Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Economic Distribution in Islam

This booklet is about economic distribution in Islam, it gives an analysis on the current economic system of Islam and presents solutions to the economic problems in Islamic communities.

Publisher(s): Al-Balagh Foundation

Table of Contents

Preface3

Islam's Care For Man's Livelihood 5

Notes7

Misconceptions8

Note11

Nature Of Economic Problem 12

External Factors14

1) Inadequate Production 15

2. Distribution 16

3) Consumption 17

A. Limiting Consumption 17

B. Prohibition of Extravagance and Wastefulness17

Notes19

General Bases of Distribution In Islam20

Notes25

Preface

In the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful.

“Whatever spoils given by Allah to His Messenger from townspeople belongs to Allah and to the Messenger, and to the nearest of kin, and to the orphans, and the indigent, and the wayfarer, so that it may not circulate amongst the rich of you. And what the Messenger gives you, take it then; but forsake what he forbids you. And venerate Allah, for He is stern in retribution.” Holy Qur'an (59:7)

“Were it my money I would have distributed it among them equally. But it is Allah's.” Imam Ali (a.s.)Imam Ali (a.s.)

*****

Praise is due to Allah for His explicit and implicit favours. Peace and blessings are on the brilliant light, the giver of good tidings and warnings, our master Muhammad and on his infallible household and the righteous among his companions.

Today, the world appears to becoming more lost in self-generated chaos, economic problems take precedence over all other hardships and haunt the rulers of both the Eastern and Western blocks.

If the West suffers from high unemployment, high inflation etc., the East complains of decline in production, shortages in the supply of the basic necessities of life... Both capitalism and socialism, including before being developed into communism, are not only retracting their theoretical slogans and renouncing their doctrinal principles, they are nearly perishing as each are riddled with ambiguities and shortcomings that have failed to address even the most fundamental issues of con-temporary society.

Satellite states, like in the Arab world, have been dominated by the Western democracies and as a result, have been misled in setting up capitalistic systems or they have reluctantly turned tific socialism. The result from both should announce their ideologies, has been only bitter disappointment. Nothing has remained in their hands except the ashes of aping foreigners, which are being scattered by the piercing wind of the Islamic movement.

Both the East and the West have claimed their absolute dependence on the outcome of abstract theories, not only in the fields of material sciences but even in their ideological and philosophical views with regard to the universe, life and man. Each attach the uppermost importance to tangible experiments to prove facts and adopt the ensuing results.

But, contrary to all their claimed developments, the examples of socialism and capitalism in practice have proved to be fiascoes, neither imparting happiness to man nor satisfying his basic needs, both physical and spiritual; in failing to achieve worldwide security or putting an end to global catastrophes, instead cultural erosion and moral collapse, continue to increase unabated, while there has been no sign of pinpointing the root causes of anxiety and psychological misery that is sweeping virtually all nations today.

As the Foundation presents this booklet about economic distribution in Islam, free of charge, it is a single proof of the greatness of Islam and looks forward to the day when humanity will shake worldly dust off, fits communities and become arrayed with celestial robes to walk in the light of Islam, where happiness can be won in both this life and the Hereafter.

“... and to whomever Allah does not give light, he has no light.” Holy Qur'an (24:40)

Al-Balagh Foundation

Islam's Care For Man's Livelihood

Today, economic problems come at the head of man's present plights. They may be considered the root of life's problems that leave a pervasive impact on man's material interests and social conditions. The result has a direct effect not only on the life of the individual but also on the community and on the level of their material progress and civil development.

Economic conditions of the Ummah (Muslim community), like elsewhere, have a backlash on security and stability, and consequently, advances in health, scientific gains and the process of achieving social justice. In Islam, life's stability is viewed as a base in a committed Muslim community. Similarly, catering man's basic necessities is a factor conducive to solidifying piety and winning divine rewards in the Hereafter.

Present life and the Hereafter, economic welfare and moral and spiritual ascendancy are tightly connected together through a sound insight in having all-embracing way of life, which only Islam can offer.

Allah, the Exalted, says:

“And seek by means of what Allah has given you the future abode, and do not neglect your portion of this world, ...” Holy Qur'an (28:77)

A Prophetic tradition from the Holy Messenger (s.a.w.w.) pointedly records:

“He is not from us who gives up his worldly life in favour of his Hereafter, nor is he who gives up his Hereafter in favour of his worldly life.”

The Prophet (s.a.w.w.) is further quoted to saying:

“How excellent is Wealthiness in strengthening man's fear of Allah”.1

Imam al-Sadiq (a.s.), in interpreting the following verse,

(... Our Lord! Grant us good in this world and in the Hereafter, and save us from the punishment of the fire) (Qur'an 2:201)

has elaborated that the good referred is associated together in seeking the pleasure of Allah and Paradise in the Hereafter and the provision and good morals in worldly life.2

Imam al-Sadiq (a.s.) is quoted himself to have said:

“There is no good in him who does not like to collect wealth lawfully, by which he satisfies his needs, pays off his debts and keeps up his relations with his relatives”.3

“How excellent is worldly life when it helps one to prepare oneself for the Hereafter”.”Wealthiness that prevents you from wronging others is better than poverty that leads you to do evils.”4

The Prophet (s.a.w.w.) has also said:

“O Lord! Make bread blessed for us. Do not separate us form it. If it were not for bread we would not have kept up prayers, fast not have discharged our divine duties.”5

“It is better for the faithful to wake in the morning or in the evening at the loss of a beloved one than to go in the morning or the evening plundering others' property. We take refuge in Allah from plundering others' possessions.”6

Through these Islamic texts about the importance of the economic side of man's life, the role of the growth of money and wealth in a Muslim's life, in relation to his quest on earth can be seen. They present a clear understanding of Islam's concern with economic life and the necessity of fair distribution of wealth, and the providing of a satisfactory standard of living to every individual so as to keep his faith sound and his life stable.

Based on this plain concept is Islam's stress on man`s managing his financial life and its concern to set up a fair economic system based on the belief in man's lawful right to satisfy his natural needs. These include providing an adequacy of foodstuff, clothing, residence and the rest of material, ideological and psychological needs on whose availability, the justice of an economic system and the betterment of the community's welfare depend.

Qur'anic ayahs (verses) and Prophetic traditions are bountiful in dealing with the concerns of everyday economic lives of individuals. So exactly and meticulously they attend to production, earnings, distribution of wealth, management of money and all aspects of the economy that they never fail to draw admiration of economists and political scientists the world over.

How excellently perfect is the Qur'anic concept of Islam's view of daily economic life in which it confirms man's right to gain comfort. It is vividly expressed in this Qur'anic address to Adam (a.s.):

“Surely it is (ordained for you that you shall not be hungry therein nor bare of clothing. ”Holy Qur'an (20:118)

Man's economic needs should be met, whether he himself, achieves this goal or someone else, be it an individual, a group of people or the state. The following verse enriches this concept:

“... so let them worship the Lord of this House, Who feeds them against hungry and gives them security against fear.” Holy Qur'an (106:3-4)

It makes it clearer and more positive, the connection of Allah's worthiness of being worshipped to favouring man by providing his basic necessities of life. Tackling starvation and furnishing the basic economic needs of man, in the shadow of peace and security and is explained by this verse. It is a sacred feature of man's relationship with Allah and a stimulus to worship and submit to His will.

It is quite evident, in Islam's view, that the issues raised and questions emerging from thanksgiving, or to which worship is related, must be the focus of man's concern. They must be provided, for they form the path leading to worship and the causes of thankfulness and gratitude.

In a nutshell, Islam's view of man's rights to earn a daily living can be outlined as:

1. Money and property are Allah's. People are equal in gaining them and making use of them. Imam Ali (a.s.) is reported to have said:

“Were it my money I would have distributed it among them equally. But it is Allah's.”

2. Man has an inalienable right to earn his livelihood. Under no circumstances should he be deprived of it and at the time of infirmity or incapability, it must be provided for him.

3. Man is obliged to exert his utmost efforts in working and utilizing nature's resources to his interests. Allah, the Exalted, Says:

“... therefore go about in the spacious sides thereof, and eat of His provision, and to Him is the return after death. ”Holy Qur'an (67:15)

4. The system of economic life and the methods of earning money, distributing wealth and consumption should be in accordance with a specific moral and legal line. Man's freedom and his economic rights should be similarly subjected to this lawful commitment, which safeguards the rights of all and balances everyone's interests.6 . The system of economic life and the methods of earning money, distributing wealth and consumption should be in accordance with a specific moral and legal line. Man's freedom and his economic rights should be similarly subjected to this lawful commitment, which safeguards the rights of all and balances everyone's interests.

Notes

1. Al-Kulaini, al-Kafi, vol. 5, p. 71,

2. Al-Kulaini, op. cit.

3. Al-Kulaini, op. cit.

4. Al-Kulaini, op. cit.

5. Al-Kulaini, op. cit.

6. Al-Kulaini, op. cit. p. 72.

Misconceptions

Two main points related to the economic system and the distribution of wealth and productivity in Islam; need further consideration as a prelude to delve into related issues. Primarily they are:

1. Islamic economic thought has become vague in the minds of many scholars and cultured people and has led them to deny the existence of such system in Islam. This has been caused on the basis that Muslim thinkers have not studied economic and financial percepts and concepts and presented them in a related way in which contemporary thoughts have tackled them and treated within modern idioms and methodology.

It is due to this lack of development that Islamic economic thought has remained texts and concepts scattered in the Holy Qur'an, books of traditions, books of history and Islamic studies on fiqh (jurisprudence).

Muslim researchers did not consider them except in the recent past and in a limited and narrow scope. The need has been to have them to be more meticulously examined, gathered, studied, analyzed, deduced and reshaped and where the outcome should be easily comprehensible and encapsulates all man's economic problems as well as covering all related aspects, such as the themes of wealth, its production and distribution within the Muslim community.

In respect, the fuqaha' took great pains to study these items extensively on the basis of fiqh. They also examined zakat (poor-rate), khums (an Islamic tax), kharaj (land tax levied on non-Muslims), working systems for companies, trade, ijarah (hiring someone or something for specific purposes), hawalah (transfer of debt from one person to another), purchases, usury, farming, speculation, usurpation, property, conduct of business...etc. By so doing, they provided basic ideological material conducive to form an economic view, and a clear-cut viewpoint on an Islamic economic system.

Many contemporary Muslim intellectuals have made use of this basic ideological material and studied economic systems, ownership, distribution, and consumption...in its light. They have also developed it in analyzing production relationships and offering an explanation to economic problems and so forth.

When Muslim intellectuals systematically delve into this field, in line with Islam's methodology of research and employing a comprehensive economic method, an economic overview can be presented, that make up entire systems providing solutions for man's problems, for which he has failed to find an answer. Instead man has been left groping in the long dark tunnels of the communist, socialist and capitalist theories, when satisfactory answers are at hand to alleviate doubts adduced by the enemies of Islam.

Such have spared no effort to present, to the sons of Islam and others, that Islamic economic thought is a shallow mould, which is unable to accommodate today's problems. They charge Islam, due to their ignorance, obstinacy, and fear from its justice, as well as its threat to their boundless self-centeredness and greed, that it falls short of successfully treating the more complicated daily economic issues.

Islamic economic system is, as they maliciously claim, still composed of a set of varying charity-oriented questions and moral commandments, which cannot tackle deep-seated problems, nor can it resolve the ever-complicated crises of inhumanity because of the immense phenomena, related to financial considerations present in human society.

These efforts are clearly made in a bid to turn attention of Muslims and others from returning to an economic system that frees humanity from exploitation, injustice and avarice and leads it to an economic life of welfare, where man finds comfort, care and dignity.

2. The second misconception, which must be warned of, is the mixing up of Islam with other economic systems and without distinguishing between the two. Many researchers and academics, be they Muslims or non-Muslims still mingle the Islamic economic system with the capitalist and social systems.

Even, some of them go to the extent of mixing it up with the communist systems. This confusion can be ascribed to the comprehensible concepts found in Islam, including the principles of freedom, sponsorship, insurance or through the intervention of the Islamic state in directing the economy and keeping watch over the distribution and production etc.

Those who examine the conception of economic, political and individual freedom in Islam, look at Islam within a capitalist framework. Yet they observe Islam's rejection of, for instance, the capitalist amassing of wealth or the state's role in economic life, think Islam is a socialist system.

Re-examining these ideological aspects and analyzing them scientifically, meticulously and unbiasedly, it will be noticed however, that there is a wide gap between Islam's view and cures and those of capitalism and socialism. The only conclusion that can be made about attempts to converge manmade systems with Islam is that they are clear distortions in line with other misconception that are invented to belittle the everlasting message of the Holy Prophet (s.a.w.w.).

To emphasize the difference, the following four points underline the key difference between Islam and these two ideological systems, in particular, and other social and political systems, in general:

1. Islam differs from socialism, capitalism and communism and other theories and perspectives in its ideological and doctrinal bases. Islam is a Divine Message with a special conception of the universe, life and man. It basically disagrees with socialist and capitalist views, which have their roots in their materialistic vision that has no religious base, nor any belief in Allah.

Socialism, capitalism and communism and the like are merely concepts devoid of spiritual and moral values. The distance between them and Islam is unmistakably great. Islam has an all-embracing ideological and legislative make-up. In it, no barriers are to be found between morals, laws, worships, concepts and existence.

2. Islam differs from all man-made systems in that it has a lawful executive framework, which exactly expresses political, economic, and social concepts. Regarding the social system1 , laws, which are the second stage of its ideological ladder, are based on founding principles of their own. They manage related affairs quite differently from man-written laws and legislation, in all domains whether they be economical, political, sociological, or appertaining to individual behaviour etc.

Such matters, such as ownership, investment, economic, consumption are tackled in a unique way by Islam.

3. In its aims and objectives, Islam is distinguished from other systems, like, it differs from them on the basis of contents and the legal organization of life. It treats related subjects in separate ways with specific points. The ultimate goal of Islam is to worship and seek the pleasure of Allah, the Exalted.

In implementing the divine law and adhering to the divine order, a Muslim demonstrates that he is a worshipper. His objective is to seek the reward and pleasure of Allah, the Exalted. Contrarily, the human objective in capitalist and socialist societies is purely a materialistic one, expressed in terms of materialistic gains regardless of the cost and fall out on society.

4. Even though there is a sort of analogy between Islam and other systems in certain respects, Islam has its own way and method of implementing its economic concepts and objectives.

For example, Islam believes in social justice and so it adopts just principles in distribution and production growth.

Socialism and capitalism attempt to call for similar concepts, which can be seen as generally logical and which man, by no means, can shun. But in trying to develop the conceptions and implement them, we will find the difference between Islam and secular systems in both method and way. In capitalism, freedom knows no boundaries. In theory, individuals can do what they desire to. In doing so, it believes that the non-existence of limits or restrictions results in economic freedom, in competition and the increase of production.

But to achieve a suitable and satisfactory economic level is for all people, makeshift and inexorable laws have to be enforced, based upon such theories as the laws of wages, supply and demand...etc. while, on the other hand, socialism subscribes to the methods of confiscating the sources of wealth and means of production. The state, thanks to this system, becomes a massive capitalist party monopolizing all means of economic resources and turns individuals into production units, who take nothing from the fruit of their toil except that which the state allows them to have.

Unlike these two systems Islam adopts its own methods. It never opens the gates for individual selfishness to flourish like in capitalism, nor does it confiscate the means of production and acquiring wealth, turning people into machines on behalf of the state, like socialism. Islam believes in individual ownership, community ownership and state ownership, as it is expounded in the books of fiqh, traditions and in the Holy Qur'an.

Lest selfishness and urges of greed prevail, and to prevent exploitation and economic injustice from sweeping over the community, Islam has laid down lawful and moral restrictions related to ownership, investment and consumption in defense of manipulation and deprivation.

The aim, which has in view, as duly explained, is to liberate man from both the greedy capitalist grip solidified by the democratic system and state capitalism thrust upon productive individuals in the socialist system by means of coercion and force, which are the monopoly of the government. In conformity with a delicately set economic plan, Islam grants freedom and responsibility to the Muslim individual and community within bounds so each balance the other.

Note

1. Theory of the social system is the first stage of the ideological ladder. It is the bases from which laws and legislations are derived. Social and moral theory is the foundation stone on which man depends to outline the attitude towards different matters in these two fields. Laws then come to incarnate the theory and give it a practical quality in the lives of the individual and the community (like the areas of obligation, prohibition, permission, unlawfulness and lawfulness).

Nature Of Economic Problem

The central question which presents itself in the world of economics and wealth and which needs a comprehensive and exact answer is: What is the economic problem and what is its cause?

The answer to this question depends upon what is the approach and the nature of the system chosen. The identity of the economic system, which manages the distribution of wealth among human beings, conversely is outlined in accordance with the general comprehension of the problem and its nature. The solution to any economic problem thus lies within the system, in its formula. It gives the answer to the question, what the economic problem is and how it can be dealt with.

To analyze the problem overall from a philosophical point of view needs a comprehensive grasp of the nature of both man and wealth, the value of each and their significance in life as a prerequisite. It further relies on a deep, exact and efficient comprehension of the problem on one hand, and on the other, an objective analysis of the implemented system, which is immune to any prejudice that may be caused by the personal bias of the concerned economist and those who invented its perspectives.

These factors, put together, help to give the shape of the answer and to plan an economic system with its stated hallmarks.

Now, let us see what answer Islam gives to our question: What is the economic problem and what is its mainspring?

1. Allah, the Exalted, says:

“Corruption has appeared in the land and the sea on account of what the hands of people have wrought, that he may make them taste a part of that which they have done, so that they may return.” Holy Qur'an (30:41)

2. And Allah has also said:

“And you love wealth with exceeding love. ”Holy Qur'an (89:20)

3. “Decked out fair to mankind is the love of desires -Women, children, hoarded treasures of gold and silver, marked horses, cattle and tilth. That is the enjoyment of the life of this world; but Allah - with Him is the fairest return. Say: 'Shall I tell you of better than that?' For those that are god-fearing, with their Lord are Gardens underneath which rivers flow, therein dwelling forever, purified spouse, and Allah's good pleasure. And Allah sees His servants.” Holy Qur'an (3:14-15)

4. “... most surely man is ungrateful to his Lord. And most surely he is a witness of that. And most surely he is tenacious in the love of wealth ...” Holy Qur'an (100:6-8)

5. “And those who made their abode in the city and in the faith before them love those who have fled to them, and do not find in their hearts a need of what they are given, and prefer (them) before themselves though poverty may afflict them, and whoever is preserved from the niggardliness of his soul, these it is that are the successful ones. ”Holy Qur'an (59:9)

6. “Therefore be careful of (your duty to) Allah as much as you can, and hear and obey and spend, it is better for your souls; and whoever is saved from the greediness of his soul, these it is that are the successful. ”Holy Qur'an (64:16)

7. The Messenger of Allah (s.a.w.w.) is reported to have said:

“Refrain from doing injustice, for it is the darkness of the Judgment’s Day. Avoid misery, it was misery that cut down those who were before you. It made them shed their blood and do haram (what is forbidden and harmful)”.

8. And the Holy Prophet (s.a.w.w.) is also quoted to have said:

“Two fierce wolves entering a pen of sheep are not as much harmful as avarice and love of a social rank to the faith of a Muslim.”1

Examining these quotations and compile their content, the following conclusions can be reached:

1. In the first quotation, the Qur'an blames man for causing his own problem. Corruption, be it political, economic or moral, is only man's making. Man encapsulates a host of stimuli and desires and he himself is spurred on to extremes in peculiar proclivities, to cause corruption, injustice and tyranny under which humanity suffers greatly.

“Corruption has appeared in the land and the sea on account of what the hands of people have wrought, that He may make them taste a part of that which they have done, so that they may return.” Holy Qur'an (30:41)

2. Quotations 2,3,4 and 8 emphasize that man's selfishness, avarice, his excessive love for property and wealth and his tendency to amass them, is the main cause of all his daily problems, in general, and his economic problems, in particular.

3. Quotations 5,6 and 7, from the Qur'an and holy Prophetic traditions, how that avarice itself which is a vice used with great eagerness and desire to obtain and keep wealth away from the bands of others, is the latent, effective factor behind man's greed and his predilection to monopolize wealth and deprive others from it.

In summary, we can assert an important fact in the world of economics, as clearly stated by Islam and known as the cause behind the problem of wealth distribution, is man's self-centeredness and his greed. For the worlds of the holy Qur'anic verses and Prophetic traditions lay great stress on avarice and greed as the root causes of the economic problems in the fields of distribution and consumption.

This view rules out the effect of external conditions, including means of production, whether in abundance or scarce, and distribution, for man, himself, controls distribution, His will controls it. His awareness identifies his view of justice, the value of money and wealth and the meaning of life. It is this very awareness that principally outlines the way he adopts in dealing with himself and others.

Everywhere and every time subjective factors are the root causes of the problems and the sources of economic injustice, regardless of the variation in conditions, means and quantity of production, which tend themselves to be by-products resulting from the original misdiagnosis.

The only way to save man from economic injustice and confusion is his daily life, re-shaping his existence and re-formulating his conceptions, his view of life, money, wealth, profit and moral pleasure, in a sound and objective way and in harmony with the Qur'an and in agreement with its deep, analytical views.

Allah, the Exalted, says:

“... surely Allah does not change the condition of a people until they change their own condition; ...” Holy Qur'an (13:11)

Unless an independent, economic system is adhered to this, change cannot be fully successful; a system, which takes upon itself the task of re-distributing human wealth and managing economic life in agreement with the principles of Islamic justice and equality and not on high-fluting theories that lose the essence of what the basic problem is:

Allah, the Exalted, says:

“And that if they should keep to the (right) way, We would certainly give them to drink of abundant water.” Holy Qur'an (72:16)

“And if the people of the towns had believed and guarded (against evil) We would certainly have opened up for them blessings from the heaven and the earth ...”Holy Qur'an (7:96)

There is no way to better man's life other than effecting a complete, psychological and ideological transformation. Yet to achieve this, a just system and law must be brought about, both socially and legally, to serve as a prelude in the building of a human community, where man can bask in righteousness and happiness and taste the flavour of freedom and dignity.

The Qur'an, in many of its ayahs and conceptions, emphasizes this method of transformation:

“until they change their own condition”. “and that if they should keep to the (right) way”. “believed and guarded (against evil).”

By scrutinizing these words, we can arrive at the conclusion that the Qur'an made psychological change, and treading on the right path (Shari'ah and the Divine system), having faith in them and insisting on adhering to their profound principles. Islam is prerequisite to human change for the better and the sources of good and man's economic welfare.

This is the true dimensions of the problem and overcoming it. But what of the external factor that perpetuate and self-propel the ill-effects?This is the true dimensions of the problem and overcoming it. But what of the external factor that perpetuate and self-propel the ill-effects?

External Factors

Identifying human faults as an internal cause of the economic problem, Islam turns its attention to specify the external factors, which constitute the chief reasons behind exacerbating the problem. Islam attributes the economic problems to two factors:

1. The Human Factor. The subjective one and root cause as already has been explained.

2. External Factors. The objective ones.

These factors can be deduced, by concerned researchers of Islamic economics, from the sources of legislation, morals, and concepts that deal with the social and economic aspects of man's life. Briefly they can be summed as:

1. Inadequate production.

2. Distribution.

3. Consumption.

By referring to the Qur'an, Prophetic Sunnah, books of fiqh and studies on morals, we can compile many texts, principles and thoughts which deal with each of these causes. To present a clearer picture of the Islamic view of the economic problem, it is necessary to consider all three causes separately.By referring to the Qur'an, Prophetic Sunnah, books of fiqh and studies on morals, we can compile many texts, principles and thoughts which deal with each of these causes. To present a clearer picture of the Islamic view of the economic problem, it is necessary to consider all three causes separately.

1) Inadequate Production

The main cause of poverty as well as being a principle factor behind the economic problem, under whose burden man is still suffering, is the decline in production in the view of Islam. That is why Islam has focused attention on it and blamed two main factors for it:

A. Unemployment and disusing of human resources:

Islam looks upon work as a holy and esteemed asset. It puts it on the same footing with jihad and worship. The Prophet (s.a.w.w.) is reported to have said:

“Worship is of seven parts the best of which is seeking halal (lawful) provision.”2

Islamic traditions and texts dealing with the importance of work are bountiful. They have one aspect in common urging man to work, mobilizing human beings to raise their production capabilities and fighting sloth and unemployment as the prime reasons of poverty and materialistic and social decline.

Of the traditions reported in regard to this point is one quoted from Imam Ali (a.s.):

“When things coupled, sloth and helplessness got together and engendered poverty.”

Imam al-Ridha (a.s.) quote his father Imam Musa al-Kadhim (a.s.), on the same subject that he said to one of his sons on his death-bed:

“Beware of laziness and boredom, for they prevent you from your share of this world and in the Hereafter.”3

B. Ignorance and lack of experience about methods of productions, including the under-utilization of natural resources and man's creative powers. These factors play a critical and undeniable role in the decline of production and spread of need and destitution. Islam, for such consideration, urges Muslims to seek knowledge, make use of natural resources and gain knowledge about work and management. The Prophet (s.a.w.w.) is quoted to have said:

“Allah surely loves the trustworthy professional.”

Islam works towards mobilizing man bodily, psychologically and intellectually, employing his technical and scientific abilities for the sake of production, adequate supplies of needed commodities, and creating wealth. The Prophet (s.a.w.w.) reproached whoever has no interest in increasing his wealth through halal (lawful) work and expanding his ability to spend and meet his needs and the needs of his dependents.

In the words of the Holy Prophet (s.a.w.w.):

“There is no good in whoever who does not like earning his living from halal work to satisfy his needs, pays his debts, and strengthen his ties of kinship”.

This Prophetic tradition emphasizes the necessity of man striving to earn his own way; that his earnings should outweigh his expenses. The Prophet (s.a.w.w.) laid stress on this point: “relation to the good of his family and the community as a whole”.

Islam's plan is simple and precise, directing man's energies into productive employment as a moral responsibility and a legal duty that fits into building a healthy Muslim society, where there is no unmet wanting.Islam's plan is simple and precise, directing man's energies into productive employment as a moral responsibility and a legal duty that fits into building a healthy Muslim society, where there is no unmet wanting.

2. Distribution

Bad distribution is the second gravest external cause of the economic problem, which also results in the spread of poverty and need, and unbalanced economic life. As clearly seen from secular systems, different social classes have arisen. One of them lives in the lap of luxury, enjoying every kind of material pleasure, amassing wealth, monopolizing means and sources of riches. While the other is hardly able to have daily bread and scrape together a subsistence living.

This gross inequality in economic life, which represents a dangerous and harmful schism in society, has its main causes principally in bad distribution and the implementation of bland, man-made economic systems which have their own momentum is aggravating the catastrophe. Feudalism, capitalism, and communism and the like have merely exacerbated the crisis all the more.

Distribution, has a long historic experience, regardless of whatever secular economic system has been tried. Its consequence of an unjust spread of wealth is the prime basis of today's social tragedy of mankind.

Such is well established, by Muslim and non-Muslim experts alike, as exampled by one report in an Italian publication, and translated and published in the Kuwaiti daily “Al-Qabas”, back on August 15-8-1976 in its issue 1525:

“Experts in the fields of development, food and population unanimously agree that the available natural resources in the world are so abundant that they can meet all the needs of the nations if goodwill was shown and if these resources were equally distributed among all nations. The root cause is the unjust distribution of the resources...and the failure of many nations to win their real independence, decide the fate of their wealth and distribute it justly and fairly.

“Russian scientist Ivan Shatilov has also said that cultivated areas now could satisfy the hunger of tens of billions of people if their crops were distributed equally and fairly among the nations of the world. He further points out: 'On the other hand, we must not lose sight of the fact that the advanced industrialized world has not, so far, made use of the marine sources of food. The oceans constitute 71 percent of the total surface of the earth, whereas they produce no more that 1 percent of man's foodstuff.'“

Man will never be able to taste the flavour of happiness and dignity, as historical records testify, unless he sheds the shackles of short-sighted man-made systems, and blot out forever their traces in the human community, souls and lives. Such systems proved themselves a failure. They only record their flagrant, tragic defeat, which victimize humanity and brings forth unspeakable cries of starvations, wars and deprivations.

Man was metamorphosed into a machine working incessantly in-favour of the ruling classes, whether being individuals as is the case in the capitalist and feudalist systems, or authorities, and parties as it is in the socialist and communist systems.

Only when man recovers his consciousness from the anesthesia of propaganda manipulated by those who covet these principles from their won vested interest and breaks the fetters of servitude which subdues him by force and coercion, man will see the fountain of light and find the path to an honorable free life, where he finds his righteousness and dignity. Only when man strives to seek and intensifies his efforts to win good and happiness will he find the key presented by Islam.

This concise discourse, is not intended to delve into great detail the major principles and important lines drawn by Islam in its unmatched economic system. It is but an outline of just its view.This concise discourse, is not intended to delve into great detail the major principles and important lines drawn by Islam in its unmatched economic system. It is but an outline of just its view.

3) Consumption

The major third factor conducive to the economic problem and perpetuating the spread of poverty and destruction of human resources is ill-consumption, which the misuse of wealth and the non-usage of assets that could preserve and satisfy human demands in a calculated balanced way.

Like all other fields, Islam has a unique diagnosis for consumption in its particularly caring way of embracing a complete formula for life. Its guidelines show the following steps:

A. Limiting Consumption

Consumption is the most critical stage in dealing with the wealth and making use of it and Islam did not neglect this vital area but set a system with clear moral aspects that controls the process, utilizing the graces and favours bestowed on man by Allah.

So that man would not act excessively or unreasonably in regard to consuming life's resources, Islam projects a well-laid system, calculated and in accordance with its message and its distinctive way of handling matters at man's disposal.

B. Prohibition of Extravagance and Wastefulness

Extravagance and wastefulness are nothing but harmful misusages of wealth. Islam exhorted man to confine himself to the necessities of life and to keep his lusts, avarice and the untoward behaviors in check.

Allah, the Exalted, says:

“O children of Adam! attend to your embellishments at every time of prayer, and eat and drink and be not extravagant; surely He does not love the extravagant.” Holy Qur'an (7:31)

“And they who when they spend, are neither extravagant nor parsimonious, and (keep) between these the just mean.” Holy Qur'an (25:67)

“And give to the near of kin his due and (to) the needy and the wayfarer, and do not squander wastefully. Surely the squanderers are the brothers of the Satan and Satan is ever ungrateful to his Lord.” Holy Qur'an (17:26-27)

“And do not make your hand to be shackled to your neck nor stretch it forth to the utmost (limit) of its stretching forth, lest you should (afterwards) sit down blamed, stripped off.” Holy Qur'an (17:29)

These exhortation and restrictions were purely to keep a balanced economy perfectly organized. If wealth is employed in the interest of man, used as it was ordained and planned by Allah, all human needs were met.

Islam, in its legislation and perceptions, erect a structure of logical bases compatible with human make-up and instinctive needs.

Because man cannot always handle wealth, Allah's given services and favours are bestowed upon him in a strategically productive way, Islam puts before him the way according to which he can utilize and consume wealth efficiently and justly. If, however, these are ignored and neglected, the specific objective outlined by Allah will be lost to man with disastrous consequences as can be seen by the widespread plight of people all over the world.

All activities, including commodities and services, are put into two categories that best suit their nature, halal (lawful) and the haram (unlawful). Wine, gambling, revelry, debauchery, wasteful entertainment etc, are strictly prohibited because they only dissipate man's wealth.

Instead of being wasted in vain, such huge sums of money should be spent in the services of human society to satisfy fundamental human needs and preserve wealth from being squandered and lost. It is an ailment that plagued all societies who lack the sound planning Islam presents to man.

Thousands of millions of dollars are wasted daily on wine, gambling, extravagant entertainment, debauchery, as well as on accumulating weapons of mass destruction and annihilation for wars and terrorizing other nations, whilst millions of people are straddled with hunger, deprivation and misery.

Islam makes such perverse and corrupt consumption haram because its aims are to employ wealth in fields that secure welfare for humanity.

With its exact and perfectly planned economic system, Islam has placed in the hands of mankind the economic gifts of securing the cure of all financial woes and salvaging an equitable world from the abyss of poverty, deprivation and injustice in which millions still painfully suffer from and seemingly will continue to do so with ill-founded man-made equivalents.

Notes

1. Al-Naraqi, Jami' al- Sa'adat (Collector of Felicities), vol. 2, p. 46.

2. Al-Harani, Tuhaf al-Uqul an Aal al-Rasul, Mawa'id al-Nabi (Treasures of Minds about the Household of the Messenger of Allah, Exhortations of the Prophet).

3. Al-Kulaini, al-Kafi, vol. 5, p.67.

Chapter 2: School for Generations

His Character

The human character rests upon three pivots.

First: The ethical pivot, whereat the individual’s behaviorism inside the society and method of living can be incarnated through the ethical capabilities he has.

Second: The rational pivot, through which man deals with nature and thought, out of the rational faculties he possesses.

Third: The spiritual pivot, which organizes the association between man and his Lord, that identifies, in turn, the nature of connection according to the spiritual powers man owns.

Al-Shahid’s character was prominent in all these pivots, being established on balanced pillars, rendering him a centre of attraction, respect and veneration of people everywhere. This was due to the fact that al-Shahid attained a high degree of zuhd (asceticism), knowledge and credibility, that made some magnates believe in his reaching the level of infallibility.

Following the Prophet’s Guide

Al-Shahd al-Thani used to take the holy Messenger (S) as his pattern, in his morals and conduct, the fact making his love to grow inside the pure hearts.

During his meeting (majlis), he behaved among his companions and disciples as if being one of them, seeing no superiority for himself over them; doing everything himself without asking anyone to perform any of the house services for him. He used to go shopping himself, purchasing all the family necessities, setting out to the desert or forest for cutting and gathering firewood, carrying it on his back. He was doing all these practices while being at the climax of his scholastic and social glory, disdaining from all forms of haughtiness, and kinds of hypocrisy.

This is true, as al-Shahid (may Allah be pleased with him) got his education at the school of Ahl al-Bayt (A) far from whom Allah removed uncleanness and cleansed with a thorough cleansing.

Others’ Views about Him

Al-Shahid al-Thani’s character drew the attention of many great dignitaries throughout history, deserving veneration of the ‘ulama’ of all eras. In his regard, al-Shaykh al-Hurr al-’Amili, the author of Wasa’il al-Shi’ah, has said:

“His attainment of fiqh, knowledge, honour, asceticism (zuhd), worship, righteousness, scrutiny, holiness, sublime position, and all other virtues and perfect attributes is so famous that needs no mention and his excellences and meritorious traits exceed numeration and limitation beside leaving behind well-known compilations. He was a faqih (jurisprudent), a mujtahid, a grammarian, a philosopher, a mutakallim, having full command over all fields of knowledge. He was the first among the Imamiyyah to compile a book on dirayat al-hadith (acquaintance of traditions).”1

In his book Rawdat al-jannat, al-Sayyid al-Khunsari says in his regard:

“Till the present time “1260 H. “I have never met, among the renowned ‘ulama’, anyone reaching his sublime status, great position, high rank, efficient comprehension, firm resolute, elegant instinct, straightforward method, discipline in acquiring knowledge, multiplicity of professors, delicate disposition, tender making, and objectivity and perfection of his compilations and works. Rather he was characterized with the morals prescribed by Allah “the Exalted “to the extent making him occupy the second rank after the infallible (ma’lum).”2

He also was referred to by al-’Allamah al-’Amin, the author of al-Ghadir, when he said:

“He was the greatest of time graces, the most profound in knowledge, the best of religion and sect, and shaykh of the reputable fuqaha’. Further, he contributed to significant sciences including philosophy, kalam, fiqh, u’Iul (principles), poetry, literature, natural philosophy, and mathematics. His large-scale fame and reputation can introduce him much better than all that we said, leaving no room for uttering more words in his regard, as what can be said by that who drawls with his rhetoric. Whatever is said fails short of realizing his far-reaching privileges and wide-spread renown. Peace be upon him for the services he contributed to his ummah (nation) by his generous hands, and his propagation of beneficial sciences.”3

The Martyr Murtaza Mutahhari,4 in his book al-`Ulum al-’Islamiyyah, extolled him by saying:

“Al-Shaykh Zayn al-Din, known as al-Shahid al-Thani, is counted among the greatest Shi’ah ‘ulama’, comprehending all fields of knowledge, belonging to Jabal ‘Amil. His sixth grandfather (Salih), was a disciple under al- `Allamah al-Hilli. He was born in 911 H., and was martyred in 966 H. He made so many trips and travels, meeting a large number of professors in Egypt, Damascus, Yijaz, Quds, Iraq, Istanbul, picking from every farm a fruit. The number of his teachers among Ahl al-Sunnah reached twelve, the fact making him an all-inclusive character, as besides fiqh and usul, he had a good command over philosophy, gnosticism, medicine and astronomy, enjoying the merits of zuhd (asceticism) and taqwa (piety).

Recording his biography, some of his disciples state that he used to cut firewood at night, to provide for his family, while practising the profession of teaching in the morning. He spent a long time at Ba’labakk, teaching the rules of the five schools of thought (Ja’fari, Yanafi, Shafi`i, Maliki, and Hanbali). Al-Shahid has left numerous works, the foremost of which being Sharh al-Lum`ah of al-Shahid al-’Awwal, beside Masalik al-’ifham which was an exposition (sharh) for al-Muhaqqiq al-Hilli’s al-Shara’i’i. He learnt under al-Muhaqqiq al-Karaki (before the latter’s coming to Iran), never visiting Iran. His son was called Sahib al-Ma’alim, who was among the most renowned Shiah ‘ulama’.5

Ibn al-Awdi

His disciple and faithful follower, who accompanied him a long time, Ibn al-Awdi, says about him:

“Of the perfection merits he attained the best and most excellent, being clothed in the best of their sorts. He had a lofty self-brightened with flanks and ribs, and splendid temper of which honour diffuses and emanates. He was the Ummah’s shaykh and youth, the origin of virtues and their end no moment of his life was spent but in acquiring virtues, beside occupying himself all the time with that benefitting people day and night.6

Ibn al-`Awdi, who was admiring his teacher to a great extent, never forgot to demonstrate some of his features and complexion, saying:

“He was a square-built man, of straight stature, and at the last days of his life he inclined toward fatness of a circular radiant face, a lank hair nearer to fairness. He was of black eyes and brows, white-faced, of huge arms and legs, with fingers like silver bars, whoever looking at his face, hearing his sweet utterance would never allow himself to depart him, seeing comfort in talking to him with neglecting everything, all eyes be filled of his solemnity, with hearts rejoicing at his splendour. By Allah, he is higher than all that description, having praiseworthy attributes many more than those I cited.”

He goes on to say that once upon an eve, he saw him leading his donkey, that was burdened with firewood, toward his house, while getting up early in the morning, betaking himself to teach at the mosque. His daytime was spent in investigation, researching and reading, setting out, after performing maghrib (evening) prayers in congregation, to inspecting his vintage orchard on the outskirts of the town.

Ibn al-`Awdi was so infatuated with al-Shahid’s character, that he was used to keep his company wherever he travelled or resided, till the last days of his life.

His Teachers

Al-Shahid’s character was distinguished with versatility and manifold talents, with making various travels and establishing links with many professors that played an effective role in the formation of his all-inclusiveness and profundity of his scholarly personality.

His keenness to seek and learn different sciences was like the curiosity of a thirsty man desiring to drink water from serene fountains, the fact providing him a good opportunity to be acquainted with his time culture, going deeply into it within a very short period.

Making a thorough review over his works, that constituted an encyclopedia, one comes to realize the extent of comprehensiveness and profundity al-Shahid attained in most of the branches of knowledge known during the era he lived.

Below are some of his teachers:

1. ‘Ali ibn Ahmad al-’Amili, known with the nickname `Ibn al-Hajjah’, who was his father and first teacher. Under him al-Shahid learnt Arabic grammar (nahw) and a part of principles of literature, beside the book al-Nafi` fi Mukhtaar al-Sharayi` and al-Lum`ah al-Dimashqiyyah.

2. Al-Shaykh ‘Ali ibn `Abd al-’Ali al-Maysi, under whom al-Shahid learnt for eight years, reading to him alShara’i` of al-Muhaqqiq al-Hilli, al-’Irshad of al-`Allamah al-Hilli and al-Qawa’id of al-Shahid al-’Awwal, all being on fiqh. We have previously stated that this man is the husband of al-Shahid’s aunt, who has married his daughter to al-Shahid later on.

3. Al-Sayyid Yasan al-’A`raji, under whom he studied al-Qawa`id of Ibn Maytham al-Bahrani on kalam, alTahdhib and al-`Umdah al-jaliyyah on u’sul, beside alKafiyah on nahw (grammar).

4. Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Makki al-Dimashqi, under whom al-Shahid learnt Sharh al-Mujaz al-Nafisi and Ghayat al-qa’Id fi ma`rifat al-fa’Id, both being on medicine. Further he studied under him Fu’sul al Farghani on cosmography and astronomy, beside some parts of Hikmat al-’Ishraq of al-Suhrawardi, Sahih alBukhari and Sahih Muslim, all being on hadith.

Beside the above-mentioned books, al-Shahid learnt other ones under Egyptian professors, being the following:

5. Shahab al-Din Ahmad al-Ramli, under whom he learnt al-Minhaj al-Nawawi on fiqh, Mukhtaar al-’u’Iul of Ibn Yajib, Sharh `Aqa’id al-`A’Iudi and Sharh alTalkhi’I on rhetoric, beside Sharh al-Ta’Irif al-`Arabi and Sharh Jam` al-jawami’ on u’Iul al-fiqh, with Taw’ih Ibn Hisham on grammar (nahw) and other books.

6. Mulla Husayn al-Jurjani, under whom al-Shahid learnt the books Sharh al-Tajrid of Mulla ‘Ali al Qushachi, Sharh al-’Ashkal on geometry and Sharh al Jughmini of Qa’Ii Zadah al-Rumi.

7. Shahab al-Din ibn al-Najjar al-Yanbali, under whom al-Shahid learnt Sharh al-Shafiyah of al-Jarburdi, and Sharh al-Khazrajiyyah on prosody.

8. Na’sir al-Din al-Malaqani, under whom he learnt Tafsir al-Baydawi.

9. Na’sir al-Din al-Hablawi,under whom he studied science of reciting the Qur’an, reading to him a treatise authored by him.

10. Muhammad ibn Abi al-Nahhas, under whom he studied al-ShaÏibiyyah on Qur’an recitation too.

11. `Abd al-Yamid al-Sanhuri.

12. Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Qadir al-Shafi`i, under whom al-Shahid learnt books on mathematics, and the book al-Yasaminah on algebra and comparison.

His Disciples

A large number of knowledge-seekers have learnt under al-Shahid, some of whom turning to be reputable ‘ulama’. Al-Shahid was so concerned to convey and communicate all the sciences he learnt, to the largest possible number of knowledgeand thought-seekers, deeply believing in the fact that zakat (purity) of knowledge (`ilm) lies in propagating and disseminating it.

The most notable of his disciples are the following:

1. Al-Sayyid Nur al-Din ‘Ali al-’Amili al-Jub`i, the author of Madarik al-’ahkam, which was widely known. He was the most intimate of his disciples, being his son-inlaw later on.

2. The investigating scholar al-Sayyid ‘Ali al-Husayni al-’Amili al-Jizzini, known as al-Sa’igh, who is the author of the books Sharh al-Sharayi` and Sharh al-’Irshad of al-`Allamah al-Hilli (i.e. al-’Irshad).

3. Al-Shaykh Husayn ibn Abd al-Samad al-Harithi al‘Amili, who was among the eminent fuqaha’, being the father of the well-known al-Shaykh al-Baha’i. He was the first among al-Shahid’s disciples to accompany him in his travel to Egypt, Istanbul and then in his pilgrimage to the holy shrines in Iraq. After staying there for a long time, he visited Iran, where he got a license from al-Shahid al-Thani.7 His son was considered the most sagacious star in the sphere of the Islamic thought during the eleventh Hijrah century.8

4. Muhammad ibn Husayn, known with the nickname al-Hurr al-’Amili al-Mashghari, who was the great grandfather of the author of Wasa’il al-Shi`ah.

5. Finally, not the last, Baha’ al-Din Muhammad ibn `Ali al-’Awdi, known as Ibn al-`Awdi, who was the most outstanding of his disciples and followers. He enjoyed al-Shahid’s company for about seventeen years, from 945 up to 962 H., when he travelled toward Khurasan, never meeting his teacher afterwards.

School for Generations

Those to whom we referred were only the most eminent of his genius disciples, but has al-Shahid’s school come to an end with his passing away from the world?

Never, as his books and works are still extant to the present day, with knowledge-seekers keeping on studying his valuable works, and his books being printed and published throughout days and with passage of years and differing of ages.

His books, like Sharh al-Lum`ah, al-Masalik, Irshad al-’adhhan, Raw’ al-jinan and munyat al-Murid are still constituting fountains gushing science, knowledge and thought. Besides, Sharh al-Lum`ah is still an essential curriculum in the theological schools, though it was compiled four centuries ago.

Hence, isn’t it possible to claim that al-Shahid is still giving his lectures and lessons, with his school keeping on producing generations after others of fuqaha’ and ‘ulama’?

His Works

Verily, al-Shahid’s character makes men stand in awe while studying it, as he managed to leave behind a huge heritage in thought and sciences, despite his relatively short age and hard bitter circumstance he experienced.

He used to labour to provide for his family, receiving people warmly, endeavouring to meet their needs and demands, travelling from a country to another, spending a part of his life under persecution and surveillance. Despite all that, he has compiled about seventy books on different fields of knowledge.

This phenomenon has excited the astonishment of his disciple Ibn al-`Awdi, striking him with wonder, while witnessing the bulkiness of problems inflicting al-Shahid, and people’s frequenting to him and welcoming him with that extreme veneration. He would ask himself: how could al-Shahid leave for us all these great works, while he was supposed to be completely occupied by all these matters.

In front of this manifestation, it is inevitable for everyone but to admit and recognize al-Shahid’s genius, rendering him to be among the everlasting history ingenious men.

Following is a survey for his works and treatises:

1. The licenses he granted to his disciples: The licenses were regarded at that time as graduate certificates. Al-Shahid has granted his disciples different licenses, some being epitomized, and others being protracted like the one he granted to al-Shaykh Husayn `Abd al-Samad, the father of al-Shaykh al-Baha’i, whose date goes back to the year 941 H9 .

2. Asrar al-Alat.10

3. Al-Bidayah fi al-dirayah: Which deals with `ilm alhadith. He finished its compilation on the night of Tuesday the fifth of Dhu al-Yijjah 959 H. It was published, with its exposition (sharh), at Tehran in 1310 H.

4. Al-Bidayah fi sabil al-hidayah: It deals with the Islamic doctrines.

5. Tamhid al-qawa`id al-’u’Iuliyyah wa al-`arabiyyah:11 It contains a hundred rules about u’Iul alfiqh. It was printed in Tehran in 1272 H.

6. Al-Tanbihat al-`alaniyyah fi wa”a’if al-Alat alqalbiyyah: It deals with obligatory and supererogatory prayers and secrets of prayer. Al-Shaykh Aqa Buzurg alTehrani reports that al-Shahid completed authoring the book on Saturday the ninth of Dhu al-Yijjah (Day of `Arafat) 951 H. It was published several times, one of which being in 1305 H.12

7. Tahqiq al-’iman wa al-’Islam.

8. Jawab al-masa’il al-Khurasaniyyah.

9. Jawab al-masa’il al-Shamiyyah.

10. Jawab al-masa’il al-Najafiyyah.

11. Jawab al-masa’il al-Hindiyyah.

Hence we come to know that al-Shahid used to give replies to the letters, reaching him from all over the Islamic world, giving, solutions to the different questions they put forth, about many subjects, like fiqh, kalam, literature and philosophy and other fields. His answers were printed in leaflets meeting the aspired purpose. Seemingly many of them have been lost.

12. Jawahir al-kalimat fi ‘iyagh al-`uqud wa al’qa`at.

Al-Shaykh Aqa Buzurg al-Tehrani reports that he found a copy of the book in the library of al-Sayyid Muhammad ‘Ali Hibat al-Din. It was in the form of a manuscript, dated 996 H., that was inscribed by Maq’Iud `Ali, the son of Shah Muhammad al-Damghani, but without holding the book’s title13 (Jawahir al-kalimat).

13. Aashiyat al-’Irshad.

14. Aashiyat Tamhid al-qawa`id.

15. Aashiyat Fatwa Khilafiyyat al-Sharayi`.

16. Aashiyat al-Qawa`id.

17. Aashiyat Mukhtaar al-Nafi`.

18. Aashiyah `ala `Uqud al-’Irshad.

19. Risalat adab al-Jumu`ah: A treatise dealing with the recommendable deeds on Fridays.

20. Risalah fi tahrim Talaq al-ha’i’dh (A Treatise on forbiddance of divorcing the menstruant).

21. Risalah fi tayaqqun al-Taharah wa al-hadath (being sure of purity and any act invalidating the ablution).

22. Risalah fi Alat al-Jumu`ah. A booklet dealing with the Friday prayer. Al-Shahid was believing in the obligation of performing Friday prayer in person.

23. Risalah fi al-bahth `an Alat al-Jumu`ah.

24. Risalah fi Talaq al-gha’ib (about divorce of the absentee).

25. Risalah fi man ahdatha fi athna’ ghusl al-janabah.

26. Risalah fi hukm al-muqimin fi al-’asfar.

27. Risalah fi niyyat al-hajj wa al-`umrah (pilgrimage).

28. Risalah fi da`wa al-’ijma` (unanimity).

29. Risalah fi al-wilayah and that prayer is never accepted without it. Al-Shahid finished its compilation on the fifth of Safar 950 H.14

30. Risalah fi najasat al-bi’r bi al-mulaqat wa `adamiha (about impurity of the well).

31. Risalah fi ahkam al-hibwah (rulings of gift).

32. Risalah fi mirath al-Jumu`ah (Friday inheritance).

33. Risalah fi jawab thalath masa’il (replies for three questions).

34. Risalah fi `adam jawaz taqlid al-mayyit (impermissibility of imitating the dead [mujtahid]).

35. Risalah fi al-’ijtihad.

36. Risalah fi `ashrat mabahith (ten issues) formed within ten sciences.

37. Risalah fi hadith “the world is the farm for the Hereafter”.

38. Risalah fi tahqiq al-niyyah (making the intention).

39. Risalat fatwa al-khilaf min al-Lum’ah (verdict of dispute from al-Lum`ah).

40. Risalah fi tahqiq al-’ijtima`.

41. Risalah fi tafsir Allah’s saying: “And the foremost in the face, the foremost in the face.”

42. Risalat masa’il IsÏanbuliyyah fi al-`wajibat al-‘ayniyyah (about obligatory acts).

43. Risalah fi sharh al-Basmalah.

44. Risalah fi dhikr ahwalih: It was a booklet in the form of memoir, covering a part of his life since he was a boy learning under his father, till his travel to Sham and Egypt, beside his pilgrimage to the Holy Sanctuary of Allah (Mecca). It also covered his visit to the holy shrines in Iraq, with his journey to Turkey, and lastly his settlement in Ba`labakk, with shouldering the religious leadership.

45. Risalah fi tahqiq al-`adalah (justice).

46. Su’alat al-Shaykh Ahmad wa ajwibatuha.

47. Su’alat al-Shaykh Zayn al-Din wa ajwibatuha.

48. Al-Rawah al-bahiyyah fi sharh al-Lum`ah al Dimashqiyyah, which is considered his most ever well-known work, that will be exposed later on.

49. Raw’I al-jinan fi sharh Irshad al-’adhhan: May be it was the first book of al-Shahid about the inferential fiqh, that he compiled in 948 H. when being in the age of 37 years. Ibn Al-’Awdi reports that al-Shahid has never let anyone be acquainted with it. It is reported that al-Shahid has not managed to complete it, and only one volume of it was published, dealing with taharah (purity) and prayer. It was published in Tehran, in 1307 H. with the book Munyat al-murid.15

50. Sharh Irshad al-’adhhan.

51. Sharh al-’Alfiyyah of al-Shahid al-’Awwal, which is an abridged exposition.

52. Sharh al-’Alfiyyah, a medium exposition.

53. Sharh al-’Alfiyyah, a detailed one.

Al-’Alfiyyah included one thousand issues about the obligations of prayer. The author of al-Dhari`ah has enumerated 31 commentaries on al-’Alfiyyah, the foremost of which being the one written by the author of al-Ma`alim, who was the son of al-Shahid al-Thani, and was dead in 1011 H. After it in importance comes the commentary of Husayn ibn `Abd al-Samad, the father of al-Shaykh alBaha’i, who passed away in 984 H.16

54. Sharh al-Nafliyyah of al-Shahid al-’Awwal, dealing with recommendable acts of prayer.

55. Sharh al-Dirayah, which was completed by al Shahid on the fifth of Dhu al-Yijjah 959 H.

56. Sharh al-Man”umah, that was authored by al Shahid himself (al-Man”umah), and was on `ilm al-nahw (grammar).

57. Ghunyat al-qa’Iidin fi i’ilahat al-muhaddithin.

58. Fatawa al-Sharayi`.

59. Fatawa al-’Irshad.

60. Fatawa al-Mukhtaar.

61. Fawa’d KhulaAt al-rijal.

62. Kashf al-ribah min ahkam al-ghibah: It deals with the issue of backbiting, the narrations about its forbiddance, and how to avoid it. Its compilation was finished on the thirteenth of Safar 949 H., was published several times in Najaf and Iran, and was translated then into Persian.

63. Kitab al-rijal wa al-nasab.

64. Kitab tahqiq al-’iman wa al-’Islam.

65. Kitab al-’ijazat.

66. Mansak al-hajj al-Aghir.

67. Mansak al-hajj al-kabir.

68. Manar al-qa’Iidin fi asrar ma`alim ahkam al-Din: It is an ethical book, to which al-Shahid has referred in his book Munyat al-murid.17

69. Musakkin al-fu’ad `inda faqd al-’ahibbah wa al-‘awlad: Which we shall discuss later on.

70. Mubarrid al-’akbad fi mukhtaar Musakkin al fu’ad: Which is an abridgement for the previous book.

71.Mukhtaar al-Khulaah.

72. Man”umah fi al-nahw.

73. Al-Maqa’id al-`illiyyah fi Sharh al-’Alfiyyah: it is the big commentary on al-Shahid al-’Awwal’s al‘Alfiyyah. He completed its compilation on the nineteenth of Rabi` al-’Awwal 950 H.

74. Al-Masalik fi sharh Shara’i` al-’Islam: It is counted among the valuable works on the inferential fiqh. In it al Shahid has exposed and commented on the book Shara’i’ al-’Islam of al-Muhaqqiq al-Hilli (d. 676 H.). The book has drawn the attention of Shi’ah fuqaha’, throughout all ages, with al-Shahid’s fiqhi opinions being an authority (hujjah) in the Imami fiqh.

It is noteworthy that there were other commentaries on the book al-Sharayi`, the most important of which are: Jawahir al-kalam by the great Shi’ah faqih al-Shaykh Muhammad Husayn al-Najafi, who was known later with the name Sahib al-Jawahir (d. 1266 H). The book consists of 43 volumes, and was published several times.

Musakkin al-Fu’ad `inda Faqd al-’Ahibbah wa al-’Awlad

The reason behind al-Shahid’s compilation of this book lies in the fact that al-Shahid was bereaved with the death of his young children, that no one was left except alShaykh Yasan the author of al-Ma`alim. So he compiled an abridged treatise under the above title, stating in it how man should face life hardships and tribulations with forbearance and consolation, particularly during bereavement of the dearest relations and children. Then he abbreviated all this in a book under the title Mubarrid al-’akbad fi mukhtaar Musakkin al-fu’ad, which was published several times in Iran.

Its compilation was finished by al-Shahid on the first of Rajab 954 H., and it was translated into Persian many times, the foremost of which being the one done by alSayyid Muhammad Baqir Hujjati.

Sharh al-Lum`ah

The book al-Rawah al-bahiyyah fi sharh al-Lum`ah al-Dimashqiyyah, actually occupies the foremost position among the fiqhi books till the present time. It is still regarded the basic curriculum in the theological schools, in the field of the inferential fiqh, of which every knowledge-seeker can never do without.

As explicitly indicated from the title, the book is a commentary written by al-Shahid al-Thani on al-Lum`ah al-Dimashqiyyah of al-Shahid al-’Awwal Muhammad ibn Makki18 (may Allah be pleased with him). This book is considered the most outstanding work ever compiled by al-Shahid al-Thani, distinguished with accuracy, scrutiny and comprehensiveness.

It has procured the attention of the Imami fuqaha’, throughout different eras and times. Contrary to the common belief, the book was not al-Shahid’s last work. The origin of this belief may be sought in the fact reported by al-Shaykh al-Hurr al-`Amili In his book Amal al-’amil, when citing the event of al-Shahid’s arrest, that was executed “according to him “in a vine orchard in one of Damascus suburbs, while al-Shahid was busy compiling his book al-RawAh al-bahiyyah.

But in fact, the book was authored nine years before his martyrdom, as indicated by al-Shahid himself when stating that the date of finishing its compilation was the night of Saturday 21st of Jumada al-’ la 957 H.

The fuqaha’ were interested in the book al-Rawah albahiyyah to a great extent that many expositions and commentaries were written on it, numbering about a hundred, the fact indicating its extreme importance and scientific value.19

Munyat al-Murid

The full title of the book is Munyat al-murid fi adab al-mufid wa al-mustafid. It is regarded an ethical treatise containing precepts recommending the meritorious morals to be assiduously maintained by the scholar and knowledge-seeker, beside the rules to be followed by the judge and mufti when issuing a judgement and giving a verdict (fatwa). The book is considered a good turning point on the part of al-Shahid, in respect of the importance of the ethical aspect in the life of the ‘ulama’ and fuqaha’, and its constructive social role.

About it a scholar said:

“... Al-Shahid al-Thani has derived his ethical precepts from the holy Qur’an, Prophetic Sunnah and traditions of Ahl al-Bayt Imams (peace be upon them), to establish sound and proper links between the scholar and his disciple and with common people, beside the relation between the disciple and his teacher, and even the duties and conduct of each of them in the class during learning.”20

Hence Munyat al-murid is truly considered a pioneer book in this respect.

The book consists of an introduction, four chapters and a conclusion. The introduction deals with the importance of knowledge and knowledge-seeking, in the light of the Qur’an and traditions of the Mu`umun (Infallibles). The first chapter elucides the functions of both the disciple and teacher, while the second chapter deals with the good manners of the mufti (one giving fatwa), and mustafti (one seeking fatwa or ruling) and the conditions of issuing a fatwa (futya). The third chapter refers to the etiquette of debate and methods of dialogue and conversation, whereas the fourth chapter is designated to exposing the style of writing and compilation. At last comes the conclusion that elucidates the degrees of the legal sciences, and their preliminaries, supported by counsels and aphorisms that are of use for the seekers of religious sciences.

The book’s significance lies in its determining the earmarks of the path the path of theological learning, and its role in fixing the objectives, being in itself an extremely vital matter.

Therefore the theological institute appeals to the knowledge-seekers and professors, asking them to study this book and benefit from the knowledge contained in it.21

The book was translated into Persian, for the first time in 1369 H., by al-Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Sa`idi al-Khurasani, and was published in Tehran in 1372 H.

Again it was translated in 1376 H. by al-Sayyid Mahmud al-Dehsurkhi al-’IsIfahani, under the title Siraj al-mubtadi’in.

Recently it was translated into Persian in 1400 H., by Dr. Muhammad Baqir Yujjati, which is the best translation. It was reprinted sixteen times, with the translator’s annexing a detailed survey for the biography of the book’s author: al-Shahid al-Thani.

Excerpts from Munyat al-Murid

Following are some excerpts from the book that shed light upon the way of thinking of the most eminent man of knowledge and human thought.

“That he never disdains from learning and benefitting from that who is lower, in position or age or fame or religion or any other knowledge. But he all the time benefits from whoever be of benefit, never being kept by any feeling of superiority due to high post or fame, to get benefit from that unknown to him so as to lose his commerce and his knowledge be decreased, the fact entailing Allah’s abhorrence. It is according to the tradition reported from the Prophet (Allah’s peace and benediction be upon him and his Progeny): Wisdom is the believer’s sought request, wherever finding it being its deservant better than any other one.”

“That the knowledge-seeker should never attend the class but only when being ritually pure from any hadath (anything invalidating ablution), and khabath (scum or major mischief), cleansed and scented in respect of body and clothes, wearing the best of his garments, intending thus to glorify knowledge...”

In another chapter al-Shahid recommends every knowledge-seeker by saying:

“He has to evade the company of that who keeps his attention away from his request, as leaving it being the most necessary act the knowledge-seeker should do and the worst blight of company being loss of life in vain...”

“That he has to treat his shaykh (teacher) as being his real father and spiritual guardian, who is greater than the corporeal father, exaggerating in venerating him in view of observing the right of his parents, and to fulfil and pay the right of bringing him up. Alexander has once asked a boy: What is the matter with you that you dignify your teacher in a way more highly than your father? He replied:

Because the teacher is verily the means for my next life, while my father being the means for my mortal life.”

“It is incumbent upon anyone of them attaining any field of knowledge and sort of perfection, to guide his companions and encourage them to hold meetings, be engaged in learning and seeking knowledge, making his sustenance easy for them, telling them about all the benefits he got, rules and novelties in respect of advice and study. Through guiding and leading them to the right path, Allah will verily bless and make his knowledge abundant, illuminating his heart, with being assured of all issues of having plentiful reward of the Almighty Allah, and His kind patronage and grace.

But whenever being miser and depriving them from anything aforementioned, the opposite shall be true, with his knowledge being not confirmed and if confirmed it will be barren, unproductive, and with no blessing showered from Allah. This case occurred for a number of the predecessors and those who succeeded them.

He also never be jealous of any of them, or despises him or prides himself on him, never boasting in his ability of comprehension and excelling the others, since he used to be like any other one but then was graced by the Al-mighty Allah. So he has to thank Allah for this favour, begging Him to shower upon him much more, through persisting on being grateful. Being so submissive, attaining full eligibility, with his virtue being so widely known, he would verily rise to a higher rank, and Allah is the warrantor of success.”

The book proceeds in this manner in laying down a noble ethical course, indicating a pure spirit and a sublime self-towering up in the spheres of noble-heartedness, till joining the caravan of immortal martyrs.

Notes

1. Amal al-’amil, Vol. I, p. 85.

2. Rawdat al-jannat, pp. 287-288.

3. Shuhada’ al-fadhilah, p. 132.

4. He is one of the personalities of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, and was assassinated after its victory. (Translator)

5. Al-`Ulum al-’Islamiyyah, p. 302.

6. Risalat Ibn al-`Awdi (a manuscript).

7. ‘Ali al-Dawwani: Mafakhir al-’Islam, Vol. IV, p. 475.

8. Kashkul al-Shaykh al-Baha’i (the introduction).

9. Al-Dhari`ah, Vol. 1, p. 193.

10. Ibid., Vol. III, p. 58.

11. Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 433.

12. Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 452.

13. Ibid., Vol. V, p. 278.

14. Ibid., Vol. V, p. 278.

15. Ibid., Vol. SI, p. 275.

16. Ibid., Vol. II, p. 296.

17. Muqaddimat Munyat al-murid, by Ridal-Mukhtari.

18. He was martyred in Damascus in 786 H.

19. Al-Dharish, Vol. VI, pp. 90, 98, Vol. SIII, pp. 292, 296.

20. Muhammad Baqir Hujjati: Adab al-ta’ilim wa al-ta’aum fi al-’Islam.

21. Al-Aawzah journal, issue No. 29 “1408 H.