest of you?”asked the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family. “Yes,”they said. He, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “The strongest of you is he whose content enters him in neither sin nor falsehood when he is pleased, he whose discontent does not prevent him from saying the truth when he is displeased, who he does not take other than his right when he is powerful.”[77]

Islam takes care of only the strength of conscience towards the truth. As for the boast of the muscles is among the customs of the pre-Islamic times. However, Islam has forbidden them.

67. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Sitting with the people of religion is the honor of here and the hereafter.”[78]

Sociology has proven that man has an effect on the environment. Meanwhile the environment has an effect on him. Thus, it is natural that the righteous have an effect on those who makes friends with them. They protect them from practicing evil habits and make them love doing good. So, with that, they obtain the honor of here and hereafter.

68. He, peace be on him, said: [The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said:] “Indeed this religion is strong. So, go deeply into it gradually. Do not make the servants of Allah hate worshipping Allah.”[79]

69. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Whoever wants to seek access through me (to Allah) and that there will be a hand for him, through which I intercede for him (with Allah) on the Day of Judgment, then he should keep in contact with the members of my family and make them happy.”[80]

70. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said to ‘Ali: “O ‘Ali, I am the city of knowledge and you are the gate. He who claims that he can reach the city not through the gate tells lies.”[81]

71. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of Umm Salama on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “The hajj is the jihad of every weak (person).”[82]

72. He, peace be on him, said: [The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said:] “Whomever Allah moves from the abasement of sins to the glory of (religious) devotion, then He (Allah) makes him rich without money, strong without a tribe, and entertains him without a close friend. Whoever fears Allah, Allah makes everything afraid of him. Whoever does not fear Allah, Allah makes him afraid of everything. Whoever is satisfied with the little livelihood of the property of Allah, He (Allah) is satisfied with his little deed.”[83]

73. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, who said: “Indeed I and twelve members from my family, of whom ‘Ali is the first, are the stakes through which Allah prevents the earth and its people from sinking. If the twelve members from my family depart, the earth and its people will sink.”[84]

74. He, peace be on him, said: The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “Twelve chiefs are from my family. They narrate traditions. Among them will be the one who will undertake (bring about) the truth (al-Qa'm bi al-Haqq).”[85]

With this we end our talk about the traditions Imam al-Baqir, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfather, the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family.

His Traditions on the Authority of the Imam, the Commander of the Faithful

On the authority of his grandfathers, Imam al-Baqir, peace be on him, reported a group of the maxims of his grandfather, Imam (‘Ali), the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him. The following are some of them:

1. He, peace be on him, said: A man from the people of Basrah rose and said to Imam (‘Ali), the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him:

“O Commander of the Faithful, tell us about the brothers (i. e. friends).”

The Imam, peace be on him, answered him: “The brothers are of two kinds: the reliable brothers and the laughing brothers. As for the reliable brothers, they are the hand, the wing, the family, and the property. If you have a reliable brother, then sacrifice for him your property and your body, be sincere to those who are sincere to him, make an enemy of those who make an enemy of him, conceal his secret and defect, and show his good (deeds). O Questioner, know that they are less than red sulfur. As for laughing brothers, you obtain your pleasure from them. Do not stop that from them. Do not request what is beyond that from the most lowly of them. Give them what they give you such as cheerfulness and sweet words.”[86]

As for the laughing brothers at this time, they are the overwhelming majority. Ambitions, interests, and desires move them. As for the aspects of their friendship, they are cheerfulness and smooth words, as Imam ‘Ali said.

2. He, peace be on him, said: The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, said: “The temptations are three (kinds): the love of women- it is the sword of the Satan, drinking wine- it is the brain of the Satan, the love of the dirham and the dinar- it is the arrow of the Satan. Whoever loves women does not make use of his livelihood. Whoever likes drinking (wine) is deprived of Paradise. However loves the dirham and the dinar is the slave of the dinar. He, peace be on him, added: Jesus, son of Marry, said: The ailment of religion is in the dinar. The (religious) scholar is the doctor of religion. When you see the doctor perform the ailment against himself, then accuse him. Know that he is not loyal to other than him.”[87]

3. He, peace be on him, in ‘Ali's letter there are three qualities: Their owner will never die till he sees their evil results: oppression, estranging blood relatives, and false oath through which (the person) fights with Allah. Linking blood relatives is the quickest obedience in reward. Perhaps the people are sinners. However, they link each other. Thus, their properties grow. They treat each other with kindness. So, their lives increase. False oath and estranging blood relatives make houses empty of their people. They disturb blood relatives. Disturbing blood relatives stops birth.”[88]

This paragraph of the letter of Imam ‘Ali, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, is full of commandments on kindness, religious devotion, and what does general good for man in this life.

4. He, peace be on him, said: The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, said: “Religion depends on four (persons): The scholar who proclaims and uses it. The rich one who does not refrain from granting his favor to the people of the religion of Allah. The poor one who does not sell his life in the hereafter for his life in this world. The ignorant one who does not abstain from seeking knowledge. If the scholar conceals his knowledge, the rich one refrains from granting his money, the poor one sells his life in the hereafter for his life in this world, and the ignorant one abstains from seeking knowledge, then the world moves backward. So, many mosques and the different bodies of a certain group of people should not tempt you. It was said: How will (we) live at that time? He, peace be on him said: Associate with them apparently and oppose them internally. The person will have what he earns. He will be with those whom he loves. Nevertheless, wait for the ease from Allah, the Great and Almighty.”[89]

Indeed such kinds of people are able to reform the world when they shoulder their responsibilities and carry out their religious duties. However, if they deviate from that, life will move backward and all the high values in it decline.

5. He, peace be on him, said: The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, was questioned: “How much is between truth and falsehood.”He, peace be on him, replied: “Four fingers.”He put his hand on his eyes and ears, and then he said: “What your eyes see is true. Most of what your ears hear is false.”[90]

6. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of his grandfathers on the authority of the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, who said: “The Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him and his family, mentioned ten qualities concerning me. Each is more lovable for me than what the sun rises over. He said to me: You are my brother here and in the hereafter. You are the closest of all the creatures to me in the standing. You are my helper and successor and inheritor about my family and property. You are the carrier of my standard here and in the hereafter. Your friend is mine. My friend is Allah's. Your enemy is mine. My enemy is Allah's.”[91] Allah, singled out Imam (‘Ali), the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, with many outstanding merits. He granted him many favors. The Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, mentioned some of them in this tradition.

7. He, peace be on him, said: [The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, said:] “The pious have signs. They are known with them: truthful talk, paying the deposit, fulfilling the promise, little pride, miserliness, consideration for blood relatives, having pity on the weak, little sleeping with women, doing favors, good manners, vast clemency, adopting knowledge that bring (them) closer to Allah, the Great and Almighty. ‘A good final state and a goodly return shall be theirs.’”[92]

8. He, peace be on him said: [The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him said:] “Indeed ambitions control the hearts of the ignorant. Desires take them as security. Tricks cling to them.”[93]

This tradition pictures the condition of the ignorant. It includes their qualities of which are: ambitions control their feelings and sentiments. Desires take their hearts as security. Tricks convince them easily, for they have little experience and knowledge.

9. He, peace be on him, said: [The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him said:] “All good has been gathered in three qualities: thinking, silence, and speech. So, every thinking that has no viewpoint is inattention. Every silence that has no idea is heedlessness. Every speech that has no praise (of Allah) is nonsense. Therefore, a good final state shall be for him whose thinking is a viewpoint, silence is an idea, and speech is praise (of Allah), who weeps over his sin, of whose evil people are safe.”[94]

These are the qualities of those who know their Lord and turn to Him in repentance. They are appropriate for the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them, and those who follow them.

10. He, peace be on him, said: The Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, said: “We, the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), are the tree of

the Prophet, staying place of (Divine) Message, descending place of angels, sources of knowledge.”[95]

11. He, peace be on him, said: [The Commander, peace be on him, said:] “The one who acts with oppression, the one who supports him, and the one who is satisfied with him are three partners.”[96]

His Narration from his Grandfather al-Husayn

He (Imam al-Baqir), peace be on him, reported on the authority of his father on the authority of his grandfather Imam Husayn, peace be on him, who said: [I heard my grandfather Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, say:]

“Act according to Allah's obligations to be the most pious of all people. Be satisfied with Allah's apportionment to be the richest of all people. Refrain from what Allah has forbidden to be a believer. Be a good friend of him who makes friends with you to be a Moslem.”[97]

His Narration from his Father

He reported on the authority of his father ‘Ali b. al-Husayn, peace be on him, who said: “He whose eyes shed tears for the murder of al-Husayn, Allah will settle him at the highest place in the garden. The believer whose eyes are filled with tears for the persecution our enemy practiced against us, Allah will settle him in the seat of honor. The believer who suffers from persecution for us and then his eyes shed tears for us, Allah will not punish him on the Day of Judgment and make will him safe from the wrath of the Fire.”[98]

His Narration from Jabir al-Ansari

 He, peace be on him, reported a group of traditions and events on the authority of Jabir b. ‘Abd Allah. Among them are:

1. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of Jabir, who said: “Indeed, when Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, stopped at al-Safa (a hill in Mecca near the Kaaba), he exclaimed three times:‘Allah is Great’, and then he said: ‘There is no god but Allah. He is One. There is no partner with Him. Supreme power and praise belong to Him. He has power over all things.’ He (the Prophet) did that three time. He did the like of that at al-Marwah (a hill near the Kaaba).”[99]

2. He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of Jabir, who said: “Indeed, the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, wore a ring on his right finger.”[100]

3. He, peace be on him, asked Jabir about what had happened between ‘Ali and ‘A'isha. So, Jabir said: “One day I went to ‘A'isha and asked her about her opinion concerning ‘Ali. She bowed her head. Then she raised it and composed:

 When gold is rubbed against a touchstone

its adulteration appears without doubt.

Corruption is in us, and ‘Ali, the purified gold,

is like the touchstone among us.”[101]

His Narration from ‘Umar

He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of ‘Umar b. al-Khattab, who said: [I heard the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, say:] “Every means and lineage will break on the Day of Judgment except my means and lineage.”[102]

His Narration from b. ‘Abbas

He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of ‘Abd Allah b. ‘Abbas, who said: [‘Ali looked at the faces of the people, and then he said:] “Indeed I am the brother of Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, and his helper. You know that I was the first to believe in Allah and his Apostle. Then you entered Islam one by one after me. I am the cousin of Allah's Apostle may Allah bless him and his family, his brother, and his partner in his lineage. (I am) the father of his (grand)sons, and his son-in-law (being married to his) daughter, the mistress of his children and of the women of the garden. You know that when we went out with Allah's Apostle and came back, he loved and trusted me more than you. I was the most intense of you in defeating the enemy and affecting the equipment. You know when he sent me to Bara'a. He made the Moslems associate with each other as brothers. He chose nobody other than me. Then he said to me: ‘You are my brother and I am your brother in this life and the hereafter.’ He took the people out of the mosque and left me. Then he said to me: ‘Your position to me is as Aaron with Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me.’”[103]

His Narration from Zayd b. Arqam

He, peace be on him, reported on the authority of Zayd b. Arqam, who said: [We were sitting before the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family. He, peace be on him, said:] “Shall I show you him whom if you ask for advice you will not go astray nor will you perish?” “Yes, O Allah's Apostle,”they said. He said: “This.” He pointed to ‘Ali b. Abï Talib. Then he said: “Associate with him as brothers, help him, believe him, and be loyal to him. Indeed Gabriel has told me about what I have said to you.”[104]

His Narration From Abï Dharr

He, peace be on him, reported a group of sayings of the great reformer, Companion (of the Prophet), Abï Dharr. Among them are the following:

“O you who seek knowledge, do not let your family and your money divert you from your soul. On the day when you leave them, you will be like the guest. (You will) spend the night among them, then you will leave them to other than them. Here and hereafter are like the house from which you move to other than it. There is nothing between death and raising from the dead except a short sleep, then you will wake up. O You who seek knowledge, indeed, the heart without knowledge is like the ruined house.”[105]

These are some of the traditions which have been reported on his authority. They concern the rules of conduct, morals, and the outstanding merits of the pure family that is equal to the Holy Book.

The Exegesis of the Holy Koran

Among the sciences which Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, presented during his lectures was the exegesis of the Holy Koran. Indeed he devoted a time of his times to it. He discussed all of its affairs. The scholars of exegesis, though they had different opinions and trends, studied under him. Thus, he was the most brilliant explainer in Islam. Among his studies on the Koran are the following:

The Virtue of Reciting the Koran

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, urged (the community) to recite the Holy Book, for it is the abundant source that guides people to righteousness, enlivens their hearts, and supplies them with abilities of light and awareness. He, peace be on him, reported what his grandfather Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, said concerning the virtue of reciting the Koran. He, peace be on him, said: [Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, said:] “Whoever recites ten verses on a night is not written among the heedless. Whoever recites fifty verses is written among those who praise (Allah). Whoever recites a hundred verses is written among the obedient. Whoever recites two hundred verses is written among the humble. Whoever recites three hundred verses is written among the successful. Whoever recites five hundred verses is written among the strivers. Whoever recites a thousand verses, a hundredweight of gold is written for him.”[106]

Traditions similar to this have been reported on the authority of the Imams of the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them. They urge Moslems to recite the Koran and to consider carefully its verses and to understand their secrets. Without doubt the verses of the Koran develop intellect, educate souls, protect them from deviation, and guide them to the right path.

Repetition of Reciting the Koran

As for repeating and reciting the Koran with a good voice, it penetrates the depth of the heart and inner self. It reacts with sentiments, for the Koran has maxims and sciences necessary for life.

The Imams of the members of the House (ahl al Bayt), peace be on them, took care of reciting the Holy Koran. Thus, Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, was the best of all the people in reciting the Koran with a good voice.[107]

Abu Basïr reported: I said to Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir): “When I recite the Koran loudly, Satan comes to me and says: with this (recitation) you want to please your family and the people.”Imam al-Baqir, peace be on him, said: “Recite the Koran in an intermediate recitation. Let your family listen (to that). Read the Koran with a good voice. Indeed Allah likes reciting the Koran with a good voice.”[108]

The Koran far above Falsehood

The Holy Koran is the great miracle of Islam. “(This is) a Book, whose verses are made decisive, then are they made plain, from One Wise, All-aware.” “(This Book), there is no doubt in it, is a guide to those who guard (against evil).”There is no contradiction in its rules nor is there any incompatibility in its verses. “And if it were from any other than Allah, they

would have found in it many a discrepancy.” “Surely this Koran guides to that which is most upright.” “Falsehood shall not come to it from before it nor from behind it.”Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, explained this verse, saying : “Falsehood does not come to it from before the Torah nor before the Bible and the Zabur (David's psalms). Nor from behind it means that no Book will come after it to abrogate it.”In a narration from al-Sadiq, peace be on him: “There is no falsehood in what the Koran has told about the past nor is there falsehood in what it has told about what will happen in the future.”

The Imam dispraised those who distort the Koran

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, dispraised those who distort Allah's Book. It is they who interpret its verses according to their own desires. Thus, he, peace be on him, wrote a letter to Sa‘d al-Khayr: “Among their neglecting the Book is that they have rectified its letters and distorted its penal law. Indeed they see the Koran but they do not conform to it. The ignorant admire memorizing the narration. The religious scholars are sad when they leave the care.”[109]

Figurative Usage in the Koran

Figurative usages are famous in the language of Arabs. They are famous in many matters such as figurative predication, figurative word. Among them is the chapter on allusions. It is said that allusions are more eloquent than direct expressions. These expressions are among the nice usage and beauties of this language. The Holy Koran has a large group of figurative usage. Among them is the following Words of Allah, the Exalted: “He said: O Iblis! what prevented you that you should do obeisance to him whom I created with My two hands?”The meaning of the word hand is the special organ. However, this is impossible for Allah, the Most High. That is because the hand is in need of a body, while this is rationally impossible for Allah, the Exalted. Mohammed b. Moslem asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) about that. So, he, peace be on him, replied: “The word hand (yad) in the speech of Arabs means power and blessing. Allah, the Exalted, said: “And remember Our servant Dauwd with hands.”He said: “And the sky We built it with hands.”It is said: “So-and-so has many hands with me, favors and kindness. He has a white hand with me, meaning blessing.”[110]

This means that the word hand (yad) is not used in its real meaning. Rather it is used in other than it, either figuratively or truly. That is because it includes all these meanings the Imam mentioned.

The Basmalah is Part of the Suras of the Koran

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, and all the Imams of the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them, believed that the basmalah (i. e., in the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful) is part of the chapters of the Holy Koran. A large mass of the Moslem scholars and readers followed them in that.[111] Yahya b. Abï ‘Umran al-Hamadani wrote a letter to Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him. In the letter he mentioned: “May I be your ransom, what is your opinion of a man (who) started his prayers with: In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful, in the mother of the Book (i. e., the first

sura of the Holy Koran), and when he reached to a sura other than the mother of the Book, he left it (the basmalah)? The ‘Abbasid (man) said: There is no harm in that.”So, the Imam, peace be on him, replied to him with a letter in which he mentioned: “He (i. e., the man who left the basmalah) should repeat it twice in spite of him (the ‘Abbasid man).[112] The traditions of the two parties (Sunna and Shi‘a) have unanimously agreed on that the basmalah is part of the suras of the Holy Koran. Those who deny that are irregular.

The Koran was revealed in Seven Letters

The commentators have made known that the Koran was revealed in seven letters. They claimed that Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, said: “The Koran was revealed in seven letters.”[113] The ideas in this connection are so many that Abu Hatam has mentioned that they are thirty-five.[114]

It is necessary for us to give a brief idea about the meanings of the seven letters to know whether they are truly attributed to Imam Mohammed al-Baqir, peace be on him, or not.

The Seven Letters

There are various views about the meanings of the seven letters. The following are some of them:

1. The seven letters are: promise, threat, order, prohibition, stories, controversy, and proverbs. Ibn ‘Atiya weakened this idea. He said: “These are not called letters.”[115]

2. They are the differing words that have close meanings such as aqbil and halum (come! come on!), ‘ajjil and asri‘ (be quick). Al-Tabari chose this meaning.[116] However, this meaning is untrue. That is because man, according to this meaning, has the right to read the Koran in various ways. So, this will lead to a big difference such as adding a verse or omitting it. That is because the differing words bring about differing sentences, as al-Qurtubi said.[117]

3. They are the seven chapters which the Koran brought: the prevention, the order, lawful, the unlawful, the clearly defined (verses), the ambiguous (verses), and the proverbs.[118] These chapters are not called letters. Besides the prevention and the unlawful are one chapter. They are therefore not seven chapters.

4. They are the classical dialects from the dialects of the Arab. They are differing in the Koran. So, some of the Koran was revealed in the dialect of Quraysh; some of it in the dialect of Hudhayl; some of it in the dialect of Hawzan; some of it in the dialect of the Yemen; some of it in the dialect of Kinana; some of it in the dialect of Tamïm; some of it in the dialect of Thaqïf. This idea is ascribed to al-Bayqahi, al-Abhari, and the author of al-Qamus. However, ‘Umar opposed this idea when he said that the Koran was revealed in the dialect of Madar.[119]

5. They are seven recitations. Our master, the Professor, opposed that when he said that the famous recitations are more than seven.[120]

These are some of the opinions. Our master, the Professor, numbered ten opinions. However, he disproved them and proved that they did not lead to

any result. Abu Shama wrote a book on these meanings and refuted most of them.

The Imam denied the Seven Letters

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, denied the seven letters. What was attributed to him that he reported them is incorrect. In the (book) al-Sahïh, Zarara reported on the authority of the Imam, who said: “Indeed the Koran is one. The One (Allah) revealed it. However, the reporters have brought about these differences.”[121] It was reported on the authority of the Imam al-Sadiq, peace be on him, that he denied that. Al-Fudayl b. Yasar asked him: “Surely, the people say: The Koran was revealed in seven letters.”So, al-Sadiq, peace be on him, said: “The enemies of Allah have told lies. However, the Koran was revealed in one letter from the One and Only.”[122]

The Method of Exegesis

The trends of the commentators of the Holy Koran are different. In that they followed differing methods. Among them are:

The Exegesis through the transmitted Sayings

By that we mean interpreting the Koran through the traditions reported on the authority of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, and the Imams of guidance. Most Shi‘ite commentators followed this method. Among them were al-Qummi, al-‘Askari, and the like. Their proof was that the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them, were professional in the real knowledge of the Koran. Those other than them had no share in that. Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, referred to that when he said: “No one can claim that he has the deep and the surface (knowledge) of the Koran except the testamentary trustees of authority.”[123] It is therefore the testamentary trustees of the authority who had the deep and surface knowledge of the Book. The proofs have unanimously agreed that it is incumbent on the explainers to refer to them on interpreting the Koran. Shaykh al-Tusi said: “Interpreting the Koran is not permitted except through the authentic traditions from the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, and the Imams whose words were similar to those of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family.”[124]

The Exegesis through the Opinion

By that we mean following the hypothetical rational considerations that belong to the approbation.[125] The Mu‘tazilite and the Batanian commentators adopted that. They did not follow the traditions reported on the testamentary trustees of Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, in their exegesis. Rather, they depended on the rational approbation. Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, prevented them from that. Qattada, the famous jurist, came to the Imam. So, the Imam said to him:

“Are you the jurist of the people of Basrah?”

“Yes, such they claim.”

“I have heard that you interpret the Koran.”

“Yes.”

So, the Imam blamed him for that, saying:

“O Qattada, If you interpret according to your own opinion, then you will be perished and perish (the people). If you interpret it according to the opinions of the men, then you will be perished and perish (the people). Qattada, woe unto you! Those who have been addressed in the Koran know it.”[126]

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, confined the knowledge of the Holy Book to the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them. That is because they knew the clearly defined (verses), the ambiguous (verses), the abrogating (verses), and the abrogated (verses). The people other than them had not such knowledge. It was reported on the authority of the Imams, peace be on him, who said: “There is nothing farther from the mind of the men than the exegesis of the Koran. The beginning of the verse is on a thing and its end is on other thing. It is a coherent speech with various meanings.”[127]

As for following the surface of the Book is not numbered of the exegesis through the opinion which is forbidden. Some traditionalists opposed its proof. They cleaved to proofs which the fundamentalists refuted.[128]

Imam al-Baqir's Exegesis

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, wrote a book on the exegesis of the Holy Koran. Mohammed b. Ishaq al-Nadïm mentioned the book in his book al-Fihrast when he mentioned the books written on the exegesis of the Holy Koran. He said: “Abu al-Jarud Zyad b. al-Munzir, the head of the Jarudiya, reported the book of al-Baqir Mohammed b. ‘Ali b. al-Husayn.”Sayyd Hasan al-Sadr said: “A group of the reliable Shi‘ites reported the book from him from the days of his righteousness. Among them was Abu Basïr Yahya b. al-Qasim al-Asadi. ‘Ali b. Ibrahïm b. Hashim al-Qummi mentioned it in his book al-Tafsïr on the authority of Abu Basïr.[129] The narrators said: “Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi wrote a book on the exegesis of the Holy Koran. He learnt the exegesis from the Imam.”[130]

Examples of al-Baqir's Exegesis

The explainers reported many verses of the Holy Koran interpreted by the Imam. The following are some of them:

1. The Words of Allah, the Exalted, : “These shall be rewarded with the ghurfa (house) because they were patient.”[131] Al-Baqir, peace be on him, said: “The ghurfa (house) is the garden. It is a reward for them, for they were patient towards poverty in the world.”[132]

2. The Words of Allah, the Most High: “And to whomsoever My wrath is due he shall perish indeed.”[133] Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, was asked about the wrath of Allah. So, he peace be on him, replied: “His dismissal and His punishment.”[134]

3. The Words of Allah, the Exalted, “And most surely I am most Forgiving to him who repents and believes and does goods, then continues to follow the right direction.”[135] The Imam, peace be on him, interpreted “following the right direction”as following the Imams of the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt). Then he said: “By Allah, if a person worships Allah throughout his life between the corner (of the Kaaba) and the standing place

(of Abraham) and does not follow us, Allah will throw him down on his face into the fire.”[136]

4. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “O Apostle, deliver what has been revealed to you from your Lord.”[137] He, peace be on him, said: “By that Allah meant what He revealed to the Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, concerning the outstanding merits of ‘Ali.”[138] He, peace be on him, reported that Allah revealed to His Apostle to appoint ‘Ali successor. However, he was afraid that that would be difficult for a group of his Companions. So, Allah, the Most High, revealed this verse to encourage him to carry out His order.[139]

5. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Leave Me and him whom I created alone.”[140] This verse was revealed concerning al-Walïd b. al-Mughïra al-Makhzumi, who accused the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family, of magic. The people called al-Walïd the alone. Thus, the verse was revealed to threaten him. Mohammed b. Moslem reported on the authority of Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), who said: “The alone is the illegitimate child.”Zarara said: “Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) was told that one of the Hashimites said in his oration: “I am the son of the alone.”So, the Imam said: “Woe unto him! If he knew who the alone was, he would not boast of him.”Thus, we said to him: “Who is he?”He said: “The unfathered child.”[141]

6. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “The angels and Gabriel descend in it by the permission of their Lord.”[142] He, peace be on him, said: “The angels and the recorders descend to the lower world. They record the affairs that hit people within a year. That is up to Allah's will.”Allah makes to pass away and establishes what He pleases, and with Him is the mother of the Book.”[143]

7. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “So, they shall be thrown down into it, they and they erring ones.”[144] The meaning of the verse is that the erring ones and the atheist powers will be thrown all together into the fire. Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, said: “The verse was revealed concerning the people who described just things with their tongues, and then they did other than them.”[145]

8. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “And they did not do Us any harm, but they made their own souls suffer loss.”[146] Interpreting this verse, the Imam, peace be on him, said: “Allah is not oppressed, for He is Great and Powerful. However, He mixed us with Himself. So, He regarded the oppression against us as oppression against Him and our authority as His authority. So, He said: ‘Only Allah is your authority and His apostle and those who believe.’”He meant the Imams from us. In another place He said: “And they did not do Us any harm, but they made their own souls suffer loss.”[147]

9. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “So, ask the people of the reminder if you do not know.”[148] Mohammed b. Moslem said: I said to Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir): “Some of us claim that this verse concerns the Jews and the Christians.”He said: “Therefore they summon you to their religion.”Then he, peace be on him, pointed to his chest and said: “We are the people of the reminder and we are the people who are questioned.”[149]

10. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Are those who know and those who do not know alike? Only the men of understanding are mindful.”[150] He, peace be on him, said: “It is we who know and our enemy is he who does not know. Our followers are the men of understanding.”[151]

11. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Nay! these are clear communications in the breasts of those who are granted knowledge.”[152] Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) said that “those who are granted knowledge”concerns the Imams of the members of the House (ahl al-Bayt), peace be on them.[153] Abu Basïr reported that Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) recited this verse and pointed with his hand to his chest.[154]

12. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “(Remember) the day when We will call every people with their Imam.”[155] Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi reported on the authority of Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, who said: When this verse was revealed, the Moslems said: “O Allah's Apostle, are you not the Imam of all people?”He, may Allah bless him and his family, said: “I am the Apostle of Allah for all people. However, there will be Imams over the people. They will be from my Household. They will assume the Imam over the people. However, the people will accuse them of lying. The Imams of unbelief and misguidance and their followers will oppress them. So, whoever supports, follows, and believes them will belong to me, be with me, and meet me. Whoever oppresses them, accuses them of lying will not belong to me nor will he be with me. Moreover, I will disown myself of him.”[156]

13. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Then We gave the Book for an inheritance to those whom We chose from among Our servants, but of them is he who makes his soul suffer a loss, and of them is he who takes a middle course, and of them is he who is foremost in deeds of goodness by Allah's permission.”[157] Salim asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) about this verse. So, he, peace be on him, said: “He who is foremost in deeds of goodness is the Imam. He who takes a middle course is he who knows the Imam. He who makes his soul suffer a loss is he who does not know the Imam.”[158] Zyad b. al-Munzir reported on the authority of the Imam, peace be on him, who said: “As for him who makes his soul suffer a loss is he who does a good deed and another bad one. As for him who takes a middle course is he who worships (Allah) very much. As for those who are foremost in deeds of goodness are ‘Ali, al-Hasan, al-Husayn, and those who died martyrs from the family of Mohammed, may Allah bless him and his family.”[159]

14. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Surely in this are signs for those who examine.”[160] He, peace be on him, said: The Commander of the Faithful said: “Allah's Apostle, may Allah bless him and his family, was the one who examined. I, after him, and the Imams from my progeny are the ones who examine.”[161]

15. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “And that if they should keep to the (right) way, We would certainly give them to drink of abundant water.”[162] He (al-Baqir), peace be on him, said: “By that Allah meant that if they should keep to the authority of ‘Ali b. Abï Talib, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him, and the testamentary trustees of authority from his sons, and obey their orders and prohibitions, He would certainly give

them to drink of abundant water, namely He would fill their hearts with belief. The (right) way is the belief in the authority of ‘Ali and the testamentary trustees.”[163]

16. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Say: Allah is sufficient as a witness between me and you and whoever has knowledge of the Book.”[164] Barïd b. Mu‘awiya asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, about those whom the Words of Allah the Exalted: “And whoever has knowledge of the Book” concern. So, he, peace be on him, said: “He meant us. ‘Ali was the first of us, the most meritorious of us, and the best of us after the Prophet, may Allah bless him and his family.”[165]

17. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “But indeed We have given to Abraham's children the Book and the wisdom, and We have given them a grand kingdom.”[166] Barïd al-‘Ajali asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, about this verse. So, he, peace be on him said: “He made Abraham's children Apostles, Prophets, and Imams. Why do they accept that in the family of Abraham and refuse to accept it in the family of Mohammed, may Allah bless him and his family?”Barïd said: “What is the meaning of ‘And We have given them a grand kingdom?’”The Imam replied: “llah made them Imams. Whoever obeys them obeys Allah. Whoever disobeys them disobeys Allah. That is the grand kingdom.”[167]

18. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “And I breathed into him of My spirit.”[168] The Imam, peace be on him, was asked about the spirit. So, he said: “It is the power.”[169]

19. The Words of Allah, the Exalted: “Were it not for that he had seen the manifest evidence of his Lord.”[170] The Imam, peace be on him, said to Jabir al-Ju‘fi: “What do the Iraqi jurists say concerning this verse?”Jabir replied: “He (Joseph) saw Jacob biting his thumb.”Thus, the Imam, peace be on him, said: [My father related to me on the authority of my grandfather, ‘Ali b. Abï Talib, who said:] “As for the manifest evidence which Joseph saw when she made for him and he made for her was that she went to an idol crowned with pearls and corundum in the house to cover it with a white garment so that it would not see her or she felt shame of it.”So, Joseph asked her: “What is this?”She replied: “It is my lord. I feel shame of it when it see in this manner.”So, Joseph said: “Do you feel shame of an idol that does not avail nor does it harm nor does it see? Then why do I not feel shame of my Lord Who has the power over every soul? By Allah, you will never obtain that from me.”That is the manifest evidence.[171]

These are some of the verses which Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, interpreted. With this we end our talk about his exegesis of the Holy Koran.

Theology

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir) researched many theological matters during his lectures. He was asked about the most complicated matters in this science. He answered them. Worth mentioning, the time of the Imam was the most sensitive of all the times. That is because the Islamic conquer included most areas of the world and the peoples of the earth. That moved a wave of spite in the souls of the enemies of Islam, from the helpless peoples and other than them. Thus, they launched a propagating campaign against

the Islamic thought. They proclaimed doubts and imaginations among the children of the Moslems. Meanwhile the Umayyad governments encouraged anti-Islam thoughts. No one has mentioned that the Umayyad rulers resisted these thoughts and prevented them from spreading among the Moslems. In the meantime nobody was ready to save the Moslems from these thoughts except Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, who refuted them with strong proofs. We will mention that in detail when we talk about the time of the Imam.

However, the following are some of the theological researches which the Imam did:

Monotheism

Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, studied the most important matters of monotheism. He uncovered them. He refuted the doubts and imaginations which were raised about them. Among what he studied are:

1. Allah is not attained through Reason The unquestionable thing is that man is unable to know with all his intellectual the reality of Allah, for reason has limited imaginations. Al-Shafi‘i said: “Indeed reason has a limited end as the eye has.”

All things which man senses are found at a certain place and time. Reason cannot imagine beings without a place or things without time. Thus, reason is unable to attain the reality of Allah, for neither time nor place can encompass it. In other words, Allah created the time and the place. Besides reason is unable to understand the reality of many things in the universe. Among them is the unseen reality which reason has not understood yet.

The conceptualization of the heart, though it has vast imagination, is unable to attain the essence of Allah. The eye is unable to attain it, too. Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, stated that when he was asked about these words of Allah, the Exalted: “The eyes attain Him not, but He attains the eyes.”[172] He, peace be on him: “The conceptualization of hearts are keener and sharper than the perceptions of the eyes. Through the conceptualization of the heart you can perceive countries like Sind, Hind (India) and other cities which you have never visited, although you have not seen them with your eyes. How can your eyes see Him when the conceptualization of your heart cannot attain Him?”[173]

Indeed the eye shall come back confused and fatigued when it tries to perceive the essence of Allah, the Most High, the Creator of the cosmos, and giver of life. Ibn Abï al-Haddïd said:

O Miracle of the cosmos, thinking has become unsound concerning You.

Whenever my thinking moves toward You a span of the hand, it escapes for a mile.

You have perplexed men of understanding and confused intellect.[174]

There is nothing remoter than attaining the essence of Allah, the Exalted, for reason is unable to attain it. Thus, ‘Abd al-Rahman b. Abï al-Najran asked Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, about Allah, the Most High. He said: “Should I think of anything (to understand Allah)?”The Imam, peace be on him, replied: “Yes, but you have to imagine a thing which the mind cannot contain and which is without limit. He is unlike whatever comes into your mind. Nothing resembles Him nor can any thought reach

Him. How can He be perceived when He is totally different from whatever is conceived and is the reverse of whatever is imagined. (Because Allah cannot be limited through the limitations of the mind or the senses.) Certainly, the thing which cannot be encompassed by the mind and which is without limits is that which should be imagined.”[175]

 2. The Eternity of the Necessary Being As for the Eternity of the Necessary Being, it is among the keenest theological and philosophical studies. A man asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him: “Tell me from when your Lord has been in existence?”The Imam replied: “Woe unto You! The question when and how long arises only in respect of things that (previously) were non-existant. Verily, my lord, the Blessed and Exalted, has always been Ever-living, without time or modality. Coming into existence does not apply to Him Who exists eternally nor does ‘how He exists’ apply to His existence nor does ‘where He exists’ apply to him, for He is neither in a thing nor on a thing. He did not invent a place for His location, nor was there any enhancement in His might after He had created the universe, nor had He been weak before its creation, nor was He alone before His act of creation, nor does He resemble anything that can be remembered, nor was He without dominion before creating the universe, nor will He be bereft of dominion after the universe passes away. He is Ever-living, Self-subsisting, the Almighty Lord without the category of life. He was the Almighty Lord before creating things, and He is the Absolute Lord after the creation of the universe. None of the categories of ‘how’ or ‘where’ or ‘when’ or ‘how much’ nor any ‘limit’ apply to his existence. He is not recognized by resemblance with anything nor does He become decrepit due to His endless existence. Nothing can strike awe in Him. Rather, all things are awe-struck by fearing Him. He was in existence before the appearance of life as such. Neither is He in existence such as can be described, nor can it be confined to any state and condition. He does not rest anywhere nor does He abide at a place that is in the neighborhood of another place. However, He is known as Living, the Lord whose might and dominion will never end. He has created of His own will whatever and whenever He desired. He can neither be confined, nor fractioned, nor can He be destroyed. He is the First without any modality and the Last without any space. ‘And all things are perishable except His face.’ ‘His are the creation and the command. Blessed be Allah, the Lord of all beings.’

“O Questioner, woe unto you! Surely, my Lord can never be encompassed by the imagination. Doubts cannot descend upon him. Nor can He be affected (by anything). Nor is He anybody's neighbor. Nor can events happen to Him. He can neither be questioned about anything nor is He ashamed of anything. ‘Slumber seize Him not, neither sleep.’ ‘To Him belong all that is in the heavens and the earth and all that is between them, and all that is underneath the soil.’”[176]

This wonderful paragraph of the speech of the great Imam has encompassed the eternity of the Necessary Being and His Unity. It has deemed Him far above comparison with His creatures which genus and species limit, and which are in need of the cause in their existence and non-existence. Moreover, they are in need of time and place. Allah is far above

all that, for He is the first and the last, outward and inward, and He knows all things. A researcher asked the Imam: “Who is Allah?” He replied: “The One and Only.” It was said to him: “How is He?” He answered: “He is a Powerful King.” It was said to him: “Where is He?” He replied: “He is watching.” So, the researcher said: “I am not asking you about this.” He said: “These are the attributes of Allah. Other than them are the attributes of creatures.”

They wanted to know the essence of Allah through their senses and reason. They did not know that He was far above what reason attains and what conceptualization perceives. There is no god but He, the Ever living, the Self-subsisting.

However, in this speech, the Imam, peace be on him, discussed the most important theological matters which no one of the Moslem theologians and philosopher had discussed before him except his grandfather Imam ‘Ali, the Commander of the Faithful, peace be on him. As for encompassing and explaining the speech of the Imam, peace be on him, it needs a detailed study. The Moslem philosophers have taken care of the points which the Imam has mentioned in his speech. They have produced evidence in support of them.[177]

3. Talking about the Essence of Allah is forbidden Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, prevented Moslems from talking about the essence of Allah, the Most High. That is because that depends on a deep philosophy which the reason of the simple people is unable to understand. In other words they have little knowledge. Thus, they fall into the tricks of the Satan. Then they go out of belief and come into polytheism. In this connection the Imam, peace be on him, said: “Talk about all things, but do not talk about the essence of Allah.”[178]

He, peace be on him, said: “Talk about the creation of Allah, but do not talk about Allah Himself, for that increases the owner of the talk nothing except perplexity.”[179]

Indeed talking about the essence of Allah increases man nothing except perplexity and throwing destructive manners and doubts. As for thinking of the creation of Allah and considering carefully the universe, they will lead man to belief in Allah. That is because the creation of all creature indicates the Great Creator. Darwin said: “It seems that all the creatures that live in the earth belong to one eternal shape. The Creator has breathed life into them.”[180] It is false to say that chance has created all these worlds. It is impossible for chance to find a well-woven regulation that depends on knowledge. Why does chance not create the plane and modern sets which thinking and science have found?

4. The Knowledge of Allah The knowledge of Allah has encompassed all things. The knowledge of Allah is the same before and after the creation of things. That is because He has created them. He knows what souls and hearts have. Mohammed b. Moslem reported on the authority of Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, who said: “Allah, the Great and Almighty, was there when nothing else existed. He has been eternally knowing whatever come into being. And His knowledge of a thing before it comes into being is exactly the same as it is after its being.”[181]

5. The Essence of Monotheism Jabir b. Yazïd al-Ju‘fi asked Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, to teach him something of monotheism. So, he, peace be on him, said: “Indeed Allah, whose names are blessed and Who is Exalted in the transcendence of His Essence, is the One (the only One). He is unique in Oneness, and He attributed Oneness to Himself when He was alone. Then, He made His Unity evidently known to His creatures. Thus, Allah is One, Unique, Self-dependent, and All-holy. All things worship Him and turn to Him in repentance. And His knowledge embraces all things.”[182]

6. The Attributes of Allah Surely, the attributes of the Wise Creator are exactly the same as His Essence. There is no number among them, as it has been proved in theology. Some Iraqis deviated from the right path. So, they proclaimed that Allah, the Most High, heard with other than with He saw, and saw with other than with He heard. In that He is similar to His creatures. Mohammed b. Moslem told Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on, about that. So, the Imam said: “They have told lies, become atheists, and likened (Allah to His creatures). Far is Allah above that. Indeed He is All-Hearing, All-Seeing. He hears with what He sees, and sees with what He hears.”

Then Mohammed b. Salim said: “They claim that He sees according to what they think.”So, the Imam, peace be on him, refuted their claims, saying: “Be Allah Exalted, the one who has the attribute of the creature perceive, but Allah is not such.”[183]

7. Doubt and Unbelief Surely, the doubt and unbelief in Allah, the Creator of the skies and the earth, have bad final results. Among them is that no deed is accepted from the one who doubts Allah and the one who disbelieves in Him. Their deeds will not avail them on the Day of Judgment. For this reason, the Imam, peace be on him, said: “The deed with doubt and unbelief is useless.”[184]

With this we end our talk about the words of Imam Abu Ja‘far (al-Baqir), peace be on him, on monotheism.