Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Surah al-Furqan, Section 3, The Qur’an Was Revealed Gradually

Surah al-Furqan, Chapter 25- Verse 21

وَقَالَ الَّذِينَ لاَ يَرْجُونَ لِقَاءنَا لَوْلاَ أُنزِلَ عَلَيْنَا الْمَلاَئِكَةُ أَوْ نَرَى رَبَّنَا لَقَدِ اسْتَكْبَرُوا فِي أَنفُسِهِمْ وَعَتَوْ عُتُوًّا كَبِيرًا

21. “And those who do not hope to meet Us (for Judgment) say: ‘Why are not the angels sent down to us, or (why) do we not see our Lord?’ Certainly they are too proud of themselves and have revolted in great revolt.”

The Arabic word /‘utuww/ means the worst kind of oppression.1 The day of Resurrection is called the day of /liqa’/ (meeting), because in that day all ignorance, negligence and obstacles will be removed fully and people can see Allah’s magnificence.

(“...and they will know that Allah, He is the (very) Manifest Truth.”)2

In order to relinquish duties and responsibilities that believing in Allah and Resurrection would put on polytheists’ shoulder, they stated some pretexts, one of which was why the Prophet (S) eats like us and walks in markets, which we read its answer in the former verses.

The concerned verse completes two other parts of their pretexts and answers them.

It first says:

“And those who do not hope to meet Us (for Judgment) say: ‘Why are not the angels sent down to us, or (why) do we not see our Lord?’...”

Their statement means that suppose it is accepted that the Prophet (S) can have a common life like other people, but it is not accepted that the bringer of revelation comes only to him and that it cannot be seen by other people. What is the problem if the angel appears and certifies his prophethood or retells some of his revelation while people are present?

What is the matter if man sees Allah by his own eye? If this happens, no doubt remains for him. These are the arouse questions which prevent them accepting the call of the Prophet (S).

It is important that the holy Qur’an introduces these pretext-seeking persons as:

“...those who do not expect the meeting with Us...”.3

This shows that these baseless words originate from unbelief in resurrection and also the lack of undertaking responsibility to Allah.

In verse 7 of Surah Al-Hijr, No. 15 we read words like this, where they said:

“If you are of the truthful ones, why do you not bring to us the angels?”

In the beginning of this Surah also we read:

“...Why is not an angel been sent down to him, to be a warner with him?”4

But a person who seeks truth only demands reason for proving a matter and he does not care about the sort of reason whatever kind it may be. When by performing miracles, including the holy Qur’an itself, the Prophet (S) has proved that his call and invitation is right, what do these pretexts mean?

The best reason that these words were not uttered for the sake of researching on the prophethood of the holy Prophet (S) is that they asked to see Allah and by this demand they reduced Him to a visible object. This groundless demand was asked by the Children of Israel and its decisive answer has been given them in the Qur’an which is explained in Surah Al-’A‘raf, No. 7, verse 143.

Thus, the Holy Qur'an answers these demands in this way:

“...Certainly they are too proud highly of themselves and have revolted in great revolt.”

The Arabic word /‘utuww/ means to restrain to obey an order stubbornly and with enmity. The Qur’anic phrase /fi ’anfusihim/ may mean that they were proud of themselves and were also self-conceited, or it may mean that they concealed their conceit and pride in their own heart and proposed such demands and pretexts.

In our age there are also some persons who repeat the logic of former polytheists and say that they do not believe in Allah unless they see Allah in their laboratory and experiment the soul with Himself in surgery operation. The source of both is one thing: arrogance and delusion.

Basically, all the persons who know sense and experience as the only means of recognition implicitly repeat this very matter. All materialists and the money-minded ones do have the same opinion, while our sense can perceive only a small part of this world.

Anyway, all materialists count everything unspiritual and earthy and they try to see Allah with their own physical eyes and this is their great mistake.

Surah al-Furqan - Verse 22

يَوْمَ يَرَوْنَ الْمَلاَئِكَةَ لاَ بُشْرَى يَوْمَئِذٍ لِّلْمُجْرِمِينَ وَيَقُولُونَ حِجْرًا مَّحْجُورًا

2. “On the day when they shall see the angels, there shall be no glad tidings that day for the guilty, and they (the angels) shall say: ‘It (Paradise) is a forbidden (thing), totally prohibited’.”

In the previous verse the arrogant that had no hope of resurrection and expected to see angels were mentioned, and the concerned verse wants to say that the angels will come to them but instead of conveying the light of revelation, they declare the severest threats to them. That day, as Imam Baqir (as) says, is the day of their death and Allah orders the Angel of death to take their life and when their soul is going to leave their body, some angels hit their back and face. Then Imam Baqir (as) recited this verse.5

The verse says:

“On the day when they shall see the angels...”

Therefore, in this noble verse the Qur’an implies as a threat that they want to see the angels and finally they will see them, but as the verse says:

“...there shall be no glad tidings that day for the guilty...”

Yes, on that day they do not get happy, but since they see the signs of punishment along with them, they fear so much that they will utter the same sentence that they used to say at the time of danger in this world:

“Grant grace to us and exempt us!”6

Certainly neither this sentence nor other sentences will have any effect on their doomed fate, for the fire they have started by themselves will burn them, and the evil deeds which they have done will be materialized then before them, The consequences of their misdeeds eventually come home to roost.

The verse continues saying:

“...and they (the angels) shall say: ‘It (Paradise) is a forbidden (thing), totally prohibited’.”

The Arabic word /hijr/ originally means an area that is furnished with stones and it becomes forbidden to enter. If we see that ‘Hijr-i-Isma‘il’ is called /hijr/ it is because it prevents man from some evil actions, thus we read in verse 5 of Surah Al-Fajr, No. 89:

“Is there (not) in this an oath for those who have sense?”

Also the companions of Hijr whose name is mentioned in Qur’an7 , has been used for the name of the people of Salih (as) who used to make fortified stone houses for themselves in mountains and were protected by these houses.

But the Qur’anic phrase /hijran mahjūra/ (A forbidding ban) is an expression that was used by Arabs when they met a person whom they feared. They used to say it for protecting themselves.

Specially it was Arab’s tradition that in the sacred months that war was forbidden when they confronted someone and this tradition might get unobserved they repeated this phrase in order to be protected. By hearing this phrase that person protected them and made them calm. Thus the meaning of this holy phrase is that:

“I seek protection, which is stable and unchanging.”

Meanwhile, it is understood from the above words that the persons who said these words are criminal. The proportion of existing verbs in the verse, the course of history, and the background of this phrase among Arabs demand this, though some say that it is possible that the speaker of these words will be the angels and their aim is to prevent polytheists from Allah’s mercy.

Some have also said that these words are said by criminals to each other, but apparently the first meaning is correct, for many commentators have accepted it or have mentioned it as the first commentary.8

But what day do wrongdoers meet angels?

Some of the commentators say that it is at the time of death that man sees the angel of death, as Surah An-Nisa’, No. 4, verse 97 says:

“Verily (as for) those whom the angels cause to die while they are unjust to their own selves...”

Some other commentators say that its purpose is the day of Resurrection when wrongdoers encounter the Divine angels of punishment and observe them.

The second commentary seems more appropriate with regard to the next verses that talk about resurrection and especially with the word /yauma’iǒin/ that refers to it.

Surah al-Furqan - Verse 23

وَقَدِمْنَا إِلَى مَا عَمِلُوا مِنْ عَمَلٍ فَجَعَلْنَاهُ هَبَاء مَّنثُورًا

23. “And We will proceed to what they have done of deeds, so We shall render them as scattered floating dust.”

The Arabic word /haba’/ means ‘fine dust’ and the word ‘Manthūr’ means ‘scattered’.

In this noble verse the condition of wrongdoers’ actions in Hereafter is imagined.

It says:

“And We will proceed to what they have done of deeds, so We shall render them as scattered floating dust.”

The Arabic word /‘amal/, as Raqib in Mufradat says, in this verse means: every work or job done by intention. But the word /fi‘l/ ‘verb’ is general and is applied to both jobs and works that are done whether intentionally or unintentionally.

The Qur’anic word /qadimna/ is derived from the word /qudūm/, which means to enter or to turn unto something.

Here, this word is for putting emphasis on the matter, that is to say they have certainly done all their actions intentionally and on purpose, though their deeds are apparently right and good. Thus, for their polytheism and paganism Allah shall turn unto the work they did and make it scattered motes.

In narrations the extension of those whose deeds will be naught is the persons who perform ritual prayer and fast but do not refrain from unlawful food, or do hate and have enmity against Imam Ali-ibn-Abitalib (as) and his Shiites.

By the way, the Arabic word /haba’/ means some very tiny particles of dust that can not be seen in a natural way, unless sun light comes inside a dark room from an opening, so that these particles are clear and visible and, in this way, we can see them.

This sentence shows that their deeds will be so worthless and ineffective that it seems there were not any deeds at all, though they have tried and attempted many years.

This verse is like verse 18 of Surah ’Ibrahim No. 14, which says:

“...their deeds are as ashes on which the wind blows severely on a stormy day...”

Its logical reason is also clear, for what gives meaning and sense to man’s deed is proper intention, motivation, and the final aim of that action. Faithful persons go after doing things with Divine motives and seek for pure sacred aims, and some sound and correct programs, while unfaithful persons are mostly proud, affecter, deceiver, and self-conceited, therefore, their deeds will be of no value.

As an example, there are mosques that have been built hundreds years before and the past of centuries of time had the least effect on them. On the contrary, we see some houses that after one month or year there appear some defects in them.

The former was built strongly and with the best construction materials and foreseeing all future events, because it had divine motivation, but as for the latter one, attention was paid only to the colour and appearance of it, for its aim was acquiring wealth and money by means of deception and counterfeit.

Basically, according to Islam logic, righteous deeds have got some pests which must be definitely protected. Sometimes it is wrong from the beginning, like the deed which is done hypocritically. Sometimes man will get proud, self-conceited and self-admired while he is performing a deed and his deed will be worthless because of it.

And sometimes after doing a deed, its worth and value will get abolished because its doer does some actions that are contradictory and opposing to it, like a generous action or prodigality that is followed by reproach, or the righteous deeds that are followed by paganism and apostasy.

Even, according to some Islamic narrations, sometimes committing sins before doing a good deed will affect it, as about the person who drinks alcoholic drink we read that his righteous deeds done during 40 days will not be accepted by Allah9 .

Anyway, Islam has got a very strict, calculated and precise program about attributes of righteous deeds.

Imam Baqir (as) says:

“On the day of Resurrection Allah brings a group of people while there is a light in front of them, like brightening and white garments, (this is the light of their deeds). Then Allah orders those deeds to be scattered particles of dust. (Then all of them will disappear).

These are those who used to perform ritual prayer and fast, but when they were given something unlawful, they would take it; and when it was said something of the virtues of Imam Ali (as) to them they denied it.”10

Surah al-Furqan - Verse 24

أَصْحَابُ الْجَنَّةِ يَوْمَئِذٍ خَيْرٌ مُّسْتَقَرًّا وَأَحْسَنُ مَقِيلًا

24. “The companions of the Garden (Paradise) that day shall be in a better abode and a better resting-place.”

There must be a kind of good tidings and encouragement along with warning and advice. Therefore, the holy Qur’an usually sets good and bad beside each other, so that by comparing, their situations will be clear. This verse speaks about the situation of those who live in the Paradise.

The verse says:

“The companions of the Garden (Paradise) that day shall be in a better abode and a better resting-place.”

This verse does not imply that Hell-dwellers are in a good situation, and dwellers of Paradise are in a better situation. For example, we read in Surah Fussilat, No. 41, verse 40:

“...Is he who is hurled into the Fire better, or he who comes secure on the Day of Resurrection...”

The Arabic word /mustaqarr/ means ‘residence’ and the Qur’anic word /muqil/ means ‘the pace of rest in the midday’.

(It is derived from the word /qaylūlah/ that means ‘midday sleep’.)

Ibn Abbas said that the Prophet (S) said:

“When Allah created the Paradise, He put things in it that no one has seen and no mind has imagined. Then He ordered the Paradise to speak.

The Paradise began speaking and said:

‘Successful indeed are the believers’.”11

Surah al-Furqan - Verses 25-26

وَيَوْمَ تَشَقَّقُ السَّمَاء بِالْغَمَامِ وَنُزِّلَ الْمَلاَئِكَةُ تَنزِيلًا

الْمُلْكُ يَوْمَئِذٍ الْحَقُّ لِلرَّحْمَنِ وَكَانَ يَوْمًا عَلَى الْكَافِرِينَ عَسِيرًا

25. “And on the day when the heaven shall burst asunder with the clouds and the angels shall be sent down descending (in ranks).”

26. “The dominion that day in truth shall belong to the Beneficent Lord, and a hard day shall it be for the unbelievers.”

Again, the discussion of Resurrection and the destiny of wrongdoers on that day continues where it says:

“And on the day when the heaven shall burst asunder with the clouds and the angels shall be sent down descending (in ranks).”

The Arabic word /qamam/ is derived from the word /qam/ that means to cover something. Because cloud covers sun, it is called ‘Qamam’. Also the sorrow that covers heart is called ‘Qam’.

This noble verse is in fact an answer to the polytheists’ demand and one of their pretexts, for they expected that Allah and the angles who are among clouds, according to the old fables and legends, come to them to invite them to the Truth.

In the Jews’ myths we also read that Allah sometimes appears among clouds.12

The holy Qur’an answers them, implying that a day (in which wrongdoers are punished and their meaningless words are finished) the angels (not Allah) will be sent down to them.

Now, what is the purpose of separation of the sky and heaven? Some say that it means intuition, rising of curtail of ignorance, and showing of the invisible world. That is on that day, man is bestowed a perceiving and viewing capacity that is different from today’s. He sees angels who are descending from the above world.

Another commentary is that the sky and heaven means celestial bodies that explode one after the other one. The cloud that is created by these explosions and bursting of mountains, covers the sky. Thus the celestial bodies will burst asunder and in the same time their resulting clouds are with them.

Many verses of the holy Qur’an, especially those of the short Suras that are at the end of the Qur’an, express this truth that on the threshold of resurrection some great changes and a strange revolution and transformation happen throughout the universe; mountains will burst and scatter in air like dust, sun and stars will lose their light, even the existing distance between moon and sun will abolish, and a strange shake and earthquake will happen throughout the earth.

Yes, on such a day the bursting of heaven (celestial bodies) and covering sky with a dense cloud is a natural matter.

This very commentary can be said in another way:

The intensity of changes and explosion of stars and planets cause that the sky can be covered with a dense cloud, but there are sometimes some openings inside this cloud. Thus, the sky that in the ordinary state is seen with the natural eye will be separated with these clouds of great explosion.

Then one of the clearest characteristics of that day is referred to through the next verse, where it says:

“The dominion that day in truth shall belong to the Beneficent Lord...”

Even those who have some kind of transient, mortal limited, virtual sovereignty in this world will leave their apparent government, and sovereignty will belong to His pure essence from every aspect and dimension, and because of this, as the Qur’an says:

“...and a hard day shall it be for the unbelievers.”

Yes, on that day that virtual powers will completely diminish and sovereignty will be particular to Allah, the disbelievers’ shelters will be destructed, and the tyrannical powers will disappear, though they were also naught in this world before His Will, but here they were apparently powerful and important.

But in resurrection, where the fact will manifest and unfaithful persons’ imaginations and dreams will blow out, to what they can resort when they face divine punishments. That is why that day will be very difficult for them, while believers will have an easy and comfortable day.

’Abū Sa‘id Khidri says that when the Prophet (p.b.u.h) was reciting the verse saying:

“...in a Day whereof the span is fifty thousand years”,13

which shows that the day of Resurrection is equal to 50 thousand years, he said:

“What a strange long day it is!”

The Prophet (S) said:

“I swear by The One in Whose hand my life is, that that Day will become light for the believer as short as the time is spent for performing one ritual prayer in this world.”14

Carefully studying other verses of the holy Qur’an shows why that day is hard for pagans. On one side, we read in Surah Al-Baqarah, No. 2, verse 166:

“(On the day) when those who were followed disown those who followed (them), and they would see the torment, and their ties (between them) are cut asunder.”

On the other side, we read in Surah AL-Lahab, No. 111, verse 2:

“His wealth avails him not, neither what he had earned.”

And also we read in Surah Ad-Dukhan, No. 44, verse 41:

“The day on which a friend shall not avail (his) friend aught, nor shall they be helped.”

Even intercession that is the only way of salvation is for those sinners that have some relationship with Allah and His friend:

“...Who is it that can intercede with Him save by His leave?...”15

Also they will not be allowed to apologize on that day, let alone to the acceptance of their unreasonable excuses:

“Nor will it be open to them to put forth excuses.”16

Surah al-Furqan - Verses 27-29

وَيَوْمَ يَعَضُّ الظَّالِمُ عَلَى يَدَيْهِ يَقُولُ يَا لَيْتَنِي اتَّخَذْتُ مَعَ الرَّسُولِ سَبِيلًا

يَا وَيْلَتَى لَيْتَنِي لَمْ أَتَّخِذْ فُلاَنًا خَلِيلًا

لَقَدْ أَضَلَّنِي عَنِ الذِّكْرِ بَعْدَ إِذْ جَاءنِي وَكَانَ الشَّيْطَانُ لِلْإِنسَانِ خَذُولًا

27. “And on the day when the unjust one shall bite his hands, saying: ‘Oh! Would that I had taken a way alone with the Messenger’!”

28. “Oh woe is me! Would that I had not taken such a one for a friend!”

29. “He indeed led me astray from the Message after it had come to me, and the Satan fails to aid man.”

Occasion of Revelation

Commentators have narrated an occasion of revelation for these verses that we mention a summary of it:

At the time of the Prophet (S), there were two friends named ‘Uqbah and ’Ubayy among polytheists. Whenever ‘Uqbah returned from a journey, he prepared some food and invited wealthy people of his tribe to a party.

Meanwhile, he liked to go to the Prophet (S) and to be with him for a while, though he had not accepted Islam. One day he prepared some food as usual and invited his friends as well as the Prophet (S).

When food was ready to be served, the Prophet (S) told ‘Uqbah:

“I will not eat your food unless you testify to unity of Allah and my mission.”

‘Uqbah testified that there is no god besides Allah and testified that Muhammad is the Apostle of Allah.

’Ubayy heard this news.

He said to his friend:

“You have deviated from your religion O’ ‘Uqbah!”

His friend said:

“No, by God I did not. But a man came to me who did not eat my food unless I testified to Allah’s unity and his mission. I was ashamed that he was about to leave my home without eating any food, so I testified.”

’Ubayy said:

“I will not be happy with you, unless you stand before him and insult him.” ‘Uqbah did this action and apostatized.

Finally he was killed with other pagans in the Battle of Badr. His friend ’Ubayy was also killed in the Battle of ‘Uhud.17

The above holy verses were sent down and explained the destiny of the man who had a deviated friend and he caused him to go astray.

We have repeatedly said that though the occasions of revelation are particular and especial, they never limit the concept of holy verses and its generality includes all similar persons.

A Bad Friend Deviated Me!

The day of Resurrection has strange scenes, some of which are mentioned in the previous holy verses and in the concerned verses, here, another part is brought up, and that issue is the extraordinary regret of oppressors about their past.

It first says:

“And on the day when the unjust one shall bite his hands, saying: ‘Oh! Would that I had taken a way alone with the Messenger’!”

The Arabic word /ya‘add/ is derived from the word /‘add/ that means grip with teeth. This is usually used about the persons who are upset because of regret and sorrow, as in a Persian proverb it is said that that person grips finger of regret with teeth.

But in the Arabic language, instead of finger, hand is used, and perhaps it is more expressive, for man in such situations does not bite his finger, but he bites the back of his hand. In the Arabic language it is seen many times such as this verse that both hands are referred. In this way the intensity of regret and sorrow is expressed better.

This is perhaps for this matter that when such persons review their past and see that they themselves are responsible and guilty, they decide to revenge themselves so that they can somehow get calm and soothed.

Verily that Day must be called ‘the Day of anguish’, as in the holy Qur’an the day of Resurrection is called by this name18 , for wrongdoers see a perpetual life with the worst conditions before them, while they could change it to a happy and honorable life with some days of patience, struggling with appetitive soul, holy war and donation.

Even for doers of good deeds it is the day of regret. They will regret why they did not do more good deeds!

Then, in the next verse this oppressor, who is completely regretful, says:

“Oh woe is me! Would that I had not taken such a one for a friend!”

It is clear that the purpose of ‘such a one’ is the same person, whether an aberrant kinsman, or Satan or a deviated friend such as ’Ubayy, who deviated ‘Uqbah, mentioned in the occasion of revelation.

In fact this verse and the previous verse set two positions of negation and verification against each other.

In a verse it says:

“Oh woe is me! Would that I had not taken such a one for a friend!”

(For all my misery is for leaving the Prophet (S) and choosing this deviated person as a friend.)

Again in this verse it is continued:

“He indeed led me astray from the Message after it had come to me...”

If he were very far away from perpetual happiness and faith, he would not regret so much, but he had been near it, there was only one step for being ever after happy. But that stubborn, biased, dark-hearted friend returned him thirsty from the spring of life water and took him to the whirlpool of misery.

The Qur’anic word /ǒikr/ has got an extensive meaning in this verse and it includes all divine verses that are in the heavenly books. Moreover, it includes any thing that makes man awaken, alert, and informed.

In the end of the verse the Qur’an says:

“...and the Satan fails to aid man.”

For Satan misleads man and leads him to dangerous places. Then leaving him wandered, Satan goes after his own job.

We must note that the Arabic word /xaǒūl/ is an amplification form which means:

'The one who abundantly fails someone when most needed’, and the reality of /xiǒlan/ (desertion) is that someone hopes for another person’s help, but he deserts him just in the very sensitive moments.

Whether this last sentence of the verse saying:

“...and the Satan fails to aid man”

is said by Allah as a warning for all oppressors and the deviated persons, or it is the rest of the statement said by those who regret in the day of Resurrection, commentators have mentioned two commentaries, both of which are in line with the meaning of the verse, but being Allah’s words is more consistent.

The Role of Friend in Man’s Destiny

Undoubtedly the factors that form man’s personality are different including his will and decision, and most importantly his friend and companion, for man is desirably or undesirably impressionable. Most of his thoughts and moral attributes are formed through his friends. This fact has scientifically and experimentally been proved.

From the view of Islam this impressionability is logical so much that we read in Islamic narrations that Solomon (as) has said:

“Do not judge someone, unless you see who are his friends, for man is known by his companions, friends, and fellows.”19

Imam Ali (as) said:

“When you are doubtful about someone and you do not know his religion, find out who are his friends. If they are believers, he is a believer, too, and if they are not believers of the religion of Allah, he may be an unbeliever, too.”20

Verily the role that a friend plays in happiness and misery of a person is sometimes more important than any other factors. Sometime a friend leads him to destruction and death and sometimes a friend leads him to the climax of success and prosperity.

The concerned verses and their occasion of revelation show well that how possibly man can approach happiness, but a devil temptation by a friend takes him back to darkness and prepares him a deadly fate so that he bites both of his hands on the day of Resurrection and cries:

“Oh Woe is me!”

In the book Al-‘Ishrah (Roles of Association), there are many narrations about this matter. This shows how precise and exact Islam is in selecting a friend.

We finish this discussion with narrating two traditions.

Those who want to read more, please refer to Bihar-ul-’ Anwar, Vol. 74.

Imam Muhammad Taqi, Al-Jawad (as) said:

“Avoid a bad companion, for he is like an unsheathed sword whose appearance is beautiful and whose effect is very ugly.”21

The holy Prophet (S) said:

“There are four things that bring death to man’s heart: repetition of sin... and association with the dead.”

A person asked him:

“Who are the dead?”

The Prophet (S) said:

“The wealthy people who are indulging in luxury.”22

Some Traditions About Friendship in Islam

1. Imam Ali (as) said:

“A man’s friend is the sign of his intellect and his speech is the sign of his virtue.”23

2. The Prophet (S) said:

“Anyone who dies while he is a friend of the family of the Prophet (S) has died as a martyr.”24

3. The Prophet (S) said:

“The happiest man is one who associates with respected and dignified people.”25

4. Imam Sadiq (as) said:

“The most favoured brothers of mine are those who present me my defects (and to warn me of them).26

5. Imam Ali (as) said:

“The best friend of yours is the one who makes you fond of the Hereafter and indifferent to the world and helps you in obeying Allah.”27

6. The Prophet (S) said:

“Avoid associating with bad companion, for you are known by him.”28

7. Imam Ali (as) said:

“Associating with bad people causes mistrust unto good people.”29

8. Imam Sadiq (as) said:

“Whenever Imam Ali (as) climbed the pulpit, he said:

“It is deserved that a Muslim avoids friendship of three persons: the impudent dissolute person, imbecile, and liar.”30

9. Imam Ali (as) said:

“Be kind towards your friend, though he disobeys you and have relationship with him, though he treats you harshly.”31

10. The Prophet (S) was once asked about the best companion.

He said:

“The best one is the person whose meeting reminds Allah to you, and his words increases your knowledge, and his behaviour makes you remember the Hereafter.”32

Islam has got many pieces of advice about friendship and selecting a friend. Islam encourages having friendship with some persons and prohibits friendship of some other persons, and this needs a special separate discussion.

Some subtitles of the subject of ‘friend and friendship’ are as follows: the ways of knowing a friend, boundaries of friendship, continuity of friendship, termination of friendship, proper motivations of friendship, and rules of association with friends and rights of friend, that for each of them there are a lot of verses and narrations.

We have only mentioned some part of it.

Also Imam Ali (as) said:

“Good friend is the best relative.”33

There is a tradition that says test your friend with money, anger, wealth and journey. If he is successful in them, he is a good one. In poems there are also a great deal of references about friend and friendship and it is recommended to associate with good friends. Also association with bad friends is reproached.

Bad companion is likened to a beautiful snake that has a very deadly poison.

As a Persian poet says:

Escape bad companion as you can,

Bad companion is worse than a poisonous snake.

Poisonous snake threats only your life,

But bad companion threats your, life as well as your faith.

Or, bad friend is likened to a dark cloud that covers the magnificent sun:

Associate less with bad persons,

For bad persons’ words make you impure, though you are pure.

Sun that is so great and huge,

Goes out of sight with a piece of cloud.

Surah al-Furqan - Verse 30

وَقَالَ الرَّسُولُ يَا رَبِّ إِنَّ قَوْمِي اتَّخَذُوا هَذَا الْقُرْآنَ مَهْجُورًا

30. “And the Messenger will say (that Day): ‘O my Lord! Verily my people treated this Qur’an with neglect.”

Oh Allah! People have deserted the holy Qur’an.

Since the previous verses mentioned the different kinds of pretext-seeking of some stubborn polytheists and unbelievers, this holy verse mentions complain and annoyance of the Prophet (S) about the incorrect behaviour of this group with the Qur’an, where it says:

“And the Messenger will say: ‘O my Lord! Verily my people treated this Qur’an with neglect.”

This complain of the Prophet (S) is still heard. He complains to Allah even about a large group of Muslims who have neglected the holy Qur’an which is the secret of life, means of salvation, the factor of victory, development and movement, and full of life programs. They have neglected this book and have begged others for their civil and criminal laws!

Now if you study the situation of the people of Islamic countries, especially those who are culturally under the control of Western and Eastern countries, you see that the holy Qur’an is changed into a ceremonial book among them.

Only its words are nicely broadcasted by a few speakers and are seen on glazed tiles of mosques as architecture. It is used for making new house blissful, or for protecting a traveler and healing patients, or at most it is recited for its reward.

Even when some persons argue by using the holy Qur’an, their aim is to prove their prejudgments by the help of its verses and their interpretation is according to their personal opinion.

In some Islamic countries, there are great schools that are named ‘Schools of Memorization of the Holy Qur’an’. In these schools girls and boys are memorizing the Qur’an, while their thoughts are sometimes influenced by Western and Eastern countries and their laws are borrowed from some none-Islamic countries and the Qur’an is applied only for covering their wrong actions.

Yes, today the Prophet (S) also cries:

“O my Lord! Verily my people treated this Qur’an with neglect.”

It is neglected from the aspects of content, thought, and reforming programs.

Some Points

1. This noble verse refers to the complaint of the Prophet (S) and, because he is ‘mercy for both worlds’, he does not cast curse.

2. Imam Rida (as) said:

“The reason that we read the holy Qur’an in ritual prayers is for paying attention to the Qur’an.”

3. An Islamic narration recommends to read 50 verses of the Qur’an everyday and your aim must not be reaching the end of Surah. Read slowly and strike your heart with reading the Qur’an. Whenever you are surrounded by temptations, as night engulfed you, resort to the Qur’an.34

4. It seems proper to mention a few confessions of some great persons about the holy Qur’an how it is neglected:

A) Mulla Sadra (may his spirit be sanctified!) says in the introduction of Surah Al-Waqi‘ah:

I read books of many philosophers so that I thought I knew all things and I became an important man, but when I began to perceive a little of the true nature of situations, I found out that I knew no real and true knowledge.

At the end of my lifetime, I embarked on pondering the Holy Qur’an and the narrations of the Prophet (S) and his family. I became certain that what I had done up to then was baseless, for during my life I was standing in shadow instead of being under light.

I became wholeheartedly sorrowful, and, then divine favour was bestowed on me and I became familiar with the secrets of the holy Qur’an and I began to comment on and ponder the Qur’an.

I knocked the door of revelation until curtains were taken away and doors were opened and I saw that angels say to me:

“...Peace be unto you! You are good, therefore enter it to dwell therein (forever35 .”36

B) Fiyz-i-Kashani (may his spirit be sanctified!) says:

I wrote books and treatises and I researched, but none of them was remedy for my pain and no water I found to quench my thirst. I got worried about myself, and I resorted to Allah and repented so that Allah led me by means of pondering the Qur’an and Islamic traditions.37

C) Imam Khomeini (may his spirit be sanctified!) says that he regrets that he has not spend all of his life for the holy Qur’an and he advised the students of universities and the students of seminaries to set the Qur’an and its various dimensions as ultimate aim in all courses, lest in the end of life they do not regret for youth days.38

D) The relationship of man and the heavenly book must be perpetual and in all aspects, for the word ‘Hijr’ is used when there is relationship between man and that thing.39 So, we must try our best to pay attention to the holy Qur’an and set it our scientific and practical base in all dimensions of life so that the dear Prophet (S) gets satisfied.

E) Abandoning reading the Qur’an, preferring other books to the holy Qur’an, not setting it as pivot, not pondering it, not teaching it to others, and not applying it in practice are extensions of negligence of the Qur’an. Even one who learns the Qur’an, but does not pay attention to it, does not look at it, and does not feel responsible for it, has neglected the Qur’an.40

Surah al-Furqan - Verse 31

وَكَذَلِكَ جَعَلْنَا لِكُلِّ نَبِيٍّ عَدُوًّا مِّنَ الْمُجْرِمِينَ وَكَفَى بِرَبِّكَ هَادِيًا وَنَصِيرًا

31 “And thus We appointed for every prophet an enemy from among the sinners, and sufficient is your Lord as a Guide and a Helper.”

The call that expresses and seeks truth has always been faced with opponents. In struggles of truth with falsehood, man needs two things; guidance and power. Of course, guidance and help are of dignities of Allah’s Lordship.

So in this noble verse, for sympathizing with the Prophet (S), who faced atrocious position of enemies, the Qur’an says:

“And thus We appointed for every prophet an enemy from among the sinners...”

(It is not only you who have faced severe animosity of this group, all prophets were in such positions that a group of wrongdoers stood against them.)

But the holy Prophet (S) is not alone and without supporter; as the verse continues saying:

“...and sufficient is your Lord as a Guide and a Helper.”

Neither can their temptations mislead the holy Prophet (S), for Allah guides him, nor their conspiracies can defeat him, for Allah is his supporter and helper, He Whose knowledge is the supreme and His power is above all others’.

In brief we must say:

If thousands of enemy intend to kill me,

I fear not enemy, for You are my Friend.

Surah al-Furqan - Verse 32

وَقَالَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا لَوْلاَ نُزِّلَ عَلَيْهِ الْقُرْآنُ جُمْلَةً وَاحِدَةً كَذَلِكَ لِنُثَبِّتَ بِهِ فُؤَادَكَ وَرَتَّلْنَاهُ تَرْتِيلًا

32. “And those who disbelieve say: ‘Why has not the Qur’an been sent down upon him all at once? Thus (is it revealed), that We may strengthen your heart by it and We have rehearsed it to you in slow, well-arranged stages, gradually’.”

Pretext-seekers found new pretexts every moment. They sometimes said: Why is not revelation made to us? Sometimes they said: Why do not we see angel of revelation? Why does not the Prophet have money, palace, and gold? And sometimes they said:

“Why is not the Qur’an revealed to him all at once?”

The Qur’an has got two kinds of revelation: A) Instant revelation on the heart of the Prophet (S) that occurred in the night of Power, when all of the Qur’an was sent down to the Prophet’s heart. B) Gradual revelation that the Qur’an was sent down on special occasions during 23 years.

Any way, the word ‘Kaǒalika’ (thus) is the answer of them, that is, the advantage and wisdom of gradual revelation of the Qur’an is to make the heart of the Prophet (S) stronger and to make memorization and keeping of the Qur’an easier.

Moreover, there are abrogating and abrogated verses in the Qur’an and every answer must be exactly for a question and these are not consistent with instant revelation of the Qur’an. In addition, the Prophet (S) was illiterate and he did not know writing and reading, so to make him understand the revelation, the Qur’an was sent down gradually, while Moses and Christ knew writing and reading.

Explanations

1. Gradual revelation of the Qur’an is the factor of continual and permanent relation of the Prophet (S) with the source of revelation and it makes him stable in his way. It shows that prophethood is not a temporal matter.

2. A religion that is comprehensive and enlivened has a strong relation with events and occasions. And events and occasions occur gradually, not instantly.

3. To obey all orders and to avoid prohibitions instantly was difficult for common people and it caused them distress and constriction.

4. Since each Surah and verse of the Qur’an was by itself, a miracle, its gradual revelation was as a continual miracle and each miracle soothed the heart of the Prophet (S) against enemies’ oppression.

5. There is much difference between revelation of each verse according to special position and instant revelation of all verses regardless of situations.

6. Some verses are the answers of people’s questions.

Therefore, a question must first be raised and then its answer be given. Some verses and judgments were descended for a certain period; so a verse must be sent down to annul them.

Slowly and Distinctly Reading of the Qur’an (Tartil)

The Prophet (S) said:

“Tartil is to recite the Qur’an distinctly (not like reading poem and prose). When you reach its wits, you stop and purify your Heart and spirit. Your aim of recitation must not be reaching the end of Surah.”41

Imam Ali (as) said:

“The purpose of Tartil is to stop when it needs full stop and articulation of letters.”42

Imam Sadiq (as) said:

“Tartil is to recite the Qur’an beautifully and slowly. It is to stop and to resort to Allah, when reciting the verses that are about the Fire and punishment. It is to pray and to ask Allah the Heaven, when verses about the Paradise are read.”43

In the end, it is understood from all narrations and the words of commentators that Tartil is to recite the holy Qur’an slowly and in proper order.

Reading must be done verse by verse and they must not be mixed, so that the verses can enter the conscience of society and used by next generations. Therefore the future ages can use the light of its guidance and make dark places of their life lighted by it.

Surah al-Furqan - Verse 33

وَلاَ يَأْتُونَكَ بِمَثَلٍ إِلاَ جِئْنَاكَ بِالْحَقِّ وَ أَحْسَنَ تَفْسِيرًا

33. “And they shall not bring to you any similitude, but We bring to you the truth and the best explanation (of it).”

Addressing the Prophet (S), the Qur’an implies that whether the words of the opponents are false so Allah presents true words to the Prophet (S), or their words are true then Allah brings some better and more comprehensive words of the truth for the Prophet (S).

To put more emphasis on this answer, the Qur’an implies that they bring no similitude to him, or they mention no words to weaken his call, but Allah brings the Truth as against it, and better than their similitude as argument.

The verse says:

“And they shall not bring to you any similitude, but We bring to you the truth and the best explanation (of it).”

Explanations

1. The Qur’an is a comprehensive book which answers all faults that are found with it by the opponents.

2. Prophets were struggling with opponents and prophets treated them by means of reasonable argumentation.

3. Others’ words and complains are to be answered with some better words.

Surah al-Furqan - Verse 34

الَّذِينَ يُحْشَرُونَ عَلَى وُجُوهِهِمْ إِلَى جَهَنَّمَ أُوْلَئِكَ شَرٌّ مَّكَانًا وَأَضَلُّ سَبِيلًا

34. “Those who shall be mustered upon their faces unto Hell, they are in a worse place and as to path, most astray.”

The most misled person is the one who finds faults with prophets and makes difficulty for them. Therefore, in this noble verse, it is implied that after their finding faults, stubborn and biased foes had made inference that Muhammad and his followers, with this book and these programs, were the worst people of Allah (we seek Allah's protection!).

Since saying this matter was not consistent with the eloquent and decorous words of the Qur’an, Allah answers this without mentioning the matter.

It says:

“Those who shall be mustered upon their faces unto Hell, they are in a worse place and as to path, most astray.”

Yes, the result of men’s programs and deeds will be shown in the Hereafter; when some persons are as tall as cedar and their faces shine like moon. They go toward the Paradise with long steps and fast.

On the contrary, there are persons who are lying on the ground and angels of punishment are dragging them to the Hell. This different destiny shows who had been misled and evil and who had been guided and happy!

Moreover, commentators are of different opinions about the purpose of the Qur’anic phrase which says:

‘...shall be mustered upon their faces...’:

Some commentators have rendered as the verse means literally. They have said that the angels of punishment drag them to the Hell while their faces will be on the ground. On one hand, it shows how abject and wretched they are, for in the world they were very self-conceited and proud and they considered themselves better than other people.

On the other hand, it is an embodiment of their aberration in this world, for such a person that is dragged in this way can never see ahead and is unaware of what is happing around him.

But some other commentators have taken it with its ironical meaning; sometimes they say that this sentence ironically implies their inner longing for this world, that is, for the sake that their heart still longs for this world, they are dragged toward Hell.

1. The Prophet (S) in a tradition said:

“On the day of Resurrection, Fire speaks with three persons: ruler, singer, and the rich. It says to the ruler that Allah had bestowed you palace and sovereignty and you did not judge rightly and then the Fire swallows him as a bird swallows the sesame.

It says to the singer that you adorned yourself for people and struggled against Allah by committing sin and disobeying Him, and then it swallows him. It says to the rich that Allah had bestowed you a lot of blessings and wealth, and you did not lend poor and needy people who wanted a little money and then it swallows him, too.”44

2. Imam Sadiq (as) has narrated from his ancestors that Imam Ali (as) said:

“In the Hell there is a mill that crushes five things into flour. Do not you ask what is its flour?”

Then he was asked what its flour was.

He said:

“It is the corrupted and evil scientists, evil and vice singers, tyrannical rulers, treacherous ministers, and lying Gnostics. Verily in the Hell there is a city that is called ‘Hasinah’. Do not you ask me what is in that city?”

Someone asked:

“What is there in it O’ Amir-al-Mu’minin?”

He said:

“There are hands of those who broke an oath of allegiance.”45

3. Imam Ali (as) said:

“Fear the Fire whose heat is severe and it is very deep. Its adornment is iron and its beverage is pus.”46

Notes

1. Majma‘-ul-Bayān

2. Surah An-Nūr, No. 24, verse 25

3. Surah Yūnus, No. 10, verse 7

4. The current Surah, verse 7

5. Bihār, Vol. 8, P. 317

6. Surah Qāfir, No. 40, verse 49

7. Surah Al-Hijr, No. 15, verse 80

8. Al-Mīzān, Fhakr-i-Rāzī, Fī Zalāl, and Abulfutūh

9. Safīnat-ul-Bihār, Vol. 1, P. 227

10. The commentary of Ali ibn ’Ibrāhīm, narrated from Nūr-uth-Thaqalayn, Vol. 2, P. 9

11. Kanz-ul-’Umāl, Vol. 14, P. 645

12. Fī Zilāl, Vol. 6, P. 154

13. Surah Al-Ma‘ārij, No. 70, verse 4

14. The commentary of Qurtabī, Vol. 1, P. 4739

15. Surah Al-Baqarah, No. 2, verse 255

16. Surah Al-Mursalāt, No. 77, verse 36

17. Majma‘-ul-Bayān, the explanation upon the verse

18. Surah Maryam, No. 19, verse 39

19. Safīnat-ul-Bihār, Vol. 2, P. 27

20. Bihār-ul-’Anwār, Vol. 74, P. 197

21. Bihār-ul-’Anwār, Vol. 74, P. 198

22. Bihār-ul-’Anwār, Vol. 74, P. 195

23. Qurar-ul-Hikam, Vol. 3, P. 261

24. Bihār-ul-’Anwār, Vol. 107, P. 111

25. Bihār-ul-’Anwār, Vol. 74, P. 187

26. ’Usūl-i-Kāfī, Vol. 4, P. 452

27. Qurar-ul-Hikam, Vol. 3, P. 436

28. Kanz-ul-‘Ummāl, Vol. 9, Had. 34844

29. Bihār-ul-’Anwār, Vol. 74, P. 191

30. ’Usūl-i-Kāfī, Vol. 4, P. 453

31. Bihār-ul-’Anwār, Vol. 74, P. 166

32. Bihār-ul-’Anwār, Vol. 74, P. 186

33. Qurar-ul-Hikam

34. Nūr-uth-Thaqalayn

35. Surah Az-Zumar, No. 39, verse 73

36. Introduction to the commentary on Surah Al-Wāqi‘ah

37. Risālāt-ul-’Insāf

38. Sahīfah Nūr, Vol. 20, P. 20

39. Mufradāt by Rāqib

40. Al-Munīr, the Commentary explained upon the verse

41. Majma‘-ul-Bayān and Nūr-uth-Thaqalayn P. 15

42. Kanz-ud-Daqāyiq and Manhāj-us-Sādiqīn

43. Majma‘-ul-Bahrayn, explanation about the word /rattala/

44. Bihār, Vol. 8, P. 285

45. Ibid P. 311

46. Ibid P. 206, taken from Nahj-ul-Balāqah

MU'TAZILAH:

We shall begin our discussion - and we shall explain later why - with theMu'tazilah . The emergence of this sect took place during the latter part of the first century or at the beginning of the second. Obviously'ilm al-kalam , like any other field of study, developed gradually and slowly attained maturity.

First we shall enumerate the principal Mu'tazilite beliefs, or what is better to say, the basic and salient points of their school of thought. Second, we shall point out the well-known Mu'tazilite figures and speak of their fate in history. Then we shall give an account of the main outlines of the transitions and changes in their thought and beliefs.

The opinions held by theMu'tazilah are many, and are not confined to the religious matters, or which according to them form an essential part of the faith. They cover a number of physical, social, anthropological and philosophical issues, which are not directly related with the faith. However, there is a certain relevance of these problems to religion, and, in the belief of theMu'tazilah , any inquiry about the matters of religion is not possible without studying them.

There are five principal doctrines which, according to theMu'tazilah themselves, constitute their basic tenets:

(i) Tawhid, i.e. absence of plurality and attributes.

(ii) Justice ('adl ), i.e. God is just and that He does not oppress His creatures.

(iii) Divine retribution (at-wa'd wa al-wa'id ), i.e. God has determined a reward for the obedient and a punishment for the disobedient, and there can be no uncertainty about it. Therefore, Divine pardon is only possible if the sinner repents, for forgiveness without repentance( tawbah ) is not possible.

(iv)Manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn (a position between the two positions). This means that a fasiq (i.e. one who commits one of the "greater sins," such as a wine imbiber, adulterer, or a liar etc.) is neither a believer (mu'min) nor an infidel( kafir ) ; fisq is an intermediary state between belief and infidelity.

(v)al-'amr bil ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar [bidding to do what is right and lawful, and forbidding what is wrong and unlawful]. The opinion of theMu'tazilah about this Islamic duty is, firstly, that the Shari'ah is not the exclusive means of identifying the ma'ruf and the munkar; human reason can, at least partially, independently identify the various kinds of ma'ruf and munkar. Secondly, the implementation of this duty does not necessitate the presence of the Imam, and is a universal obligation of all Muslims, whether the Imam or leader is present or not. Only some categories of it are the obligation of the Imam or ruler of Muslims, such as, implementation of the punishments (hudud ) prescribed by the Shari'ah, guarding of the frontiers of Islamic countries, and other such matters relating to the Islamic government.

Occasionally, the Mu'tazilite mutakallmun have devoted independent volumes to discussion of their five doctrines, such as the famousal-'Usul al-khamsah of al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar al-'Astarabadi (d. 415/ 1025), a Mu'tazilite contemporary of al-Sayyid al-Murtada 'Alam al-Huda and al-Sahib ibn 'Abbad (d. 385/995).

As can be noticed, only the principles of tawhid and Justice can be considered as parts of the essential doctrine. The other three principles are only significant because they characterize theMu'tazilah . Even Divine Justice - although its notion is definitely supported by the Qur'an, and belief in it is a necessary part of the Islamic faith and doctrine - has been made one of the five major doctrines because it characterizes theMu'tazilah . Or otherwise belief in Divine Knowledge and Power is as much an essential part of the Islamic faith and principal doctrine.

Also in the Shi'ite faith the principle of Divine Justice is considered one of the five essential doctrines. It is natural that the question should arise: what is particular about Divine Justice that it should be counted.among the essential doctrines, though justice is only one of the Divine Attributes? Is not God Just in the same manner as He is the Omniscient, the Mighty, the Living, the Perceiver, the Hearer and the Seer? All those Divine Attributes are essential to the faith. Then why justice is given so much prominence among the Divine Attributes?

The answer is that Justice has no advantage over other Attributes. The Shi'itemutakallimun have specially mentioned justice among the principal Shi'ite doctrines because the Ash'arites - who form the majority of the Ahl al-Sunnah - implicitly deny that it is an Attribute, whereas they do not reject the Attributes of Knowledge, Life, Will, etc. Accordingly, justice is counted among the specific doctrines of the Shi'ah, as also of theMu'tazilah . The above-mentioned five doctrines constitute the basic position of theMu'tazilah from the viewpoint of kalam, otherwise, as said before, the Mu'tazilite beliefs are not confined to these five and cover a broad scope ranging from theology, physics and sociology to anthropology, in all of which they hold specific beliefs, a discussion of which lies outside the scope of these lectures.

The Doctrine of al-Tawhid:

Beginning with tawhid it has various kinds and levels:al-tawhid al-dhati (Unity of the Essence),al-tawhid al-sifati (Unity of the Attributes, i.e., with the Essence),al-tawhid al-'af'ali (Unity of the Acts),al-tawhid al-'ibadi (monotheism in worship).

Al-Tawhid al-dhati

It means that the Divine Essence is one and unique; it does not have a like or match. All other beings are God's creations and inferior to Him in station and in degree of perfection. In fact, they cannot be compared with Him. The idea ofal-tawhid al-dhati is made clear by the following two [Qur'anic] verses:

Nothing is like Him. (42:11)

He does not have a match [whatsoever]. (112:4)

AI-Tawhid al-sifati

It means that the Divine Attributes such as Knowledge, Power, Life, Will, Perception, Hearing, Vision, etc. are not realities separate from God's Essence. They are identical with the Essence, in the sense that the Divine Essence is such that the Attributes are true of It, or is such that It manifests these Attributes.

Al-Tawhid al-'af'ali

It means that all beings, or rather all acts [even human acts] exist by the Will of God, and are in some way willed by His sacred Essence.

Al-Tawhid al-'ibadi: It means that except God no other being deserves worship and devotion. Worship of anything besides God is shirk and puts the worshipper outside the limits of Islamic tawhid or monotheism.

In a senseal-tawhid al-'ibadi (tawhid in worship) is different from other kinds of tawhidi, because the first three relate to God and this kind relates to the creatures. In other words, the Unity of Divine Essence, His Uniqueness and the identity of the Essence and Attributes, the unity of the origin of everything - all of them are matters which relate to God. But tawhid in worship, i.e. the necessity of worshipping the One God, relates to the behaviour of the creatures. But in reality, tawhid in worship is also related to God, because it means Uniqueness of God as the only deserving object of worship, and that He is in truth the One Deity Worthy of Worship. The statement "la ilaha illallah" encompasses all aspects of tawhid, although its first signification is monotheism in worship.

Al-tawhid al-dhati andal-tawhid al-'ibadi are part of the basic doctrines of Islam. It means that if there is a shortcoming in one's belief in these two principles, it would put one outside the pale of Islam. No Muslim has opposed these two basic beliefs.

Lately, the Wahhabis, who are the followers of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, who was a follower of Ibn Taymiyyah, a Hanbali from Syria, have claimed that some common beliefs of the Muslims such as one in intercession (shafa'ah ) and some of their practices such as invoking the assistance of the prophets (A) and holy saints (R) are opposed to the doctrine of al-tawhid al-'ibadi. But these are not considered by other Muslims to conflict with al-tawhid al-'ibadi. The point of difference between the Wahhabis and other Muslims is not whether any one besides God - such as the prophets or saints - is worthy of worship. There is no debate that anyone except God cannot be worshipped. The debate is about whether invoking of intercession and assistance can be considered a form of worship or not. Therefore, the difference is only secondary, not a primary one. Islamic scholars have rejected the viewpoint of the Wahhabis in elaborate, well-reasoned answers.

Al-tawhid al-sifati (the Unity of Divine Essence and Attributes) is a point of debate between theMu'tazilah and theAsha'irah . The latter deny it while the former affirm it.Al-tawhid al-'af'ali is also another point of difference between them, with the difference, however, that the matter is reverse; i.e. theAsha'irah affirm it and theMu'tazilah deny it.

When theMu'tazilah call themselves "ahl al-tawhid", and count it among their doctrines, thereby they mean by ital-tawhid al-sifati , notal-tawhid al-dhati , noral-tawhid al-'ibadi (which are not disputed), noral-tawhid al-'af'ali . Because, firstly,al-tawhid al-'af'ali is negated by them, and, secondly, they expound their own viewpoint about it under the doctrine of justice, their second article.

TheAsha'irah and theMu'tazilah formed two radically opposed camps on the issues ofal-tawhid al-sifati andal-tawhid al-'af'ali . To repeat, the

Mu'tazilah affirmal-tawhid al-sifati and rejectal-tawhid al-'af'ali , while the Ash'arite position is the reverse. Each of them have advanced arguments in support of their positions. We shall discuss the Shi'ite position regarding these two aspects of tawhid in the related chapter.

The Doctrine of Divine Justice:

In the preceding lecture I have mentioned the five fundamental Mu'tazilite principles, and explained the first issue, i.e. their doctrine of tawhid. Here we shall take up their doctrine of Divine Justice.

Of course, it is evident that none of the Islamic sects denied justice as one of the Divine Attributes. No one has ever claimed that God is not just. The difference between theMu'tazilah and their opponents is about the interpretation of Justice. TheAsha'irah interpret it in such a way that it is equivalent, in the view of theMu'tazilah , to a denial of the Attribute of Justice. Otherwise, theAsha'irah are not at all willing to be considered the opponents of justice.

TheMu'tazilah believe that some acts are essentially 'just' and some intrinsically 'unjust.' For instance, rewarding the obedient and punishing the sinners is justice; and that God is Just, i.e. He rewards the obedient and punishes the sinners, and it is impossible for Him to act otherwise. Rewarding the sinners and punishing the obedient is essentially and intrinsically unjust, and it is impossible for God to do such a thing. Similarly, compelling His creatures to commit sin, or creating them without any power of free will, then creating the sinful acts at their hands, and then punishing them on account of those sins - this is injustice, an ugly thing for God to do; it is unjustifiable and unGodly. But theAsha'irah believe that no act is intrinsically or essentially just or unjust. Justice is essentially whatever God does. If, supposedly, God were to punish the obedient and reward the sinners, it would be as just. Similarly, if God creates His creatures without any will, power or freedom of action, then if He causes them to commit sins and then punishes them for that - it is not essential injustice. If we suppose that God acts in this manner, it is justice:

Whatever that Khusrow does is sweet( shirin ) .

For the same reason that theMu'tazilah emphasize justice, they denyal-tawhid al-'af'ali . They say thatal-tawhid al-'af'ali implies that God, not the human beings, is the maker of human deeds. Since it is known that man attains reward and punishment in the Hereafter, if God is the creator of human actions and yet punishes them for their evil deeds - which not they, but God Himself has brought about - that would be injustice( zulm ) and contrary to Divine Justice. Accordingly, theMu'tazilah consideral-tawhid al-'af'ali to be contrary to the doctrine of justice.

Also, thereby, theMu'tazilah believe in human freedom and free will and are its staunch defenders, contrary to theAsha'irah who deny human freedom and free will.

Under the doctrine of justice - in the sense that some deeds are inherently just and some inherently unjust, and that human reason dictates that justice is good and must be practised, whereas injustice is evil and must be abstained from - they advance another general doctrine, which is more comprehensive, that is the principle that "beauty"( husn ) and "ugliness"

( qubh ) , (good and evil), are inherent properties of acts. For instance, truthfulness, trustworthiness, chastity and God-fearing are intrinsically good qualities, and falsehood, treachery, indecency, neglectfulness, etc. are intrinsically evil. Therefore, deeds in essence, before God may judge them, possess inherent goodness or evil (husn or qubh).

Hereupon, they arrive at another doctrine about reason: human reason can independently judge (or perceive) the good or evil in things. It means that the good or evil of some deeds can be judged by human reason independently of the commands of the Shari'ah. TheAsha'irah are against this view too.

The belief in the inherent good or evil of acts and the capacity of reason to judge them, upheld by theMu'tazilah and rejected by theAsha'irah , brought many other problems in its wake, some of which are related to theology, some to human predicament; such as, whether the Divine Acts, or rather, the creation of things is with a purpose or not. TheMu'tazilah claimed that absence of a purpose in the creation is "qabih" (an ugly thing) and so rationally impossible. How about a duty which is beyond one's power to fulfil? Is it possible that God may saddle someone with a duty which is over and above his capacity? TheMu'tazilah consideied this, too, as "qabih", and so impossible.

Is it within the power of a believer (mu'min) to turn apostate? Does the infidel( kafir ) have any power over his own infidelity (kufr )? The answer of theMu'tazilah is in the affirmative; for if the believer and the infidel had no power over their belief and infidelity, it would be wrong( qabih ) to award and punish them. TheAsha'irah rejected all these Mu'tazilite doctrines and held opposite views.

Retribution (al-wa'd wa al-wa'id):

"Wa'd" means promising award and "wa'id" means threat of punishment. TheMu'tazilah believe that God does not break His own promises (all Muslims unanimously accept this) or forego His threats, as stated by the Qur'anic verse regarding Divine promise:

Indeed God does not break the promise. (13:31)

Accordingly (theMu'tazilah say), all threats addressed to the sinners and the wicked such as the punishments declared for an oppressor, a liar or a wine imbiber, will all be carried out without fail, except when the sinner repents before death. Therefore, pardon without repentance is not possible.

From the viewpoint of theMu'tazilah , pardon without repentance implies failure to carry out the threats (wa'id), and such an act, like breaking of promise (khulf al-wa'd),is "qabih", and so impossible. Thus the Mu'tazilite beliefs regarding Divine retribution and Divine forgiveness are interrelated, and both arise from their belief in inherent good and evil of deeds determinable by reason.

Manzilah Bayna al-Manzilatayn:

The Mu'tazilite belief in this matter emerged in the wake of two opposite beliefs in the Muslim world about the faith ('iman ) or infidelity (kufr ) of the fasiq. For the first time the Khawarij maintained that committing of any of

the capital sins (kaba'ir ) was contrary to faith ('iman ) and equal to infidelity. Therefore, the perpetrator of a major sin is a kafir.

As we know, the Khawarij emerged after the incident of arbitration( tahkim ) during the Battle of Siffin about the year 37/657-58 during the caliphate of Amir al-Mu'minin 'Ali (A). As the Nahj al-Balaghah tells us, Amir al-Mu'minin (A) argued with them on this issue and refuted their viewpoint by numerous arguments. The Khawarij, even after 'Ali (A), were against the caliphs of the period, and staunchly espoused the cause of al-'amr bi al-ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar, denouncing others for their evil and calling them apostates and infidels. Since most of the caliphs indulged in the capital sins, they were naturally regarded as infidels by the Khawarij. Accordingly, they were adversaries of the current politics.

Another group which emerged (or was produced by the hands of vested political interests) was that of the Murji'ah, whose position with regard to the effect of capital sins was precisely opposite to that of the Khawarij. They held that faith and belief is a matter of the heart. One should remain a Muslim if one's faith - which is an inner affair of the heart - were intact, evil deeds cannot do any harm. Faith compensates all wickedness.

The opinions of the Murji'ah were to the benefit of the rulers, and tended to cause the people to regard their wickedness and indecencies as unimportant, or to consider them, despite their destructive character, as men worthy of paradise. The Murji'ah stated in unequivocal terms, "The respectability of the station of the ruler is secure, no matter how much he may sin. Obedience to him is obligatory and prayers performed in his leadership are correct." The tyrannical caliphs, therefore, backed them. For the Murji'ah, sin and wickedness, no matter how serious, do not harm one's faith; the perpetrator of the major sins is a mu'min, not a kafir.

TheMu'tazilah took a middle path in this matter. They maintained that the perpetrator of a major sin is neither a mu'min, nor he is a kafir, but occupies a position between those two extremes. This middle state was termed by theMu'tazilah "manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn."

It is said that the first to express this belief was Wasil ibn 'Ata', a pupil of al-Hasan al-Basri. One day Wasil was sitting with his teacher, who was asked his opinion about the difference between the Khawarij and the Murji'ah on this issue. Before al-Hasan could say anything, Wasil declared: "In my opinion the perpetrator of the major sins is a fasiq, not a kafir." After this, he left the company, or as is also said, was expelled by al-Hasan al-Basri - and parting his way started propagating his own views. His pupil and brother-in-law 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd also joined him. At this point Hasan declared, "'I'tazala 'anna", i.e. "He [Wasil] has departed from us." According to another version, the people began to say of Wasil and 'Amr "'I'tazala qawl al-'ummah", i.e. "they have departed from the doctrines held by the ummah," inventing a third path.

Al-'Amr bi al-Ma'ruf wa al-Nahy 'an al-Munkar:

Al-'amr bi al-ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar is an essential Islamic duty, unanimously accepted by all Muslims. The difference occurs only in the limits and conditions related to it.

For instance, the Khawarij believed in it without any limits and conditions whatsoever. They believed that this twofold duty must be performed in all circumstances. For example, when others believed in the conditions of probability of effectiveness (of al-ma'ruf) and absence of any dangerous consequences as necessary for this obligation to be applicable, the Khawarij did not believe in any such restrictions. Some believed that it is sufficient to fulfil the duty of al-'amr wa al-nahy by the heart and the tongue i e one should support al-ma'ruf and oppose al-munkar in his heart and use his tongue to speak out for al-ma'ruf and against al-munkar. But the Khawarij considered it incumbent to take up arms and to unsheathe one's sword for the sake of fulfilling this duty.

As against them there was a group which considered al-'amr wa al-nahy to be subject to the above conditions, and, moreover, did not go beyond the confines of the heart and the tongue for its sake. Ahmad ibn Hanbal is counted among them. According to this group,a bloody uprising for the sake of struggling against unlawful activities is not permissible.

TheMu'tazilah accepted the conditions for al-'amr wa al-nahy, but, not limiting it to the heart and the tongue, maintained that if the unlawful practices become common, or if the state is oppressive and unjust, it is obligatory for Muslims to rise in armed revolt.

Thus the belief special to theMu'tazilah in regard to al-'amr bi al-ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar - contrary to the stand of the Ahl al-Hadith and the Ahl al-Sunnah - is belief in the necessity to rise up in arms to confront corruption. The Khawarij too shared this view, with the difference pointed out above.

Other Mu’tazilite Notions and Beliefs:

Whatever we said in the last two lectures was related to the basic doctrines of theMu'tazilah . But as we mentioned before, theMu'tazilah raised many an issue and defended their opinions about them. Some of them were related with theology some with physics, some with sociology, and some with the human situation. Of the theological issues, some are related to general metaphysics (umur 'ammah) and some with theology proper (ilahiyyat bi al-ma'na al-'akhass).[8] Like all othermutakallimun , the intended purpose of theMu'tazilah by raising metaphysical questions is to use them as preparatory ground for the discussion of theological issues, which are their ultimate objectives. So also the discussions in the natural sciences, too, serve an introductory purpose for them. That is, the discussions in the natural sciences are used to prove some religious doctrines, or to find an answer to some objections. Here we shall enumerate some of these beliefs, beginning with theology:

Theology:

(i) Al-tawhid al-sifati (i.e. unity of the Divine Attributes)

(ii)'Adl (Divine Justice).

(iii) The Holy Qur'an (Kalam Allah ) is created (kalam , or speech, is an attribute of Act, not of the Essence).

(iv) The Divine Acts are caused and controlled by purposes (i.e. every Divine Act is for the sake of some beneficial outcome).

(v) Forgiveness without repentance is not possible (the doctrine of retribution -wa'd wa wa'id ).

(vi) Pre-eternity( qidam ) is limited to God (in this belief, they are challenged only by the philosophers).

(vii) Delegation of a duty beyond the powers of the mukallaf (al-taklif bima la yutaq ) is impossible.

(viii) The acts of the creatures are not created by God for five reasons;[9] the exercise of Divine Will does not apply to the acts of men.

(ix) The world is created, and is not pre-eternal (only the philosophers are against this view).

(x) God cannot be seen with the eyes, either in this world or in the Hereafter.

Physics:

(i) Physical bodies are made up of indivisible particles.

(ii) Smell relates to particles scattered in air.

(iii) Taste is nothing but the effect of particles.

(iv) Light is made up of particles scattered in space.

(v) Interpenetration of bodies is not impossible (this belief is attributed to someMu'tazilah ).

(vi) Leap (of particles) (i.e. tafrah)[10] is not impossible (this belief, too, is attributed to someMu'tazilah ).

Human Problems:

(i) Man is free, endowed with free will; not predetermined (this problem, the problem of the nature of human acts whether [created by God or man], and the problem of Divine Justice, all the three are interrelated).

(ii) Ability (istita'ah); that is, man has power over his own acts, before he performs them or desists from them.

(iii) The believer (mu'min) has the power to become an infidel and the infidel( kafir ) is able to become a believer.

(iv) A fasiq is neither a mu'min, nor a kafir.

(v) Human reason can understand and judge some matters independently (without the prior need of guidance from theShari'ah ).

(vi) In case of conflict between reason andHadith , reason is to be preferred.

(vii) It is possible to interpret the Qur'an with the help of reason.

Political and Social Problems:

(i) The obligatory nature of al-'amr bi al-ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar, even if it necessitates taking up of arms.

(ii) The leadership (imamah ) of the Rashidun Caliphs, was correct in the order it occurred.

(iii) 'Ali (A) was superior to the Caliphs who preceded him (this is the view of some of theMu'tazilah , not of all. The earlierMu'tazilah - with the exception of Wasil ibn 'Ata' considered Abu Bakr as the best, but the majority of the latterMu'tazilah considered 'Ali (A) as superior).

(iv) Evaluation and criticism of the Companions of the Prophet (S) and their deeds is permissible.

(v) A comparative study and analysis of the state policies of 'Umar and 'Ali (A).

These represent a sample of the issues touched by theMu'tazilah , which are far more numerous than what we have referred to. In some of these problems, they were contradicted by theAsha'irah , in some by the philosophers, in some by the Khawarij, and in some by the Murji'ah.

TheMu'tazilah never submitted to Greek thought and did not accept Greek philosophy indiscriminately, which entered the Islamic world contemporaneous with the emergence and rise of theMu'tazilah . On the other hand, with great courage, they wrote books against philosophy and philosophers, boldly expressing their own opinions. The controversy between themutakallimun and the philosophers benefited both kalam and philosophy. Both of them made progress, and in the course of time came so close to each other that there did not remain any disagreement except on few issues. An elaborate discussion of the reciprocal services of kalam and philosophy, and an exposition of the essential differences between the two, are outside the scope of these lectures.

Trasitions in the History of the Mu’tazilah:

Obviously, all the above-mentioned problems were not posed at one time and by any single individual. Rather, they were raised gradually by several individuals, expanding the scope of'ilm al-kalam .

Among these mentioned, apparently the oldest problem was that of free will and determinism, in which theMu'tazilah , of course, sided with free will. This is a problem which is posed in the Qur'an. That is, the Qur'an refers to this issue in a manner which stimulates thought on the subject. Because some verses clearly indicate that man is free, not coerced in any of his acts. On the other hand, there are verses which, with equal clarity, indicate that all things depend on the Divine Will.

Here the doubt arises that these two types of verses contradict each other. Accordingly, some explained away the verses upholding free will and supported determinism and predestination, while others explained away the verses which refer to the role of Divine Will and Intention, and sided with human freedom and free will. Of course, there is a third group which sees no contradiction between those two sets of verses.[11]

Moreover, this controversy between freedom and fate is frequently taken up in the utterances of 'Ali (A). Therefore, it is almost contemporaneous with Islam itself. However, the division of Muslims into two opposite camps, one siding with free will and the other with fate, took place in the second half of the lst/7th century.

It is said that the idea of free will was first put into circulation by Ghaylan al-Dimashqi and Ma'bad al-Juhani. The Banu Umayyah were inclined to propagate the belief in fate and predestination among the people, because it served their political interests. Under the cover of this belief that "everything is by the Will of God" - "amanna bi al-qadri khayrihi wa sharrihi" - "We believe in fate, bring as it may good or evil" - they justified their oppressive and illegitimate rule. As a result, they repressed any notions

of free will or human freedom, and Ghaylan al-Dimashqi and Ma'bad al-Juhani were both killed. During that period the supporters of the belief in free will were called "Qadariyyah".

However, the problem of the infidelity or otherwise of the evildoer (kufr al-fasiq) had become a subject of controversy even before the issue of freedom and fate, because it was raised by the Khawarij during the first half of the first century about the time of the caliphate of 'Ali (A). But the Khawarij did not defend this view in the fashion of themutakallimun . Only when the problem was raised among theMu'tazilah , with the emergence of their doctrine of manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn, it took on the colour of a problem of kalam.

The problem of fate and freedom (jabr wa ikhtiyar ) automatically brought in its wake such other problems as these: the problem of Divine Justice; the rational and essential goodness or badness (husn aw qubh dhati wa'aqli ) of things and acts; dependence of Divine Acts on purposes; impossibility of saddling a person with a duty exceeding his capacities, and the like.

During the first half of the 2nd/8th century one Jahm ibn Sakfwan (d. 128/745) voiced certain beliefs regarding the Divine Attributes. The writers of intellectual and religious history of Islam (milal wa nihal ), claim that the problem ofal-tawhid al-sifati (that the Divine Attributes are not separate from the Divine Essence - which theMu'tazilah call their "doctrine of tawhid") and the problem of nafy al-tashbih, also called asl al-tanzih, (which means that nothing can be likened to God) was expressed for the first time by Jahm ibn Safwan, whose followers came to be called the "Jahmiyyah." TheMu'tazilah followed the Jahmiyyah in their doctrines of tawhid and tanzih, in the same way as they followed the Qadariyyah on the issue of free will. Jahm ibn Safwan himself was a Jabrite (i.e. a supporter of fate or predestination). TheMu'tazilah rejected his view of fate but accepted his view of tawhid.

The foremost among theMu'tazilah , who established Mu'tazilism (al-'i'tizal) as a school of thought is Wasil ibn 'Ata', who, as mentioned earlier, was a pupil of al-Hasan al-Basri, and who parted company with his teacher in the course of a difference, to establish his own school. Two different versions of the cause why theMu'tazilah came to be called by this name were mentioned earlier. Some others say that, in the beginning the term "mu'tazilah" was used to refer to a group of persons who remained neutral during the events of the Battle of al-Jamal and the Battle of Siffin, such as Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Zayd ibn Thabit, and 'Abd Allah ibn 'Umar.

Later when the issue of the faith or infidelity of fasiq was raised by the Khawarij, Muslims divided into two camps. One group of them took the third path, dissociating itself from the rest, being indifferent to their debates. They adopted the same kind of neutral attitude with regard to a theoretical problem as those like Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas had adopted in the midst of the heated social political climate of their time. This attitude caused them to be called "mu'tazilah" the "indifferent," a name which permanently stuck to them.

Wasil was born in the year 80/699 and died in 141/758-59. His views were limited to those on the negation of the Attributes [as distinct from the Essence of God], free will, manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn, al-wa'd wa al-wa'id, and opinions on some differences among the Companions.

After Wasil came 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd, who extended and gave final shape to the views of Wasil. After him came 'Amr ibn Abi al-Hudhayl al-'Allaf and Ibrahim ibn Sayyar al-Nazzam. Abu al-Hudhayl and al-Nazzim, both, are considered eminent Mu'tazilites. Kalam got its philosophical colour at their hands. Abu al-Hudhayl studied philosophical works and wrote books in their refutation. Al-Nazzam presented certain views in the sphere of physics, and it was he who offered the view that bodies are constituted of atoms. Abu al-Hudhayl died, most probably, in the year 255/869, and al-Nazzim in 231/845-46.

Al-Jahiz (159/775-254/868), the famous author of the al-Bayan wa al-tabyin, is another eminent Mu'tazilite of the 3rd/9th century.

During the rule of the Banu Umayyah, theMu'tazilah did not have good relations with the ruling authorities. During the early days of the Banu al-'Abbas, they took on a neutral stand.[12] But during the rule of al-Ma'mun, who was himself learned in literature, sciences and philosophy, they attracted the ruler's patronage. Al-Ma'mun, and after him al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq, were staunch patrons of theMu'tazilah . All the three caliphs called themselves Mu'tazilites.

It was during this period that a heated controversy began extending to all corners of the vast Islamic dominions of the period. The issue under debate was whether Speech is an attribute of the Divine Act or an attribute of the Essence. Whether it is created and temporal (hadith ) or uncreated and eternal( qadim ) like Divine Knowledge, Power, and Life. TheMu'tazilah believed that the Qur'an is created (in time) and, therefore, is a creation of God (makhluq ) and so temporal. They also maintained that belief in the pre-eternity of the Qur'an amounted to infidelity (kufr ).

The opponents of theMu'tazilah , on the contrary, believed in the pre-eternity and uncreatedness of the Qur'an. Al-Ma'mun (r. 198/813 to 218/833) sent out a circular that any believer in the pre-eternity of the Qur'an would be liable to punishment. Many persons were thrown into prison and subjected to torture.

Al-Mu'tasim (r. 218/833 to 227/842) and al-Withiq (r. 227/842 to 232/847) also followed al-Ma'mun's practice. Of those who went to the prison during that time was Ahmad ibn Hanbal. This policy remained in force until al-Mutawakkil assumed power (r. 232/847 to 247/861). Al-Mutawakkil was not inclined in favour of theMu'tazilah , and also most of the people were opposed to them. As a result theMu'tazilah and their admirers suffered a reverse, nay, a reprisal. In the purges that followed, much blood was shed and homes were ruined. The period is remembered by Muslims as the times of "mihnah " - times of adversity and trial.

TheMu'tazilah never recuperated after this, and the field was left open forever for their opponents: the Ahl al-Sunnah and the Ahl al-Hadith . Nevertheless, there appeared some prominent personalities even during the following periods of their decline, like, 'Abd Allah ibn Ahmad Abu al-

Qasim al-Balkhi, well-known as al-Ka'bi (d. 319/ 931); Abu 'Ali al-Jubba'i (d. 303/915-6); Abu al-Hashim al-Jubba'i (d. 321/933) the son of Abu 'Ali al-Jubba'i; Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar (d. 415/1024); Abu al-Hasan al-Khayyat; al-Sahib ibn 'Abbad, al-Zamakhshari (d. 538/1144); and Abu Ja'far al-'Iskafi.

MU'TAZILAH:

We shall begin our discussion - and we shall explain later why - with theMu'tazilah . The emergence of this sect took place during the latter part of the first century or at the beginning of the second. Obviously'ilm al-kalam , like any other field of study, developed gradually and slowly attained maturity.

First we shall enumerate the principal Mu'tazilite beliefs, or what is better to say, the basic and salient points of their school of thought. Second, we shall point out the well-known Mu'tazilite figures and speak of their fate in history. Then we shall give an account of the main outlines of the transitions and changes in their thought and beliefs.

The opinions held by theMu'tazilah are many, and are not confined to the religious matters, or which according to them form an essential part of the faith. They cover a number of physical, social, anthropological and philosophical issues, which are not directly related with the faith. However, there is a certain relevance of these problems to religion, and, in the belief of theMu'tazilah , any inquiry about the matters of religion is not possible without studying them.

There are five principal doctrines which, according to theMu'tazilah themselves, constitute their basic tenets:

(i) Tawhid, i.e. absence of plurality and attributes.

(ii) Justice ('adl ), i.e. God is just and that He does not oppress His creatures.

(iii) Divine retribution (at-wa'd wa al-wa'id ), i.e. God has determined a reward for the obedient and a punishment for the disobedient, and there can be no uncertainty about it. Therefore, Divine pardon is only possible if the sinner repents, for forgiveness without repentance( tawbah ) is not possible.

(iv)Manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn (a position between the two positions). This means that a fasiq (i.e. one who commits one of the "greater sins," such as a wine imbiber, adulterer, or a liar etc.) is neither a believer (mu'min) nor an infidel( kafir ) ; fisq is an intermediary state between belief and infidelity.

(v)al-'amr bil ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar [bidding to do what is right and lawful, and forbidding what is wrong and unlawful]. The opinion of theMu'tazilah about this Islamic duty is, firstly, that the Shari'ah is not the exclusive means of identifying the ma'ruf and the munkar; human reason can, at least partially, independently identify the various kinds of ma'ruf and munkar. Secondly, the implementation of this duty does not necessitate the presence of the Imam, and is a universal obligation of all Muslims, whether the Imam or leader is present or not. Only some categories of it are the obligation of the Imam or ruler of Muslims, such as, implementation of the punishments (hudud ) prescribed by the Shari'ah, guarding of the frontiers of Islamic countries, and other such matters relating to the Islamic government.

Occasionally, the Mu'tazilite mutakallmun have devoted independent volumes to discussion of their five doctrines, such as the famousal-'Usul al-khamsah of al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar al-'Astarabadi (d. 415/ 1025), a Mu'tazilite contemporary of al-Sayyid al-Murtada 'Alam al-Huda and al-Sahib ibn 'Abbad (d. 385/995).

As can be noticed, only the principles of tawhid and Justice can be considered as parts of the essential doctrine. The other three principles are only significant because they characterize theMu'tazilah . Even Divine Justice - although its notion is definitely supported by the Qur'an, and belief in it is a necessary part of the Islamic faith and doctrine - has been made one of the five major doctrines because it characterizes theMu'tazilah . Or otherwise belief in Divine Knowledge and Power is as much an essential part of the Islamic faith and principal doctrine.

Also in the Shi'ite faith the principle of Divine Justice is considered one of the five essential doctrines. It is natural that the question should arise: what is particular about Divine Justice that it should be counted.among the essential doctrines, though justice is only one of the Divine Attributes? Is not God Just in the same manner as He is the Omniscient, the Mighty, the Living, the Perceiver, the Hearer and the Seer? All those Divine Attributes are essential to the faith. Then why justice is given so much prominence among the Divine Attributes?

The answer is that Justice has no advantage over other Attributes. The Shi'itemutakallimun have specially mentioned justice among the principal Shi'ite doctrines because the Ash'arites - who form the majority of the Ahl al-Sunnah - implicitly deny that it is an Attribute, whereas they do not reject the Attributes of Knowledge, Life, Will, etc. Accordingly, justice is counted among the specific doctrines of the Shi'ah, as also of theMu'tazilah . The above-mentioned five doctrines constitute the basic position of theMu'tazilah from the viewpoint of kalam, otherwise, as said before, the Mu'tazilite beliefs are not confined to these five and cover a broad scope ranging from theology, physics and sociology to anthropology, in all of which they hold specific beliefs, a discussion of which lies outside the scope of these lectures.

The Doctrine of al-Tawhid:

Beginning with tawhid it has various kinds and levels:al-tawhid al-dhati (Unity of the Essence),al-tawhid al-sifati (Unity of the Attributes, i.e., with the Essence),al-tawhid al-'af'ali (Unity of the Acts),al-tawhid al-'ibadi (monotheism in worship).

Al-Tawhid al-dhati

It means that the Divine Essence is one and unique; it does not have a like or match. All other beings are God's creations and inferior to Him in station and in degree of perfection. In fact, they cannot be compared with Him. The idea ofal-tawhid al-dhati is made clear by the following two [Qur'anic] verses:

Nothing is like Him. (42:11)

He does not have a match [whatsoever]. (112:4)

AI-Tawhid al-sifati

It means that the Divine Attributes such as Knowledge, Power, Life, Will, Perception, Hearing, Vision, etc. are not realities separate from God's Essence. They are identical with the Essence, in the sense that the Divine Essence is such that the Attributes are true of It, or is such that It manifests these Attributes.

Al-Tawhid al-'af'ali

It means that all beings, or rather all acts [even human acts] exist by the Will of God, and are in some way willed by His sacred Essence.

Al-Tawhid al-'ibadi: It means that except God no other being deserves worship and devotion. Worship of anything besides God is shirk and puts the worshipper outside the limits of Islamic tawhid or monotheism.

In a senseal-tawhid al-'ibadi (tawhid in worship) is different from other kinds of tawhidi, because the first three relate to God and this kind relates to the creatures. In other words, the Unity of Divine Essence, His Uniqueness and the identity of the Essence and Attributes, the unity of the origin of everything - all of them are matters which relate to God. But tawhid in worship, i.e. the necessity of worshipping the One God, relates to the behaviour of the creatures. But in reality, tawhid in worship is also related to God, because it means Uniqueness of God as the only deserving object of worship, and that He is in truth the One Deity Worthy of Worship. The statement "la ilaha illallah" encompasses all aspects of tawhid, although its first signification is monotheism in worship.

Al-tawhid al-dhati andal-tawhid al-'ibadi are part of the basic doctrines of Islam. It means that if there is a shortcoming in one's belief in these two principles, it would put one outside the pale of Islam. No Muslim has opposed these two basic beliefs.

Lately, the Wahhabis, who are the followers of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, who was a follower of Ibn Taymiyyah, a Hanbali from Syria, have claimed that some common beliefs of the Muslims such as one in intercession (shafa'ah ) and some of their practices such as invoking the assistance of the prophets (A) and holy saints (R) are opposed to the doctrine of al-tawhid al-'ibadi. But these are not considered by other Muslims to conflict with al-tawhid al-'ibadi. The point of difference between the Wahhabis and other Muslims is not whether any one besides God - such as the prophets or saints - is worthy of worship. There is no debate that anyone except God cannot be worshipped. The debate is about whether invoking of intercession and assistance can be considered a form of worship or not. Therefore, the difference is only secondary, not a primary one. Islamic scholars have rejected the viewpoint of the Wahhabis in elaborate, well-reasoned answers.

Al-tawhid al-sifati (the Unity of Divine Essence and Attributes) is a point of debate between theMu'tazilah and theAsha'irah . The latter deny it while the former affirm it.Al-tawhid al-'af'ali is also another point of difference between them, with the difference, however, that the matter is reverse; i.e. theAsha'irah affirm it and theMu'tazilah deny it.

When theMu'tazilah call themselves "ahl al-tawhid", and count it among their doctrines, thereby they mean by ital-tawhid al-sifati , notal-tawhid al-dhati , noral-tawhid al-'ibadi (which are not disputed), noral-tawhid al-'af'ali . Because, firstly,al-tawhid al-'af'ali is negated by them, and, secondly, they expound their own viewpoint about it under the doctrine of justice, their second article.

TheAsha'irah and theMu'tazilah formed two radically opposed camps on the issues ofal-tawhid al-sifati andal-tawhid al-'af'ali . To repeat, the

Mu'tazilah affirmal-tawhid al-sifati and rejectal-tawhid al-'af'ali , while the Ash'arite position is the reverse. Each of them have advanced arguments in support of their positions. We shall discuss the Shi'ite position regarding these two aspects of tawhid in the related chapter.

The Doctrine of Divine Justice:

In the preceding lecture I have mentioned the five fundamental Mu'tazilite principles, and explained the first issue, i.e. their doctrine of tawhid. Here we shall take up their doctrine of Divine Justice.

Of course, it is evident that none of the Islamic sects denied justice as one of the Divine Attributes. No one has ever claimed that God is not just. The difference between theMu'tazilah and their opponents is about the interpretation of Justice. TheAsha'irah interpret it in such a way that it is equivalent, in the view of theMu'tazilah , to a denial of the Attribute of Justice. Otherwise, theAsha'irah are not at all willing to be considered the opponents of justice.

TheMu'tazilah believe that some acts are essentially 'just' and some intrinsically 'unjust.' For instance, rewarding the obedient and punishing the sinners is justice; and that God is Just, i.e. He rewards the obedient and punishes the sinners, and it is impossible for Him to act otherwise. Rewarding the sinners and punishing the obedient is essentially and intrinsically unjust, and it is impossible for God to do such a thing. Similarly, compelling His creatures to commit sin, or creating them without any power of free will, then creating the sinful acts at their hands, and then punishing them on account of those sins - this is injustice, an ugly thing for God to do; it is unjustifiable and unGodly. But theAsha'irah believe that no act is intrinsically or essentially just or unjust. Justice is essentially whatever God does. If, supposedly, God were to punish the obedient and reward the sinners, it would be as just. Similarly, if God creates His creatures without any will, power or freedom of action, then if He causes them to commit sins and then punishes them for that - it is not essential injustice. If we suppose that God acts in this manner, it is justice:

Whatever that Khusrow does is sweet( shirin ) .

For the same reason that theMu'tazilah emphasize justice, they denyal-tawhid al-'af'ali . They say thatal-tawhid al-'af'ali implies that God, not the human beings, is the maker of human deeds. Since it is known that man attains reward and punishment in the Hereafter, if God is the creator of human actions and yet punishes them for their evil deeds - which not they, but God Himself has brought about - that would be injustice( zulm ) and contrary to Divine Justice. Accordingly, theMu'tazilah consideral-tawhid al-'af'ali to be contrary to the doctrine of justice.

Also, thereby, theMu'tazilah believe in human freedom and free will and are its staunch defenders, contrary to theAsha'irah who deny human freedom and free will.

Under the doctrine of justice - in the sense that some deeds are inherently just and some inherently unjust, and that human reason dictates that justice is good and must be practised, whereas injustice is evil and must be abstained from - they advance another general doctrine, which is more comprehensive, that is the principle that "beauty"( husn ) and "ugliness"

( qubh ) , (good and evil), are inherent properties of acts. For instance, truthfulness, trustworthiness, chastity and God-fearing are intrinsically good qualities, and falsehood, treachery, indecency, neglectfulness, etc. are intrinsically evil. Therefore, deeds in essence, before God may judge them, possess inherent goodness or evil (husn or qubh).

Hereupon, they arrive at another doctrine about reason: human reason can independently judge (or perceive) the good or evil in things. It means that the good or evil of some deeds can be judged by human reason independently of the commands of the Shari'ah. TheAsha'irah are against this view too.

The belief in the inherent good or evil of acts and the capacity of reason to judge them, upheld by theMu'tazilah and rejected by theAsha'irah , brought many other problems in its wake, some of which are related to theology, some to human predicament; such as, whether the Divine Acts, or rather, the creation of things is with a purpose or not. TheMu'tazilah claimed that absence of a purpose in the creation is "qabih" (an ugly thing) and so rationally impossible. How about a duty which is beyond one's power to fulfil? Is it possible that God may saddle someone with a duty which is over and above his capacity? TheMu'tazilah consideied this, too, as "qabih", and so impossible.

Is it within the power of a believer (mu'min) to turn apostate? Does the infidel( kafir ) have any power over his own infidelity (kufr )? The answer of theMu'tazilah is in the affirmative; for if the believer and the infidel had no power over their belief and infidelity, it would be wrong( qabih ) to award and punish them. TheAsha'irah rejected all these Mu'tazilite doctrines and held opposite views.

Retribution (al-wa'd wa al-wa'id):

"Wa'd" means promising award and "wa'id" means threat of punishment. TheMu'tazilah believe that God does not break His own promises (all Muslims unanimously accept this) or forego His threats, as stated by the Qur'anic verse regarding Divine promise:

Indeed God does not break the promise. (13:31)

Accordingly (theMu'tazilah say), all threats addressed to the sinners and the wicked such as the punishments declared for an oppressor, a liar or a wine imbiber, will all be carried out without fail, except when the sinner repents before death. Therefore, pardon without repentance is not possible.

From the viewpoint of theMu'tazilah , pardon without repentance implies failure to carry out the threats (wa'id), and such an act, like breaking of promise (khulf al-wa'd),is "qabih", and so impossible. Thus the Mu'tazilite beliefs regarding Divine retribution and Divine forgiveness are interrelated, and both arise from their belief in inherent good and evil of deeds determinable by reason.

Manzilah Bayna al-Manzilatayn:

The Mu'tazilite belief in this matter emerged in the wake of two opposite beliefs in the Muslim world about the faith ('iman ) or infidelity (kufr ) of the fasiq. For the first time the Khawarij maintained that committing of any of

the capital sins (kaba'ir ) was contrary to faith ('iman ) and equal to infidelity. Therefore, the perpetrator of a major sin is a kafir.

As we know, the Khawarij emerged after the incident of arbitration( tahkim ) during the Battle of Siffin about the year 37/657-58 during the caliphate of Amir al-Mu'minin 'Ali (A). As the Nahj al-Balaghah tells us, Amir al-Mu'minin (A) argued with them on this issue and refuted their viewpoint by numerous arguments. The Khawarij, even after 'Ali (A), were against the caliphs of the period, and staunchly espoused the cause of al-'amr bi al-ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar, denouncing others for their evil and calling them apostates and infidels. Since most of the caliphs indulged in the capital sins, they were naturally regarded as infidels by the Khawarij. Accordingly, they were adversaries of the current politics.

Another group which emerged (or was produced by the hands of vested political interests) was that of the Murji'ah, whose position with regard to the effect of capital sins was precisely opposite to that of the Khawarij. They held that faith and belief is a matter of the heart. One should remain a Muslim if one's faith - which is an inner affair of the heart - were intact, evil deeds cannot do any harm. Faith compensates all wickedness.

The opinions of the Murji'ah were to the benefit of the rulers, and tended to cause the people to regard their wickedness and indecencies as unimportant, or to consider them, despite their destructive character, as men worthy of paradise. The Murji'ah stated in unequivocal terms, "The respectability of the station of the ruler is secure, no matter how much he may sin. Obedience to him is obligatory and prayers performed in his leadership are correct." The tyrannical caliphs, therefore, backed them. For the Murji'ah, sin and wickedness, no matter how serious, do not harm one's faith; the perpetrator of the major sins is a mu'min, not a kafir.

TheMu'tazilah took a middle path in this matter. They maintained that the perpetrator of a major sin is neither a mu'min, nor he is a kafir, but occupies a position between those two extremes. This middle state was termed by theMu'tazilah "manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn."

It is said that the first to express this belief was Wasil ibn 'Ata', a pupil of al-Hasan al-Basri. One day Wasil was sitting with his teacher, who was asked his opinion about the difference between the Khawarij and the Murji'ah on this issue. Before al-Hasan could say anything, Wasil declared: "In my opinion the perpetrator of the major sins is a fasiq, not a kafir." After this, he left the company, or as is also said, was expelled by al-Hasan al-Basri - and parting his way started propagating his own views. His pupil and brother-in-law 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd also joined him. At this point Hasan declared, "'I'tazala 'anna", i.e. "He [Wasil] has departed from us." According to another version, the people began to say of Wasil and 'Amr "'I'tazala qawl al-'ummah", i.e. "they have departed from the doctrines held by the ummah," inventing a third path.

Al-'Amr bi al-Ma'ruf wa al-Nahy 'an al-Munkar:

Al-'amr bi al-ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar is an essential Islamic duty, unanimously accepted by all Muslims. The difference occurs only in the limits and conditions related to it.

For instance, the Khawarij believed in it without any limits and conditions whatsoever. They believed that this twofold duty must be performed in all circumstances. For example, when others believed in the conditions of probability of effectiveness (of al-ma'ruf) and absence of any dangerous consequences as necessary for this obligation to be applicable, the Khawarij did not believe in any such restrictions. Some believed that it is sufficient to fulfil the duty of al-'amr wa al-nahy by the heart and the tongue i e one should support al-ma'ruf and oppose al-munkar in his heart and use his tongue to speak out for al-ma'ruf and against al-munkar. But the Khawarij considered it incumbent to take up arms and to unsheathe one's sword for the sake of fulfilling this duty.

As against them there was a group which considered al-'amr wa al-nahy to be subject to the above conditions, and, moreover, did not go beyond the confines of the heart and the tongue for its sake. Ahmad ibn Hanbal is counted among them. According to this group,a bloody uprising for the sake of struggling against unlawful activities is not permissible.

TheMu'tazilah accepted the conditions for al-'amr wa al-nahy, but, not limiting it to the heart and the tongue, maintained that if the unlawful practices become common, or if the state is oppressive and unjust, it is obligatory for Muslims to rise in armed revolt.

Thus the belief special to theMu'tazilah in regard to al-'amr bi al-ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar - contrary to the stand of the Ahl al-Hadith and the Ahl al-Sunnah - is belief in the necessity to rise up in arms to confront corruption. The Khawarij too shared this view, with the difference pointed out above.

Other Mu’tazilite Notions and Beliefs:

Whatever we said in the last two lectures was related to the basic doctrines of theMu'tazilah . But as we mentioned before, theMu'tazilah raised many an issue and defended their opinions about them. Some of them were related with theology some with physics, some with sociology, and some with the human situation. Of the theological issues, some are related to general metaphysics (umur 'ammah) and some with theology proper (ilahiyyat bi al-ma'na al-'akhass).[8] Like all othermutakallimun , the intended purpose of theMu'tazilah by raising metaphysical questions is to use them as preparatory ground for the discussion of theological issues, which are their ultimate objectives. So also the discussions in the natural sciences, too, serve an introductory purpose for them. That is, the discussions in the natural sciences are used to prove some religious doctrines, or to find an answer to some objections. Here we shall enumerate some of these beliefs, beginning with theology:

Theology:

(i) Al-tawhid al-sifati (i.e. unity of the Divine Attributes)

(ii)'Adl (Divine Justice).

(iii) The Holy Qur'an (Kalam Allah ) is created (kalam , or speech, is an attribute of Act, not of the Essence).

(iv) The Divine Acts are caused and controlled by purposes (i.e. every Divine Act is for the sake of some beneficial outcome).

(v) Forgiveness without repentance is not possible (the doctrine of retribution -wa'd wa wa'id ).

(vi) Pre-eternity( qidam ) is limited to God (in this belief, they are challenged only by the philosophers).

(vii) Delegation of a duty beyond the powers of the mukallaf (al-taklif bima la yutaq ) is impossible.

(viii) The acts of the creatures are not created by God for five reasons;[9] the exercise of Divine Will does not apply to the acts of men.

(ix) The world is created, and is not pre-eternal (only the philosophers are against this view).

(x) God cannot be seen with the eyes, either in this world or in the Hereafter.

Physics:

(i) Physical bodies are made up of indivisible particles.

(ii) Smell relates to particles scattered in air.

(iii) Taste is nothing but the effect of particles.

(iv) Light is made up of particles scattered in space.

(v) Interpenetration of bodies is not impossible (this belief is attributed to someMu'tazilah ).

(vi) Leap (of particles) (i.e. tafrah)[10] is not impossible (this belief, too, is attributed to someMu'tazilah ).

Human Problems:

(i) Man is free, endowed with free will; not predetermined (this problem, the problem of the nature of human acts whether [created by God or man], and the problem of Divine Justice, all the three are interrelated).

(ii) Ability (istita'ah); that is, man has power over his own acts, before he performs them or desists from them.

(iii) The believer (mu'min) has the power to become an infidel and the infidel( kafir ) is able to become a believer.

(iv) A fasiq is neither a mu'min, nor a kafir.

(v) Human reason can understand and judge some matters independently (without the prior need of guidance from theShari'ah ).

(vi) In case of conflict between reason andHadith , reason is to be preferred.

(vii) It is possible to interpret the Qur'an with the help of reason.

Political and Social Problems:

(i) The obligatory nature of al-'amr bi al-ma'ruf wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar, even if it necessitates taking up of arms.

(ii) The leadership (imamah ) of the Rashidun Caliphs, was correct in the order it occurred.

(iii) 'Ali (A) was superior to the Caliphs who preceded him (this is the view of some of theMu'tazilah , not of all. The earlierMu'tazilah - with the exception of Wasil ibn 'Ata' considered Abu Bakr as the best, but the majority of the latterMu'tazilah considered 'Ali (A) as superior).

(iv) Evaluation and criticism of the Companions of the Prophet (S) and their deeds is permissible.

(v) A comparative study and analysis of the state policies of 'Umar and 'Ali (A).

These represent a sample of the issues touched by theMu'tazilah , which are far more numerous than what we have referred to. In some of these problems, they were contradicted by theAsha'irah , in some by the philosophers, in some by the Khawarij, and in some by the Murji'ah.

TheMu'tazilah never submitted to Greek thought and did not accept Greek philosophy indiscriminately, which entered the Islamic world contemporaneous with the emergence and rise of theMu'tazilah . On the other hand, with great courage, they wrote books against philosophy and philosophers, boldly expressing their own opinions. The controversy between themutakallimun and the philosophers benefited both kalam and philosophy. Both of them made progress, and in the course of time came so close to each other that there did not remain any disagreement except on few issues. An elaborate discussion of the reciprocal services of kalam and philosophy, and an exposition of the essential differences between the two, are outside the scope of these lectures.

Trasitions in the History of the Mu’tazilah:

Obviously, all the above-mentioned problems were not posed at one time and by any single individual. Rather, they were raised gradually by several individuals, expanding the scope of'ilm al-kalam .

Among these mentioned, apparently the oldest problem was that of free will and determinism, in which theMu'tazilah , of course, sided with free will. This is a problem which is posed in the Qur'an. That is, the Qur'an refers to this issue in a manner which stimulates thought on the subject. Because some verses clearly indicate that man is free, not coerced in any of his acts. On the other hand, there are verses which, with equal clarity, indicate that all things depend on the Divine Will.

Here the doubt arises that these two types of verses contradict each other. Accordingly, some explained away the verses upholding free will and supported determinism and predestination, while others explained away the verses which refer to the role of Divine Will and Intention, and sided with human freedom and free will. Of course, there is a third group which sees no contradiction between those two sets of verses.[11]

Moreover, this controversy between freedom and fate is frequently taken up in the utterances of 'Ali (A). Therefore, it is almost contemporaneous with Islam itself. However, the division of Muslims into two opposite camps, one siding with free will and the other with fate, took place in the second half of the lst/7th century.

It is said that the idea of free will was first put into circulation by Ghaylan al-Dimashqi and Ma'bad al-Juhani. The Banu Umayyah were inclined to propagate the belief in fate and predestination among the people, because it served their political interests. Under the cover of this belief that "everything is by the Will of God" - "amanna bi al-qadri khayrihi wa sharrihi" - "We believe in fate, bring as it may good or evil" - they justified their oppressive and illegitimate rule. As a result, they repressed any notions

of free will or human freedom, and Ghaylan al-Dimashqi and Ma'bad al-Juhani were both killed. During that period the supporters of the belief in free will were called "Qadariyyah".

However, the problem of the infidelity or otherwise of the evildoer (kufr al-fasiq) had become a subject of controversy even before the issue of freedom and fate, because it was raised by the Khawarij during the first half of the first century about the time of the caliphate of 'Ali (A). But the Khawarij did not defend this view in the fashion of themutakallimun . Only when the problem was raised among theMu'tazilah , with the emergence of their doctrine of manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn, it took on the colour of a problem of kalam.

The problem of fate and freedom (jabr wa ikhtiyar ) automatically brought in its wake such other problems as these: the problem of Divine Justice; the rational and essential goodness or badness (husn aw qubh dhati wa'aqli ) of things and acts; dependence of Divine Acts on purposes; impossibility of saddling a person with a duty exceeding his capacities, and the like.

During the first half of the 2nd/8th century one Jahm ibn Sakfwan (d. 128/745) voiced certain beliefs regarding the Divine Attributes. The writers of intellectual and religious history of Islam (milal wa nihal ), claim that the problem ofal-tawhid al-sifati (that the Divine Attributes are not separate from the Divine Essence - which theMu'tazilah call their "doctrine of tawhid") and the problem of nafy al-tashbih, also called asl al-tanzih, (which means that nothing can be likened to God) was expressed for the first time by Jahm ibn Safwan, whose followers came to be called the "Jahmiyyah." TheMu'tazilah followed the Jahmiyyah in their doctrines of tawhid and tanzih, in the same way as they followed the Qadariyyah on the issue of free will. Jahm ibn Safwan himself was a Jabrite (i.e. a supporter of fate or predestination). TheMu'tazilah rejected his view of fate but accepted his view of tawhid.

The foremost among theMu'tazilah , who established Mu'tazilism (al-'i'tizal) as a school of thought is Wasil ibn 'Ata', who, as mentioned earlier, was a pupil of al-Hasan al-Basri, and who parted company with his teacher in the course of a difference, to establish his own school. Two different versions of the cause why theMu'tazilah came to be called by this name were mentioned earlier. Some others say that, in the beginning the term "mu'tazilah" was used to refer to a group of persons who remained neutral during the events of the Battle of al-Jamal and the Battle of Siffin, such as Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Zayd ibn Thabit, and 'Abd Allah ibn 'Umar.

Later when the issue of the faith or infidelity of fasiq was raised by the Khawarij, Muslims divided into two camps. One group of them took the third path, dissociating itself from the rest, being indifferent to their debates. They adopted the same kind of neutral attitude with regard to a theoretical problem as those like Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas had adopted in the midst of the heated social political climate of their time. This attitude caused them to be called "mu'tazilah" the "indifferent," a name which permanently stuck to them.

Wasil was born in the year 80/699 and died in 141/758-59. His views were limited to those on the negation of the Attributes [as distinct from the Essence of God], free will, manzilah bayna al-manzilatayn, al-wa'd wa al-wa'id, and opinions on some differences among the Companions.

After Wasil came 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd, who extended and gave final shape to the views of Wasil. After him came 'Amr ibn Abi al-Hudhayl al-'Allaf and Ibrahim ibn Sayyar al-Nazzam. Abu al-Hudhayl and al-Nazzim, both, are considered eminent Mu'tazilites. Kalam got its philosophical colour at their hands. Abu al-Hudhayl studied philosophical works and wrote books in their refutation. Al-Nazzam presented certain views in the sphere of physics, and it was he who offered the view that bodies are constituted of atoms. Abu al-Hudhayl died, most probably, in the year 255/869, and al-Nazzim in 231/845-46.

Al-Jahiz (159/775-254/868), the famous author of the al-Bayan wa al-tabyin, is another eminent Mu'tazilite of the 3rd/9th century.

During the rule of the Banu Umayyah, theMu'tazilah did not have good relations with the ruling authorities. During the early days of the Banu al-'Abbas, they took on a neutral stand.[12] But during the rule of al-Ma'mun, who was himself learned in literature, sciences and philosophy, they attracted the ruler's patronage. Al-Ma'mun, and after him al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq, were staunch patrons of theMu'tazilah . All the three caliphs called themselves Mu'tazilites.

It was during this period that a heated controversy began extending to all corners of the vast Islamic dominions of the period. The issue under debate was whether Speech is an attribute of the Divine Act or an attribute of the Essence. Whether it is created and temporal (hadith ) or uncreated and eternal( qadim ) like Divine Knowledge, Power, and Life. TheMu'tazilah believed that the Qur'an is created (in time) and, therefore, is a creation of God (makhluq ) and so temporal. They also maintained that belief in the pre-eternity of the Qur'an amounted to infidelity (kufr ).

The opponents of theMu'tazilah , on the contrary, believed in the pre-eternity and uncreatedness of the Qur'an. Al-Ma'mun (r. 198/813 to 218/833) sent out a circular that any believer in the pre-eternity of the Qur'an would be liable to punishment. Many persons were thrown into prison and subjected to torture.

Al-Mu'tasim (r. 218/833 to 227/842) and al-Withiq (r. 227/842 to 232/847) also followed al-Ma'mun's practice. Of those who went to the prison during that time was Ahmad ibn Hanbal. This policy remained in force until al-Mutawakkil assumed power (r. 232/847 to 247/861). Al-Mutawakkil was not inclined in favour of theMu'tazilah , and also most of the people were opposed to them. As a result theMu'tazilah and their admirers suffered a reverse, nay, a reprisal. In the purges that followed, much blood was shed and homes were ruined. The period is remembered by Muslims as the times of "mihnah " - times of adversity and trial.

TheMu'tazilah never recuperated after this, and the field was left open forever for their opponents: the Ahl al-Sunnah and the Ahl al-Hadith . Nevertheless, there appeared some prominent personalities even during the following periods of their decline, like, 'Abd Allah ibn Ahmad Abu al-

Qasim al-Balkhi, well-known as al-Ka'bi (d. 319/ 931); Abu 'Ali al-Jubba'i (d. 303/915-6); Abu al-Hashim al-Jubba'i (d. 321/933) the son of Abu 'Ali al-Jubba'i; Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar (d. 415/1024); Abu al-Hasan al-Khayyat; al-Sahib ibn 'Abbad, al-Zamakhshari (d. 538/1144); and Abu Ja'far al-'Iskafi.