Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion

PART IV.

IT seems strange to me, said CLEANTHES, that you, DEMEA, who are so sincere in the cause of religion, should still maintain the mysterious, incomprehensible nature of the Deity, and should insist so strenuously, that he has no manner of likeness or resemblance to human creatures. The Deity, I can readily allow, possesses many powers and attributes, of which we can have no comprehension:* But if our ideas, so far as they go, be not just, and adequate, and correspondent to his real nature, I know not what there is in this subject worth insisting on. Is the name, without any meaning, of such mighty importance?Or how do you MYSTICS, who maintain the absolute incomprehensibility of the Deity, differ fromSceptics or Atheists, who assert, that the first cause of all is unknown and unintelligible?Their temerity must be very great, if, after rejecting the production by a mind; I mean, a mind, resembling the human (for I know of no other) they pretend to assign, with certainty, any other specific, intelligible cause: And their conscience must be very scrupulous indeed, if they refuse to call the universal, unknown cause a God or Deity; and to bestow on him as many sublime eulogies and unmeaning epithets, as you shall please to require of them.

Who could imagine, replied DEMEA, that CLEANTHES, the calm, philosophical CLEANTHES, would attempt to refute his antagonists, by affixing anick-name to them; and like the common bigots and inquisitors of the age, have recourse to invective and declamation, instead of reasoning?Or does he not perceive, that these topics are easily retorted, and that ANTHROPOMORPHITE is an appellation as invidious, and implies as dangerous consequences, as the epithet of MYSTIC, with which he hashonoured us? In reality, CLEANTHES, consider what it is you assert, when you represent the Deity as similar to a human mind and understanding. What is the soul of man? A composition of various faculties, passions, sentiments, ideas; united, indeed, into one self or person, but still distinct from each other. When it reasons, the ideas, which are the parts of its discourse, arrangethemselves in a certain form or order; which is not preserved entire for a moment, but immediately gives place to another arrangement. New opinions, new passions, new affections, new feelings arise, which continually diversify the mental scene, and produce in it the greatest variety, and most rapid succession imaginable. How is this compatible, with that perfect immutability and simplicity, which all true Theists ascribe to the Deity? By the same act, say they, he sees past, present, and future: His love and his hatred, his mercy and his justice, are one individual operation: He is entire in every point of space; and complete in every instant of duration.No succession, no change, no acquisition, no diminution. What he is implies not in it any shadow of distinction or diversity.And what he is, this moment, he ever has been, and ever will be, without any newjudgement , sentiment, or operation. He stands fixed in one simple, perfect state; nor can you ever say, with any propriety, that this act of his is different from that other, or that thisjudgement or idea has been lately formed, and will give place, by succession, to any differentjudgement or idea.

I can readily allow, said CLEANTHES, that those who maintain the perfect simplicity of the Supreme Being, to the extent in which you have explained it, are complete MYSTICS, and chargeable with all the consequences which I have drawn from their opinion. They are, in a word, ATHEISTS, without knowing it. For though it be allowed, that the Deity possesses attributes, of which we have no comprehension; yet ought we never to ascribe to him any attributes, which are absolutely incompatible with that intelligent nature, essential to him. A mind, whose acts and sentiments and ideas are not distinct and successive; one, that is wholly simple, and totally immutable; is a mind, which has no thought, no reason, no will, no sentiment, no love, no hatred; or in a word, is no mind at all. It is an abuse of terms to give it that appellation; and we may as well speak of limited extension without figure, or of number without composition.

Pray consider, said PHILO, whom you are at present inveighing against. You arehonouring with the appellation of Atheist all the sound, orthodox divines almost, who have treated of this subject; and you will, at last be, yourself, found, according to your reckoning, the only sound Theist in the world.But if idolaters be Atheists, as, I think, may justly be asserted, and Christian Theologians the same; what becomes of the argument, so much celebrated, derived from the universal consent of mankind?

But because I know you are not much swayed by names and authorities, I shallendeavour to show you, a little more distinctly, the inconveniencies of that Anthropomorphism, which you have embraced; and shall prove, that there is no ground to suppose a plan of the world to be formed in the divine mind, consisting of distinct ideas, differently arranged; in the same manner as an architect forms in his head the plan of a house which he intends to execute.

It is not easy,I own, to see, what is gained by this supposition, whether we judge of the matter by Reason or by Experience. We are still obliged to mount higher, in order to find the cause of this cause, which you had assigned as satisfactory and conclusive.

If Reason (I mean abstract reason, derived from enquiries a priori) be not alike mute with regard to all questions concerning cause and effect; this sentence at least it will venture to pronounce, That a mental world, or universe of ideas, requires a cause as much, as does a material world, or universe of objects; and if similar in its arrangement must require a similar cause. For what is there in this subject, which should occasion a different conclusion or inference? In an abstract view, they are entirely alike; and no difficulty attends the one supposition, which is not common to both of them.

Again, when we will needs force Experience to pronounce some sentence, even on these subjects, which lie beyond her sphere; neither can she perceive any material difference in this particular, between these two kinds of worlds, but finds them to be governed by similar principles, and to depend upon an equal variety of causes in their operations. We have specimens in miniature of both of them. Our own mind resembles the one: A vegetable or animal body the other. Let Experience, therefore, judge from these samples. Nothing seems more delicate with regard to its causes than thought; and as these causes neveroperate in two persons after the same manner, so we never find two persons, who think exactly alike. Nor indeed does the same person think exactly alike at any two differentperiods of time . A difference of age, of the disposition of his body, of weather, of food, of company, of books, of passions; any of these particulars, or others more minute, are sufficient to alter the curious machinery of thought, and communicate to it very different movements and operations. As far as we can judge, vegetables and animal bodies arenot more delicate in their motions, nor depend upon a greater variety or more curious adjustment of springs and principles.

How therefore shall we satisfy ourselves concerning the cause of that Being, whom you suppose the Author of Nature, or, according to your system of Anthropomorphism, the ideal world, into which you trace the material? Have we not the same reason to trace that ideal world into another ideal world, or new intelligent principle?But if we stop, and go no farther; why go so far?Why not stop at the material world? How can we satisfy ourselves without going on in infinitum?And after all, what satisfaction is there in that infinite progression? Let us remember the story of the INDIAN philosopher and his elephant. It was never more applicable than to the present subject. If the material world rests upon a similar ideal world, this ideal world must rest upon some other; and so on, without end. Itwere better, therefore, never to look beyond the present material world. By supposing it to contain the principle of its order within itself, we really assert it to be God; and the sooner we arrive at that divine Being so much the better. When you goone step beyond the mundane system, you only excite an inquisitivehumour , which it is impossible ever to satisfy.

To say, that the different ideas, which compose the reason of the Supreme Being, fall into order, of themselves, and by their own nature, is really to talk without any precise meaning. If it has a meaning,I would fain know, why it is not as good sense to say, that the parts of the material world fall into order, of themselves, and by their own nature. Can the one opinion be intelligible, while the other is not so?

We have, indeed, experience of ideas, which fall into order, of themselves, and without any known cause: But, I am sure, we have a much larger experience of matter, which does the same; as in all instances of generation and vegetation, where the accurate analysis of the cause exceeds all human comprehension. We have also experience of particular systems of thought and of matter, which have no order; of the first, in madness; of the second, in corruption. Why then should we think, that order is more essential to one than theother ?And if it requires a cause in both, what do we gain by your system, in tracing the universe of objects into a similar universe of ideas? The first step, which we make, leads us onfor ever . It were, therefore, wise in us, to limit all our enquiries to the present world, without looking farther. No satisfactioncan ever be attained by these speculations, which so far exceed the narrow bounds of human understanding.

It was usual with the PERIPATETICS, you know, CLEANTHES, when the cause of any phenomenon was demanded, to have recourse to their faculties or occult qualities, and to say, for instance, that bread nourished by its nutritive faculty, andsenna purged by its purgative: But it has been discovered, that this subterfuge was nothing but the disguise of ignorance; and that these philosophers, though less ingenuous, really said the same thing with thesceptics or the vulgar, who fairly confessed, that they knew not the cause of these phenomena. In like manner, when it is asked, what cause produces order in the ideas of the Supreme Being, canany other reason be assigned by you,Anthropomorphites , than that it is a rational faculty, and that such is the nature of the Deity?But why a similar answer will not be equally satisfactory in accounting for the order of the world, without having recourse to any such intelligent creator, as you insist on, may be difficult to determine. It is only to say, that such is the nature of material objects, and that they are all originally possessed of a faculty of order and proportion.These are only more learned and elaborate ways of confessing our ignorance; nor has the one hypothesis any real advantage above the other, except in its greater conformity to vulgar prejudices.

You have displayed this argument with great emphasis, replied CLEANTHES: You seem not sensible, how easy it is to answer it. Even in commonlife, if I assign a cause for any event; is it any objection, PHILO, that I cannot assign the cause of that cause, and answer every new question, which may incessantly be started?And what philosophers could possibly submit to so rigid a rule?philosophers , who confess ultimate causes to be totally unknown, and are sensible, that the most refined principles, into which they trace the phenomena, are still to them as inexplicable as these phenomena themselves are to the vulgar. The order and arrangement of nature, the curious adjustment of final causes, the plain use and intention of every part and organ; all these bespeak in the clearest language an intelligent cause or author. The heavens and the earth join in the same testimony: The whole chorus of Nature raises one hymn to the praises of its creator: You alone, or almost alone, disturb this general harmony. You start abstruse doubts, cavils, and objections: You askme , what is the cause of this cause?I know not; I care not; that concerns not me.I have found a Deity; and here I stop my enquiry. Let those go farther, who are wiser or more enterprising.

I pretend to be neither, replied PHILO: and for that very reason, I should never perhaps have attempted to go so far; especially when I am sensible, that I must at last be contented to sit down with the same answer, which, without farther trouble, might have satisfied me from the beginning. If Iam still to remain in utter ignorance of causes, and can absolutely give an explication of nothing, I shall never esteem it any advantage to shove off for a moment a difficulty, which, you acknowledge, must immediately, in its full force, recur upon me. Naturalists indeed very justly explain particular effects by more general causes; though these general causes themselves should remain in the endtotally inexplicable: but they never surely thought it satisfactory to explain a particular effect by a particular cause, which was no more to be accounted for than the effect itself. An ideal system, arranged of itself, without a precedent design, is nota whit more explicable than a material one, which attains its order in a like manner; nor is there any more difficulty in the latter supposition than in the former.

PART V.

BUT to show you still more inconveniencies, continued PHILO, in your Anthropomorphism; please to take a new survey of your principles. Like effects prove like causesThis is the experimental argument; and this, you say too, is the sole theological argument. Now it is certain, that the liker the effects are, whichare seen , and theliker the causes, which are inferred, the stronger is the argument. Every departure on either side diminishes the probability, and renders the experiment less conclusive. You cannot doubt of the principle: neither ought you to reject its consequences.

All the new discoveries in astronomy, which prove the immense grandeur and magnificence of the works of Nature, are so many additional arguments for a Deity, according to the true system of Theism: but according to your hypothesis of experimental Theism, they become so many objections, by removing the effect still farther from all resemblance to the effects of human art and contrivance.* For if LUCRETIUS*, even following the old system of the world, could exclaim,

Quis regere immensi summam ,quis habere profundi

Indu manu validas potis est moderanter habenas ?

Quis pariter coelos omnes convertere ? et omnes

Ignibus aetheriis terras suffire feraces ?

Omnibusinque locis esse omni temporepraesto ?

If Tully† esteemed this reasoningso natural as to put it into the mouth of his EPICUREAN.Quibus euim oculis animi intueri potuit vester Platofabricam illam tanti operis , quaconstrui aDeo atque aedificari mundum facit ? quae molitio ?quae ferramenta ?qui vectes ?quae machinae ?qui ministri tanti muneris fuerunt ?quemadmodum autem obedire etparere voluntati architecti aer ,ignis , aqua, terrapotuerunt ? If this argument,I say, had any force in former ages; how much greater must it have at present; when the bounds of Nature are so infinitely enlarged, and such a magnificent scene is opened to us? It is still more unreasonable to form our idea of so unlimited a cause from our experience of the narrow productions of human design and invention.

The discoveries by microscopes, as they open a new universe in miniature, are still objections, according to you; arguments, according to me. The farther we push our researches of thiskind, we are still led to infer the universal cause of all to be vastly different from mankind, or from any object of human experience and observation.

And what say you to the discoveries in anatomy,chymistry , botany? - These surely are no objections, replied CLEANTHES: they only discover new instances of art and contrivance. It is still the image of mind reflected on us from innumerable objects.Add, a mind like the human, said PHILO.I know of no other, replied CLEANTHES.And theliker the better, insisted PHILO. To be sure, said CLEANTHES.

Now,CLEANTHES, said PHILO, with an air of alacrity and triumph, mark the consequences. First,By this method of reasoning, you renounce all claim to infinity in any of the attributes of the Deity. For as the cause ought only to be proportioned to the effect, and the effect, so far as it falls under ourcognisance , is not infinite; what pretensions have we, upon your suppositions, to ascribe that attribute to the divine Being? You will stillinsist, that, by removing him so much from all similarity to human creatures, we give into the most arbitrary hypothesis, and at the same time, weaken all proofs of his existence.

Secondly,You have no reason, on your theory, for ascribing perfection to the Deity, even in his finite capacity; or for supposing him free from every error, mistake, or incoherence in his undertakings. There are many inexplicable difficulties in the works of Nature, which, if we allow a perfect author to be proved a priori, are easily solved, and become only seeming difficulties, from the narrow capacity of man, who cannot trace infinite relations.But according to your method of reasoning, these difficulties become all real; and perhaps will be insisted on, as new instances of likeness to human art and contrivance. At least, you must acknowledge, that it is impossible for us to tell, fromour limited views, whether this system contains any great faults, or deserves any considerable praise, if compared to other possible, and even real systems . Could a peasant, if the AENEID were read to him, pronounce that poem to be absolutely faultless, or even assign to it its proper rank among the productions of human wit; he, who had never seen any other production?

But were this world ever so perfect a production, it must still remain uncertain, whether all the excellencies of the work can justly be ascribed to the workman. If we survey a ship, what an exalted idea must we form of the ingenuity of the carpenter, who framed so complicated useful and beautiful a machine? And what surprise must we feel, when we find him a stupid mechanic, who imitated others, and copied an art, which, through a long succession of ages, after multiplied trials, mistakes, corrections, deliberations, and controversies, had been gradually improving? Many worlds might have been botched and bungled, throughout an eternity, ere this system was struck out: muchlabour lost: many fruitless trials made: and a slow, but continued improvement carried on during infinite ages in the art ofworld-making . In such subjects, who can determine, where the truth; nay, who can conjecture where the probability, lies; amidst a great number of hypotheses which may be proposed, and a still greater number, which may be imagined?

And what shadow of an argument, continued PHILO, can you produce, from your hypothesis, to prove the unity of the Deity? A great number of men join in building a house or ship, in rearing a city, in framing a commonwealth: why may not several deities combine in contriving and framing a world? This is only so much greater similarity to human affairs. By sharing the work among several, we may so much farther limit the attributes of each, and get rid of that extensive power and knowledge, whichmust be supposed in one deity, and which, according to you, can only serve to weaken the proof of his existence.And if such foolish, such vicious creatures as man can yet often unite in framing and executing one plan; how much more those deities or daemons, whom we may suppose several degrees more perfect?

To multiply causes, without necessity, is indeed contrary to true philosophy: but this principle applies not to the present case. Were one deity antecedently proved by your theory, who were possessed of every attribute, requisite to the production of the universe; it would be needless,I own (though not absurd) to suppose any other deity existent.But while it is still a question, Whether all these attributes are united in one subject, or dispersed among several independent beings: by what phenomena in nature can we pretend to decide the controversy? Where we see a body raised in a scale, we are sure that there is in the opposite scale, however concealed from sight, some counterpoising weight equal to it: but it is still allowed to doubt, whether that weight be an aggregate of several distinct bodies, or one uniform united mass.And if the weight requisite very much exceedsany thing which we have ever seen conjoined in any single body, the former supposition becomes still more probable and natural. An intelligent being of such vast power and capacity, as is necessary to produce the universe, or, to speak in the language of ancient philosophy, so prodigious an animal, exceeds all analogy and even comprehension.

But farther, CLEANTHES; men are mortal, and renew their species by generation; and this is common to all living creatures. The two great sexes of male and female, says MILTON, animate the world. Why must this circumstance, so universal, so essential, be excluded from those numerous and limited deities? Behold then thetheogony of ancient times brought back upon us.

And why not become a perfectAnthropomorphite ?Why not assert the deity or deities to be corporeal, and to have eyes, a nose, mouth, ears, &c.? EPICURUS maintained, that no man had ever seen reason but in a human figure; therefore the gods must have a human figure.And this argument, which is deservedly so much ridiculed by CICERO, becomes, according to you, solid and philosophical.

In a word, CLEANTHES, a man, who follows your hypothesis, is able, perhaps, to assert, or conjecture, that the universe, sometime, arose from something like design: but beyond that position he cannot ascertain one single circumstance, and is left afterwards to fix every point of his theology, by the utmostlicence of fancy and hypothesis.This world, for aught he knows, is very faulty and imperfect, compared to a superior standard; and was only the first rude essay of some infant deity, who afterwards abandoned it, ashamed of his lame performance: it is the work only of some dependent, inferior deity; and is the object of derision to his superiors: it is the production of old age and dotage in some superannuated deity; and ever since his death, has run on at adventures, from the first impulse and active force, which it received from him. You justly give signs of horror, DEMEA, at these strange suppositions: but these, and a thousand more of the same kind, are CLEANTHES's suppositions, notmine . From the moment the attributes of the Deityare supposed finite, all these have place.And I cannot, for my part, think, that so wild and unsettled a system of theology is, in any respect, preferable to none at all.

These suppositionsI absolutely disown, cried CLEANTHES: they strike me, however, with no horror; especially, when proposed in that rambling way, in which they drop from you. On the contrary, they giveme pleasure, when I see, that, by the utmost indulgence of your imagination, you never get rid of the hypothesis of design in the universe; but are obliged, at every turn, to have recourse to it. Tothis concession I adhere steadily; and this I regard as a sufficient foundation for religion.

PART VI.

IT must be a slight fabric, indeed, said DEMEA, whichcan be erected on so tottering a foundation. While we are uncertain, whether there is one deity or many; whether the deity or deities, to whom we owe our existence, be perfect or imperfect, subordinate or supreme, dead or alive; what trust or confidence can we repose inthem? What devotion or worship address to them? What veneration or obediencepay them? To all the purposes of life, the theory of religion becomes altogether useless:* and even with regard to speculative consequences, its uncertainty, according to you, must render it totally precarious and unsatisfactory.

To render it still more unsatisfactory, said PHILO, there occurs to me another hypothesis, which must acquire an air of probability from the method of reasoning so much insisted on by CLEANTHES.That like effects arise from like causes: this principle he supposes the foundation of all religion.But there is another principle of the same kind, no less certain, and derived from the same source of experience; That where several known circumstances are observed to be similar, the unknown will also be found similar. Thus, if we see the limbs of a human body, we conclude, that itis also attended with a human head, though hid from us. Thus, if we see, through a chink in a wall, a small part of the sun, we conclude, that, were the wall removed, we should see the whole body. In short, this method of reasoning is so obvious and familiar, that no scruplecan ever be made with regard to its solidity.

Now if we survey the universe,so far as it falls under our knowledge, it bears a great resemblance to an animal or organized body, and seems actuated with a like principle of life and motion. A continual circulation of matter in it produces no disorder: a continual waste in every partis incessantly repaired : the closest sympathy is perceived throughout the entire system: and each part or member, in performing its proper offices, operates both to its own preservation and to that of the whole. The world, therefore,I infer, is an animal, and the Deity is the SOUL of the world, actuating it, and actuated by it.

You have too much learning, CLEANTHES, to be at all surprised at this opinion, which, you know,was maintained by almost all the Theists of antiquity, and chiefly prevails in their discourses andreasonings . For though sometimes the ancient philosophers reason from final causes, as if they thought the world the workmanship of God; yet it appears rather their favorite notion to consider it as his body, whose organization renders it subservient to him.And it must be confessed, that as the universe resembles more a human body than it does the works of human art and contrivance; if our limited analogy could ever, with any propriety, be extended to the whole of nature, the inference seemsjuster infavour of the ancient than the modern theory.

There are many other advantages too, in the former theory, which recommended it to the ancient Theologians. Nothing more repugnant to all their notions, because nothing more repugnant to common experience, than mind without body; a mere spiritual substance, which fell not under their senses nor comprehension, and of which they had not observed one single instance throughout all nature.Mind and body they knew, because they felt both: an order, arrangement, organization, or internal machinery in boththey likewise knew, after the same manner: and it could not but seem reasonable to transfer this experience to the universe, and to suppose the divine mind and body to be also coeval, and to have, both of them, order and arrangement naturally inherent in them, and inseparable from them.

Here therefore is a new species of Anthropomorphism, CLEANTHES, on which you may deliberate; and atheory which seems not liable to any considerable difficulties. You are too much superior surely to systematical prejudices, to find any more difficulty in supposing an animal body to be, originally, of itself, or from unknown causes, possessed of order and organization, than in supposing a similar order to belong to mind.But the vulgar prejudice, that body and mind ought always to accompany each other, ought not, one should think, to be entirely neglected; since it is founded on vulgar experience, the only guide which you profess to follow in all these theological enquiries.And if you assert, that our limited experience is an unequal standard, by which to judge of the unlimited extent of nature; you entirely abandon your own hypothesis, and must thenceforward adopt our Mysticism, as you call it, and admit of the absolute incomprehensibility of the Divine Nature.

This theory, I own, replied CLEANTHES, has never before occurred to me, though apretty natural one; and I cannot readily, upon so short an examination and reflection, deliver any opinion with regard to it. You are very scrupulous, indeed, said PHILO; wereI to examine any system of yours, I should not have acted with half that caution and reserve, in starting objections and difficulties to it. However, ifanything occur to you, you will oblige us by proposing it.

Why then, replied CLEANTHES, it seems to me, that, though the world does, in many circumstances, resemble an animal body; yet is the analogy also defective in many circumstances, the most material: no organs of sense; no seat of thought or reason; no one precise origin of motion and action. In short, it seems to bear a stronger resemblance to a vegetable than to an animal, and your inference would be so far inconclusive infavour of the soul of the world.

But in the next place, your theory seems to imply the eternity of the world; and that is a principle, which, I think, can be refuted by the strongest reasons and probabilities. I shall suggestan argument to this purpose, which, I believe, has not been insisted on by any writer .Those, who reason from the late origin of arts and sciences, though their inference wants not force, may perhaps be refuted by considerations, derived from the nature of human society, which is in continual revolution, between ignorance and knowledge, liberty and slavery, riches and poverty; so that it is impossible for us, from our limited experience, to foretell with assurance what events may or may not be expected. Ancient learning and history seem to have been in great danger of entirely perishing after the inundation of the barbarous nations; and had these convulsions continued a little longer, or been a little more violent, we should not probably have now known what passed in the world a few centuries before us.Nay, were it not for the superstition of the Popes, who preserved a little jargon of LATIN, in order to support the appearance of an ancient and universal church, that tongue must have been utterly lost: in which case, the Western world, being totally barbarous, would not have been in a fit disposition for receiving the GREEK language and learning, which was conveyed to them after the sacking of CONSTANTINOPLE. When learning and bookshad been extinguished , even the mechanical arts would have fallen considerably to decay; and it is easily imagined, that fable or tradition might ascribe to them a much later origin than the true one. This vulgar argument, therefore, against the eternity of the world, seems a little precarious.

But here appears to be the foundation of a better argument. LUCULLUS was the first that brought cherry-trees from ASIA to EUROPE; though that tree thrives so well in many EUROPEANclimates, that it grows in the woods without any culture. Is itpossible, that, throughout a whole eternity, no EUROPEAN had ever passed into ASIA, and thought of transplanting so delicious a fruit into his own country?Or if the tree was once transplanted and propagated, how could it ever afterwards perish? Empires may rise and fall; liberty and slavery succeed alternately; ignorance and knowledge give place to each other; but the cherry-treewill still remain in the woods of GREECE, SPAIN and ITALY, and will never be affected by the revolutions of human society.

It is not two thousand years since vineswere transplanted into FRANCE; though there is no climate in the world morefavourable to them. It is not three centuries since horses, cows, sheep, swine, dogs, cornwere known in AMERICA. Is itpossible, that, during the revolutions of a whole eternity, there never arose a COLUMBUS, who might open the communication between EUROPE and that continent? We may as well imagine, that all men would wear stockings for ten thousand years, and never have the sense to think of garters to tie them. All these seem convincing proofs of theyouth, or rather infancy of the world; as being founded on the operation of principles more constant and steady, than those by which human society is governed and directed. Nothing less than a total convulsion of the elements will ever destroy all the EUROPEAN animals and vegetables, which are now tobe found in the Western world.

And what argument have you against such convulsions?replied PHILO. Strong and almost incontestable proofsmay be traced over the whole earth, that every part of this globe has continued for many ages entirely covered with water.And though order were supposed inseparable from matter, and inherent in it; yet may matter be susceptible of many and great revolutions, through the endless periods of eternal duration. The incessant changes, to which every part of it is subject, seem to intimate some such generaltranssormations ; though at the same time, it is observable, that all the changes and corruptions, of which we have ever had experience, are but passages from one state of order to another; nor can matter ever rest in total deformity and confusion. What we see in the parts, we may infer in the whole; at least, that is the method of reasoning, on which you rest your whole theory.And were I obliged to defend any particular system of this nature (which I never willingly should do) I esteem none more plausible, than that which ascribes an eternal, inherent principle of order to the world; though attended with great and continual revolutions and alterations. This at once solves all difficulties; and if the solution, by being so general, is not entirely complete and satisfactory, it is, at least, a theory, that we must,sooner or later , have recourse to, whatever system we embrace. How could things have been as they are, were there not an original, inherent principle of order somewhere, inthought or in matter?And it is very indifferent to which of these we give the preference. Chance has no place, on any hypothesis,sceptical or religious.Every thing is surely governed by steady, inviolable laws.And were the inmost essence of things laid open to us, we should then discover a scene, of which, at present, we can have no idea. Instead of admiring the order of natural beings, we should clearly see, that it wasabsolutely impossible for them, in the smallest article, ever to admit of any other disposition.

Were any one inclined to revive the ancient Pagan Theology, which maintained, as we learn from Hesiod, that this globe was governed by 30,000 deities, who arose from the unknown powers of nature: you would naturally object, CLEANTHES, that nothing is gained by this hypothesis; and that it is as easy to suppose all men and animals, beings more numerous, but less perfect, to have sprung immediately from a like origin. Push the same inference a step farther; and you will find a numerous society of deities as explicable as one universal deity, who possesses, within himself, thepowers and perfections of the whole society. All these systems, then, ofScepticism , Polytheism, and Theism, you must allow, on your principles, to be on a like footing, and that no one of them has any advantages over the others. You may thence learn the fallacy of your principles.

Chapter 2: His Academical and Cultural Activity

Al-Mirza al-Qummi became prominent as one of Islam’s renowned a lam (heads), whose blessed presence used to be a rich source, effusing good abundantly. During his era, the religious and knowledge movement witnessed an effective activation, as Islamic branches of knowledge spread everywhere, and Ahl al-Bayt’s fiqhi school emerged, taking vast steps. Beside all that,a resurgence was enjoyed by al-Hawzah al-Ilmiyyah, which embarked on producing a large number of honourable ‘ulama’. Below are some of his activities.

Guardianship of Proficient Disciples

This being one of the great services rendered by alMirza al-Qummi, that is the education and guardianship he granted to the skilled knowledge-seekers, who turned to be afterwards illuminant beacons for knowledge and fiqh, and grand scholastic dignitaries.

His activity in this field was not initiated at Qum, but from the time he was in Iraq. It is reported by al-Shaykh Hasan Qaftan al-Najafi, the son of al-Shaykh ‘Ali (d. 1278 H.), that he learned ‘ilm al- ‘usul under al-Mirza. Thus, al Mirza used to pay great attention and consideration to this respect, and probably his keen desire for teaching has prompted him to make some of his travels. It may be good to refer to some of his disciples:

1. Al-Sayyid Muhammad Baqir Hujjat al- ‘Islam

He is one of al-Mirza’s most outstanding disciples, and he descends from the pure lineage of the Messenger’s Household (A) as his holy origin belongs to the Seventh Imam of Ahl al-Bayt (A): Musa ibn Ja’far (A). He was born in 1175 (H), in one of Rasht1 villages, of the outskirts of “Upper Tarm”, which is called “Jazrah”, that is located at ten parasangs from “Shaft”.

At the age of seven, be moved to Shaft.In 1192, when reaching the age of 17, be betook himself toward Iraq for acquiring knowledge. There he attended the classes of alSayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Behbahani,beside learning for some time under al-Sayyid ‘Ali al-Tabataba’i, the author of al-Riyad.Afterwards he made his way toward Karbala’, learning under al- ‘Allamah Bahr al- ‘Ulum and al-Shaykh Kashif al-Ghita’. Then he travelled to Kazimayn, learning adjudication (qada’) and shahadat under al-Sayyid Muhsin al- ‘A’raji. At last he returned to Iran in 1200 (H), residing at Qum as a disciple of al-Mirza al-Qummi. Then he went to Kashan, acquiring knowledge, for a time, under al-Hajj al-Mulla Mahdi al-Naraqi.

After that he departed it, taking the direction of Isfahan, whereat be settled down, and knowledge-seekers and scholars gathered around him in order to get from his knowledge, and learn from him. Soon, pupils began to betake themselves to him as butterflies’ rush toward lightening candles, and his worth would be recognised by all, with his fame spreading everywhere, and his becoming a very prominent and widely known ‘alim.The most outstanding of the books authored by him is said to be Matali’ al-anwar.

On reaching the age of 85, he acceded to the demand of the Truth Call, and passed away on Sunday, in Rabi’ al Thani 1260 (H), and was buried in Isfahan beside the city mosque.

2. Al -Hajj Muhammad Ibrahim al-Kalbasi

He is counted among al-Mirza’s eminent disciples too, and of the prides of Imami ‘ulama’, and of the foremost fuqaha’ and mujtahidun.He was known of his zuhd (ascetism), taqwa (piety) and wara’ (righteousness). He was born in Isfahan, in Rabi’ al-Thani 1180 (H), and grown up there. Then he migrated to Iraq during the time of al-Wahid al-Behbahani’s marji’iyyah, acquiring his (religious) sciences under the great marji’, beside al ‘Allamah Bahr al- ‘Ulum, al-Shaykh Ja’far Kashif al-Ghita’, and al-Sayyid ‘Ali al-Tabataba’i - the author of al-Riyad.

On returning to Iran, he resided at Qum for learning under its teacher al-Mirza al-Qummi, departing it then toward Kashan, learning under al-Hajj al-Mulla Mahdi al Naraqi -the author of Jami’ al-Sa’adat. Finally, he returned to his birthplace at Isfahan, undertaking the leadership of religious affairs and Shi’ite marji’iyyah, embarking on teaching, classification and compilation.

The following are some of his works:

I. Al- ‘Iqa’at, 2. Al- ‘Isharat, 3.Shawahid a1-hidayah, 4. Minhaj al-Hidayah, 5. Irshad al-mustarshidin, 6. Al ‘Irshad, 7.Al-Nukhbah, 8. Manasik al-hajj.

His activity was not confined within field of knowledge only, but he used to be leading the prayers at al-Hakim Mosque, ascending the rostrum for preaching people with proper words, thatbe of benefit for them.

He passed away on 8th of Jumada al- ‘Ula, 1261 (H), at the age of 81. His shrine is situated at present at the cemetery of Takht-e Fulad in Isfahan, which is visited by the believers, seeking blessing thereat.

3. Al-Sayyid Muhammad ‘Ali al-Hazarjeribi

He is also one of Al- Qummi’s disciples, and the eldest son of al-Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Hazarjeribi alMazandarani, who is counted among the great fuqaha’ and ‘ulama’ in naqli and aqli (rational) sciences, enjoying much profundity in all of them. He was born in the year 1188 (H), at al-Najaf al- ‘Ashraf, growing up under special care rendered by his father. He learned for some time under al- ‘Allamah al-Sayyid Muhammad Bahr al- ‘Ulum, and al-Shaykh Ja’far Kashif al-Ghita’. After his father’s demise, he moved to the holy town of Qum, attending the classes of al-Mirza al-Qummi, acquiring from his abundant ‘ulum (branches of knowledge), till getting high degree, becoming thus of those having close position near the great marji’.

On the 10th of Shawwal 1228 (H), the genial disciple got the marji’s degree in ijtihad and hadith narration. Then he migrated to Isfahan, engaging himself in the profession of teaching and investigation, being famous with the title al-Faqih. It is noteworthy to point out here, that he got married to the daughter of al-Mirza Muhammad al-Lahiji -known as al-Mirza al-Tawwab - who gave birth to sons becoming afterwards eminent ‘ulama’ and dignitaries. He left numerous works, the most famous of which are the following:

1. Al-Badr al-bahir fi al tafsir, 2.Al-Siraj al-Munir fi al fawa’id, al-rijaliyyah; 3. Al-La’ali fi al- ‘usul, 4. Al-Bahr al-Zakhir fi al-fiqh, 5. Tabsirat al-mustabsirin fi al ‘Imamah; 6. Kitab al- salat, 7. Anisal-mushtaghilin, and others.

He passed away on the night of Saturday, 18th of Rabi’ al- ‘Awwal 1245 (H), and was buried at Isfahan, and his shrine is now at the tomb of “Imam Zadah”2 Sayyid ‘Ali al- ‘Akbar.

4. Al-Sayyid Ahmad al-Kermanshahi

He is the son of al-Sayyid Muhammad ‘Ali, the grandson of the great marji’ al- ‘Ustadh Wahid al-Bahbahani. He is regarded also among the renowned ‘ulama’, and one of the geniuses of his time. He was born in 1191, in the city of Kermanshah, starting his education at the age of six. He learned how to read the Qur’an, beside reading and writing in the Persian language. At the age of ten, he began studying grammar, logic (mantiq), kalam, and rhetoric. When becoming fifteen years old, he commenced to write down his works, with his: Hashiyah ‘ala al-Samadiyyah, and some letters.

Then he migrated to the city of Najaf, studying alMa’alim under al- ‘Akhund al-Mulla Muhammad Isma’il al-Yazdi, with Zubdat al- usul under al- ‘Allamah al Sayyid Muhammad Bahr al- ‘Ulum. In 1212 he studied the books al- ‘Istibsar and Sharh al-Qawa’id under al ‘Allamah al-Shaykh Ja’far Kashif al-Ghita.

After that he moved to Qum, learning for a time under its teacher al-Mirza al-Qummi, getting then the degree of ijtihad and narration. Then he returned to Kermanshah, with the occupations of compilation and classification in fiqh, usul and kalam beside other sciences.

In 1223 (H) he travelled to India traversing many of its cities, and meeting many of their scholarly personages. After spending five years there, he returned to Kermanshah.In 1233 (H) he went to Iraq for visiting the holy shrines, returning then to Kermanshah again. He passed away there in 1235 (H), and was buried in the cemetery of his great grandfather in Kermanshah.

He left for us numerous works, the most well-known of which are:

1. Mir’at al-ahwal which contains biographies of some rijal, in Persian language, that he compiled during his trip to India, 2.Al-Mahmudiyyah fi Sharh al-Samadiyyah, 3. Nur al ‘anwir, 4. Al-Durar alGharawiyyah, 5. Sharh al-Mukhtasar al-Nafi’ 6. Qut la yamut, beside other books.

5. Al-Sayyid Muhammad Mahdi al-Khunsari

He is the grandson of al-Sayyid Husayn al-Khunsari, the teacher of the grand marji’ al-Mirza al-Qummi. Of his works, we can refer to the famous letter he wrote, about the conditions of Abu Basir, which is called: ‘Adimat al nazir fi ahwal Abi Basir. He passed away in 1246 (H), after reaching the age of 67, and was buried in the city of Karbala’.

6. Al-Sayyid ‘Ali al-Khunsari

He is one of the grandsons of al-Sayyid Husayn al Khunsari too. He passed away in 1238 (H). He has written elaborated explanations (shuruh) on Durrat Bahr al ‘Ulum. He is considered among the honourable disciples of al-Mirza al-Qummi, enjoying special care on the part of his teacher (al-Mirza), who preferred him over all other his disciples, praising most often his fadl (honour) and ‘ilm (knowledge).

7. Al-Mirza Abu Talib al-Qummi

He is the son of al-Mirza Abu al-Hasan, and counted among the reputed ‘ulama’ and magnates of Qum.Beside his being a disciple for al-Mirza, he was also his son-in law. Elaboration about him will come later on.

8. Al-Hajj al-Sayyid Isma’il al-Qummi

He is considered among the renowned ‘ulama’ and scholarly dignitaries of Qum, and used to be the only ‘alim who shouldered the mission of teaching the laws of principles (Usul), after the demise of al-Mirza al-Qummi, due to his extensive knowledge and mastery. The sublimity and high rank he attained, made him the best one competent for undertaking the supervision of the legislative affairs of the shrine of al-Sayyidah FatimahalMa’sumah.3 He passed away in 1263 (H), and was buried at the sacred sanctuary (at Qum).

9. Al-Mirza ‘Ali Rida al-Qummi

His full name is ‘Ali Rida ibn Muhammad ibn Kamal al-Din al-Husayn al-Qummi. It is reported by his son, the late Ayatullah al-Hajj al-Sayyid Jawad al-Qummi, that he used to be trustworthy near the late al-Mirza al-Qummi, in respect of istifta’ (giving legal verdicts) and muhakamat (trials), due to his accuracy and keenness to applying the Islamic law (Shari’ah). He passed away in 1248 (H), and was buried in the Shikhan Cemetery.4

10. Al-Shaykh Husayn alQummi

10. Al-Shaykh Husayn alQummi:5

He is the son of Baba’ al-Din Muhammad al-Qummi. and one of the disciples of al-Mirza al-Qummi too. He was a very venerable and eminent scholar, who has written a hashiyah (margin) on Qawanin al- ‘usul, calling it: Tawdih Qawanin al- ‘usul, which was published afterwards.

11. Al-Hajj Mulla Asad Allah al-Brujerdi

He is the son-in-law of al-Mirza al-Qummi too. He was an ‘Allamah and faqih, and one of the great mujtahids, under whom the greatest al-Shaykh al- ‘Ansari learnt. We will expose his characteristics in the last chapter of the book.

12. Al-Hajj Mulla Muhammad al-Kazzazi

He was counted among the magnates of the town of Kazzaz. During his youth, he was not so concerned with learning religious sciences. But when al-Mirza al-Qummi travelled to Kazzaz, getting married there to the sister of Mulla Muhammad al-Kazzazi, the latter expressed his desire and interest to study religious ‘ulum (sciences), and Islamic ma’arif (knowledge). So, he began under to acquire knowledge under al-Mirza al-Qummi, and continued his study after the demise of this great marji’. He travelled to Kashan, then to Naraq, where he joined the disciples of the grand scholar, the late al-Hajj Mulla Ahmad al-Naraqi, the author of Mi’raj al-Sa’idah, and married the granddaughter of his teacher.

Then after the demise of al-Hajj Mulla Ahmad al Naraqi, he moved to Qum, where he settled down for some time, during which he shouldered the tasks of preaching, judgeship (qada) and leadership of prayers till passing away. His shrine is at present in the Shikhan Cemetery. He willed that a water reservoir be built in the locality of ‘Ishq’ali,6 beside allocating one-third of his properties for benevolent charities in the villages of Tajrah and Dastjerd.

License to Narrate

Al-Mirza al-Qummi got numerous licenses in narration, from many teachers, the foremost of whom are: his teacher al-Sayyid Husayn al-Khunsari;7 ‘al-Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Behbabani known as al- ‘Ustadh al Wahid, al-Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Hazarjaribi, and al-Shaykh Mahdi al-Futuni. Also, al-Mirza al-Qummi has given school-certificate (ijazah) to a large number of scholars to report narration from his disciples and others, of whom we mention:

• Muhammad Baqir Hujjat al-’Islam;

•al-Hajj al-Shaykh Muhammad lbrahim al-Kalbasi;

•al-Sayyid Jawad al- ‘Amili, the author of Miftah al-karamah,8

•al-Sayyid Abd Allah Shubbar;

•al-Shaykh Asad Allah al-Tustari al-Kazimi, the author of al-Maqayis,

•al-Sayyid Mahdi al-Khunsari;

•al-Sayyid ‘Ali al-Khunsari;

•al-Sayyid Muhsin al-‘A’raji;

•al-Mirza Abu Talib al-Qummi;

•al-Sayyid Muhammad ‘Ali al-Hazarjeribi;

•al-Sayyid Ahmad al-Kermanshahi, the author of Mir’at al- ‘Ahwal, and others.

His Valuable Works

Of the cultural activities and great services rendered by al-Mirza al-Qummi for the Islamic knowledge, we can refer to the valuable works he left for us.

His writings covered numerous fields of Islamic sciences including fiqh, usul, kalam, rhetoric, and others, showing high proficiency and ability in all of them, proving his genius in knowledge. Thus, he truly represented the best example for the Prophet's hadith: “The ink of ‘ulama’ is superior to the blood of martyrs, as however lofty the martyr’s status be, it would be of no benefit for the Ummah if was devoid of an obvious objective, and rather, only an upright individual would be missed. Whereas the writings of the ‘ulama’, that contain illuminant knowledge (ma’arif) enabling the Ummah to recognize its objectives and duties, can create and build an Ummah that produces martyrs, offering them on Allah’s way and for the sake of sublimating the word of Islam, and hoisting the monotheism banner high in the sky.

Though most of al-Qummi’s works were produced during his stay at Qum, but the roots of his activity in his field can be sought back to the days of his youth, and outset of his study at the town of Khunsar. The late al-Shaykh Aqa Buzurg al-Tehrani is reported to have said in his book al-Dhari’ah, that he (al-Qummi) completed the compilation of his Manzumah on ‘ilm al bayan (rhetoric), on the night of Sunday, the fourth of Rabi’ al-Thani, 1173 (H), when he was only 22 years old, at the town of Khunsar. He also made the last touches for his book named “Majmu’at al-fawai’dwa ba’d al-rasa’il”, on Friday fifteenth of Muharram, 1175 (H), at the outset of his study at Karbala’, at the age of twenty-four. Whoever is aware of the bulk of his work, will verily be astonished, as how could it be feasible for a man shouldering numerous responsibilities and undertaking various tasks, to produce all those great works and books. Following are some of his valuable booksbe contributed to the Islamic library and heritage:

1. Qawanin al-usul. It is considered the most well-known book authored and compiled by al-Mirza, in Arabic.At the end of the book he made a footnote stating the date of completing it, which is the end of Rabi’ al-Thani 1205 (H). The book was published in many editions, and in two volumes.The first containing researches about phonetics, while the second one containing articles about rational (‘aqli) issues. This book got extensive fame due to its having new innovated ideas and notions, that maintained their being part of curriculum at the Theological Schools for a long time. Then, al-Shaykh al-Ansari’s Fara’id al- ‘usul replaced the second volume of Qawanin al- ‘usul, to be taught, due to its brevity and introducing novel themes. This prompted the theological school teachers and knowledge-seekers to put aside the 2nd volume of Qawanin al ‘Usul, with keeping on studying its first volume for a longer time, which was substituted afterwards by the book Usul al-fiqh authored by the late al-Muzaffar.

Qawanin al- ‘usul enjoyed at that time, a great significance, that many hawashi (margins) were written about it, reaching the number of forty-seven, as reported by the late al-Shaykh Aqa Buzurg al-Tehrani in his book al-Dhari’ah, including al Shaykh al Ansari’s Hashiyah.

The book was appreciated too by the late al-Sayyid Sadr al-Din al-Musawi al- ‘Amili, who expressed his admiration for its value and worth.

2. Hashiyah ‘ala al-Qawanin: Which is written also in Arabic, containing his replies to some inquiries and suspicions raised against his book Qawanin al- ‘usul. They were printed and published in a separate book, and included, in other editions, as a hashiyah on the book Qawanin al- ‘usul.

3. Hashiyah ‘ala Zubdat al- ‘usul, of al-Shaykh al Behbahani.

4. Hashiyah ‘ala Tahdhib al-usul of al- ‘Allamah al Hilli.

5. Hashiyah ‘ala Sharh al- mukhtasar, of Ibn Hajib al Maqsadi. The last three books being on ‘ilm al- ‘usul

6.Jami’ al-shatat - or Ajwibat al-masa’il which is published in three volumes containing a fiqhi course covering all issues from taharah (purity) up to diyat (blood money), in a form of question and answer, beside other miscellaneous matters. It includes also some doctrines, and kalami notions, of which we can refer to his refutation to the Sufis, at the end of the book. Most of the book is in Persian, and it was printed in Tehran, while the questions and answers are in Arabic.

7. Manahij-al ‘ahkam, in Arabic, and it is concerned with fiqh, containing the rulings of taharah (purity) and salat (prayers), beside other fiqhi matters.

8. Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam fi ma yata ‘allaq bi al-halalwa al-haram, which is in Arabic, and printed in 1319 (H) at Tehran press. It contains researches about inferential fiqh, except its first chapter that is dedicated for ‘ibadat (rituals), taharah, salat, zakat (alms-due), khums (one- fifth), sawm (fasting) and i’tikaf (living in seclusion [mosques]). He compiled his other books in the form of various treatises in the field of fiqh (jurisprudence).

9. Mu’in al-khawass. It is an abridgement, in Arabic, and being confined to thebab al- ibadat (rituals), from among fiqh.

10. Murshid al- ‘awamm. It is his practical treatise (of Islamic rulings), written in Persian.

11. Al-Bay’ al-fuduli. It is printed as an appendix to the book Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam

12. Bay’ al-mu’atat. It is also printed at the end of the book Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam.

13. Al-Mu’amalah al-muhabatiyyah bi shart al-qard: which appeared also at the end of Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam, that was compiled on 21 Dhu al-Qa’dah 1207 (H).

14. Ta’liqah on the book of al-Sayyid Husayn al Khunsari, about some statements of Sharh al-Lum’ah.

15. Manzumah fi ‘ilm al-badi’,9 consisting of 139 poetry lines.

16. Manzumah fi ‘ilm al-bayan,10 comprising 106 poetry lines, annexed lo his book Manahij al- ‘ahkam, “kitab al- salat”, beside some hawashi (margins) with the hand writing of al-Mirza al-Qummi himself; whose compilation he finished on the night of Sunday 4th of Rabi’ al-Thani 1173 (H).11

17. Mathnawi fi al-ma’aniwa al- bayan.

18. Al-Fathiyyah, on ‘ilm al-kalam which he authored in 1218 (H).

19. Collection of poems (diwan), containing five thousand Arabic and Persian poetic verses.

20. Majmu’at al-fawa’idwa ba’d al- rasa’il. He compiled it at the outset of his study at Najaf, completing it on Friday the fifteenth of Muharram 1175 (H).

21. Tarjumah li a1-Qasidah al-Nuniyyah of al-Sayyid Muhammad al-Ha’iri al-Husayni, on rebuking of the River Euphrates, with objecting him through a poem in Persian consisting of forty-six lines. The original poem and its translation were written elegantly with the Persian inscription and nuskh style.

22. Risalah fi al-qada’wa al-shahadat: It is a simplified treatise printed at the end of the book Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam.

23. Risalah fi usul al-Din: It is in Persian, and consists of an introduction and five chapters. In the introduction, he elucidates the differences between usul al-Din and the madhhab (school of thought), dedicating each chapter for one of the five principles of religion (usul al-Din),beside exposing one of the principles of the five creeds.

24. Risalah fi jawaz al-qada’wa al-hilf bi taqlid al-mujtahid

25. Risalah fi munjazat al-marid: It is printed also as an appendix to the book Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam.

26. Risalah fi ma’rifat mashayikh al- ‘ijazah min al ruwat: It consists of the names of a group of the shaykhs of ijazah (license), who were licensed by the ‘ulama’ on rijal.

27. Risalah fi al-jizyahwa ahkamiha: it is printed also at the end of Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam.

28. Risalat al-ghina’ mawdu’anwa hukman: It is annexed to the book Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam too.

29. Risalah fi al-hayatwa ba’d, ahkamiha: Which appeared also at the end of Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam.

30. Risalah fi al-waqf.

31. Risalah fi al-waqf ‘ala al-nafs: A reference was made to it in Jami’ al-sahatat -in the book Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam.

32. Risalah fi waqf al-mukhalif: it was written in 1214 (H), and annexed to Jami’ al-sahatat fi Ghana’im al- ‘ayyam.

33. Risalah fi qa’idat “al-tasamuh fi adillat al-sunan.”

34. Risalah fi ‘umam hurmat al-Riba fijami ’ al-mu’awadat

35. Risalah mufassalah fi al-fara’idwa al-mawarith.

36. Risalah fi al-radd ‘ala al-Badiri al-Nasrani.

37. His detailed Risalah to Fath ‘Ali Shah, containing an ample of his eloquent counsels and sermons.

38. Risalah in refutation to the Sufis and Ghulat.

39. Risalah on the ruling about the school of unknown builder.

40. Risalah about invalid conditions in sale.

41. Risalah on generality of the basis “la-darar” - (no harm).

42. Risalah fi al-mantiq.

43. Risalah on that whose properties were burnt in fire.

44. Risalah fi al-talaq (divorce).

Beside other treatises about different sciences and numerous issues, enumerated by al-Mirza al-Qummi to be about one thousand treatises.

Propagation and Preaching

Al-Mirza al-Qummi’s activity was not confined to the fields of researching, investigation and compilation, beside teaching and taking care of his disciples, but he undertook the responsibility of preaching and propagating the Shari’ah rules to people, despite his ample engagements and businesses.Beside al-Mirza’s being a shelter and refuge for scholars and knowledge-seekers, he was also a kind and compassionate father for the common people. He spared no effort to advise and guide them to the straight path, being an abundant fountain bestowing over all people from his knowledge and gracious morals.

Al-Mirza al-Qummi devoted all his life for serving ‘ilm (knowledge) and its seekers, and rather all people, deserving in return people’s love and respect.

Beside his taking care of people’s problems and giving answers for their religious inquiries, he used to be present at the main mosque of al-Madinah permanently, with establishing the Friday and congregational prayers. He used to wear on Fridays his finest clothes, with using perfume, going to establish Friday prayers with solemnity and humbleness, addressing people with a loud voice filled with rhetoric and eloquence.preaching people with the prophets’ exhortations dealing with world and religion issues concerning people.

In the first part of his Friday sermon he used to praise and glorify Allah the Exalted, enjoining people to piety (taqwa) and forbidding them from evils and sins. In the second sermon he used to talk about the concerns and fate of the Islamic Ummah, acquainting the worshippers with all the developments going on throughout the Islamic world, with which Muslims being concerned. He used to invite people toward cooperation and solidarity for the sake of solving the then troubles, through spirit of fraternity and correlation, making through his impressive sermons, an atmosphere of activity, causing a new and active spirit to move inside the worshippers’ hearts.

He used to render great attention to the duty of enjoining to good and forbidding evil (al- ‘amr bi al-ma’ruf wa al-nahy ‘an al-munkar), fearing no blame from those who are entitled to reproach. He followed this practice even with the monarch of that time “Fath ‘Ali Shah”, as he used to persist on enjoining the monarch to good and forbidding him from evil whenever meeting him. In one of his meetings with him he addressed Shah, saying: Put justice before you as a criterion in dealing with the subjects, as Iam fearing Allah’s wrath and chastisement against me, when being meant by Allah’s saying:

“And incline not toward those who do wrong lest the fire touch you...” (11:113).

In the Sultan’s response to al-Mirza, he expressed his love and appreciation toward him, saying: He is reported in the narrations that “Whoever loves a group of people will be resurrected withthem”, and I implore Allah not to resurrect me together with you on Doomsday.

In another meeting, al-Mirza addressed Fath ‘Ali Shah pointing at his (Fath’s) beard saying; “O King, beware that you perpetrate a sin entailing burning of your beard in Hell-fire.”

Notes

1. It is a province in the north of Iran.

2. Imamzadeh is anyone belonging through kinship to any of Ahl al-Bayt imams (A).

3. She is the daughter of al-Imam Musa al-Kazim - the Seventh Imam of Ahl al-Bayt (A).

4. It is situated at a distance of several steps to the north of the holy shrine of Ma’sumah (in Qum).

5. A reference to him was made by al-Shaykh Aqa Buzurg alTehrani, in his book al-Dhari’ah, under the name Muhammad Husayn.

6. It is an old magazine, issued at Qum.

7. A permission to narrate traditions in 1177 (H), during his stay at Najaf, en route to make pilgrimage to the Holy House of Allah.

8. He was permitted by al-Mirza to narrate traditions in 1206 (H).

9. In Rayhanat al- ‘adab it is reported tobe comprising 140 lines.

10. In Rayhanat al- ‘adab it is reported tobe comprising 107 lines.

11. The author of Rawdat al-jannat mentioned another book for al-Mirza, under the title Manzumah fi ‘ilm al-ma’na. Upon this a commentary is ascribed to Aqa Buzurg al-Tehrani in al Dhari’ah, saying: It may be his manzumah on ‘ilm al-badi’ and his manzumah on rhetoric (‘ilm al-bayan).