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Fasting Sawm

Fasting Sawm

Author:
Publisher: www.alhassanain.org/english
English

Alhassanain (p) Network for Islamic Heritage and Thought

FastingSawm

Author:Tebyan

www.alhassanain.org/english

Table of Contents

Section One: Rulings of the Sighting the new crescent moon 3

Section Two: Rulings of the day of doubt (the last day of Shaban) 7

Section Three: Conditions under which sawm becomes obligatory and correct 8

Rulings of fasting on travel 9

Section Four: Rulings of Niyyah [Intention] for Fasting 14

Section Five: The rulings of those things which break the fast: 16

(1) & (2) Eating and Drinking 16

(3). Masturbation While Fasting and in Other Instances 17

(4) Sexual Intercourse 18

(5) Plunging 18

(6) Making dust to reach the throat 20

(7) Lying 20

(8) Remaining intentionally in the state of janabah 21

(9) Liquid enemas: 25

Section Six: Things That Must Be Avoided 26

Section Seven: Rulings of Making up for missed fast (qada) and kaffarah 28

Situations in which only qada (not kaffarah) is obligatory 32

Section One: Rulings of the Sighting the new crescent moon

1. As you know, one of the following three conditions occurs at the beginning or end of the each month: The crescent sets before the sunset; or the crescent sets along with the sunset; orThe crescent sets after the sunset. Please clear the following matters: First, which one of the three above-mentioned conditions would be considered the beginning of the month according to Islamic law? Second, if we take into consideration that these three conditions are accounted for in the farthest places of the world using accurate calculations, is it possible to benefit from these computations to figure out the beginning of the month in advance, or it is necessary to observe it with the naked eye?

A: The basis of determining the beginning of the month is the crescent that sets after sunset which can be observed before sunset in the customary way. The astronomical calculations are not reliable unless confidence is obtained through them.

2. If the crescent marking the beginning of Shawwal is not observed in a city by the local people, and if the radio or television announces the beginning of Shawwal, should the local people act upon the radio announcement, or should they ascertain by investigating whether Shawwal has commenced?

A: If the radio or television announcement makes them feel sure that Shawwal has commenced, or if there is a decree by the Supreme Religious Authority [wali al-faqih ] announcing the beginning of Shawwal, then there is no need for investigating further.

3. If it is difficult to ascertain the beginning of the month of Ramadan, orEid al-Fitr , because of the inability to observe the crescent at the beginning of the month due to clouds or for some other reason, and if the count of the month ofShaban or the month of Ramadan did not add up to 30 days, is it permissible for us in Japan to go by the horizon in Iran or should we rely on the regular calendar? What is the rule?

A: If the crescent has not been ascertained by being sighted even in the regions located at the same longitude with your city, or on the evidence of two just witnesses, or on the basis of a decree by a religious authority announcing the end of Ramadan, it is obligatory to observe precaution by ascertaining the beginning of Shawwal. The sighting of the crescent in Iran, which is to the west of Japan, cannot be a basis regarding the beginning of Shawwal for one residing in Japan.

4. Is the sameness of horizon (the longitude) considered to be a condition in regards to observing the crescent?

A: It is sufficient that the crescent be sighted in the areas of the same horizon, or nearby, or in the areas to the east.

5. What is meant by sameness of horizon?

A: When certain areas are located on the same longitude, according to astronomy, they are said to share the same horizon.

6. If the twenty-ninth day of the month was the day ofEid al-Fitr in Tehran andKhorasan , is it permissible for the residents of areas likeBushehr to break their fast too, though the horizon of Tehran andKhorasan differs from the horizon ofBushehr ?

A: If the difference between the longitude of two cities is such that the new moon cannot be seen in one of them when sighted in the other, its sighting in the city located to the west of the other is not sufficient for the residents of the city to the east, where the sun sets earlier than in the city to the west, and is sufficient when the case is the reverse.

7. If the Islamic scholars of a city differ regarding the end of Ramadan, and one considers all of them to be just and precise in their investigations, what is the duty of thecity''s inhabitants?

A: If the difference between the two testimonies is one of contradiction, in the sense that one of them claims the crescent to have been sighted and the other claims that certainly it has not been sighted, the duty of the inhabitants is to decide the matter through other means. However, if the first group testifies to the sighting of the new moon, but the second group does not claim to have seen it, the inhabitants have to accept the view of the firstgroup if they are known o bejusts . Also, the people have to follow if the Supreme Religious Authority [hakim al-shari ] issues a decree announcing the end of Ramadan.

8. If a person who sees the new moon knows that thecity''s religious authority is not able to see the crescent for some reason, is it his duty to inform the religious authority that he has observed the crescent?

A: It is not his duty to do so, unless his not doing so can cause some depravity.

9. As you know, most Islamic scholars have written in their book of practical laws [Risalahs ] that the beginning of Shawwal can be proved only through five methods. However, announcement of the end of Ramadan by a religious authority is not among those methods. Such being the case, how can most of the people break their fasts when the beginning of Shawwal has been ascertained by the majormarjis ? What is the duty of a person who is not convinced of the newmoon''s sighting by such means?

A: Unless a religious authority issues a decree announcing the sighting of the new moon, the mere ascertaining of it by him is not sufficient for others to follow him, unless they are convinced thereby of the end of Ramadan.

10. If the Guardian of the Muslims'' affairs [Wali Amr al-Muslimeen ] issues a decree announcing the next day asEid al-Fitr and the media report that the crescent has been cited in certain cities, does it determine theEid for all the cities or only those cities and for others on the same longitudes?

A: If the decree issued by the religious authority includes all the cities, his decree isIslamically reliable for all of them.

11. If on the evening ofEid al-Fitr , the moon appears as a very fine crescent, does it mean that the next day is the first of Shawwal and that theEid was declared by mistake? Is one required to make up [doqada ] for the last day of Ramadan?

A: The thinness or thickness of the moon and also its position in the sky are not lawful evidence in deciding the first or second of a month. But if it brings conviction to the person bound by religious obligation [mukallaf ], he is obliged to act in accordance with his knowledge in this case.

12. Can the night of the full moon, which is the night before the fourteenth of the month, be taken as a reliable basis for calculating the first day of the month so as to determine whether the Day of Doubt was the thirtieth of Ramadan, for example, so that whoever did not fast on that day may have evidence concerning the necessity to make up [doqada ] for the thirtieth day of Ramadan and whoever fasted that day, considering Ramadan to continue, may know that he is free of obligation?

A: That which has been mentioned does not constitute a lawful evidence for anything mentioned. However, if it brings knowledge to the person bound by religious obligation [mukallaf ], his obligation is to act in accordance with his knowledge.

13. Is watching out for the new moon awajib kifa''i [a duty that if done by someone, it is ceased to be obligatory upon the others] or something to be done as an obligatory precaution?

A: It is notIslamically a legal duty in itself.

14. What are the methods adopted to ascertain about the sighting of the crescent of the beginning and end of Ramadan?

A: Deciding the beginning of any lunar month is only possible through one of the following methods: sighting the new moon by the person bound by religious obligation [mukallaf ] himself; the testimony of two just witnesses to that effect; numerous reports that bring conviction that the moon has been sighted; completion of 30 days since themonth''s beginning; or the decree of a religious authority.

15. Suppose it is permissible to follow certaingovernment''s announcement about the sighting of the crescent which could act as a scientific standard for other countries, then, is it necessary for it to be an Islamic government in order to ascertain that the moon has really been sighted, or can one accept it even from a tyrannical government?

A: The criterion in this regard is theperson''s assurance that the new moon has been sighted in the area where its sighting is sufficient in relation to the person bound by religious obligation [mukallaf ].

16- If the crescent is seen in one country, would the sighting become generalized for all other countries, especially regarding the crescent of the Holy month of Ramadan?

A: It would become generalized for neighboring countries or these countries in which sunset occurs later i.e. to the west of that country. 17- If one saw the crescent before thezawal time, would this day of sighting be considered to be from the coming month?

A: The mere sighting of the crescent during the day, even though before thezawal time, is not ashari evidence that this day belongs to the coming month. However, if this sighting has made one certain that this day belongs to the comingmonth, the ruling of the coming month would be applied to it.

18- Is the presence of the lunar haloan evidence that it is the crescent of the second night?

A: The lunar halo is not ashari evidence that the crescent is of the second night.

19- What is the ruling regarding the prisoner or the captive who could not become certain about the beginning of the holy month of Ramadan?

A: If they suspect that Ramadan had begun, they are obliged to act according to this suspicion. Otherwise, they are permitted to delay theirsawm until the certainty is there that theirsawm occurred either during or after Ramadan and not before it.

20- Is the delay of the setting of the crescent moon after the evening twilightan evidence that it is of the second night?

A: The setting after the evening twilight would not prove this.

21- If one had broken his fast and then it is appeared that the crescent had been sighted through one of the legally accepted methods, is he obliged to abstain from food for the remaining of the day?

A: He is obliged to abstain from food for the remaining of the day from the moral aspect.

22- Is the sighting of the new crescent through a binoculars or telescope or the like is sufficient?

A: The sighting of the new crescent with these means is also reliable and its ruling does not differ from that of the naked eye since the standard is to say it has been by eyes. However, computerized photographing of the crescent moon or the like which could not be considered as real sighting is problematic.

Section Two: Rulings of the day of doubt (the last day ofShaban )

1- If themukallaf fasted on the day of doubt with the intention that it isShaban ,qada ornadhr and then it appeared that it was in the month of Ramadan, then what is the ruling in this case?

A: Thissawm is valid and could be considered as part of the month of Ramadan and there is nothing upon him.

2- If themukallaf had fasted the day of doubt with the intention of hesitation (i.e. to say: if it is being fromShaban , it will be a recommended (mustahabb )sawm , while if from Ramadan, it will be obligatory), then issawm in such a way correct?

A: Hissawm is correct if he was serious in the intention that he would fast in any way, and it is valid to be considered from Ramadan if the day later appeared to be in Ramadan.

3- If themukallaf had fasted the day of doubt with the intention of the real divine command directed to him (either obligatory or recommended), then what is the ruling about thesawm of this day?

A: Hissawm is correct if he intended to dosawm in any way, and it is valid to be considered from Ramadan if it appeared, later, that it is in it.

4- If themukallaf had fasted the day of doubt with the intention that it is in Ramadan, is hissawm correct?

A: Thissawm is not correct.

5- If themukallaf intended to break fasting on the day of doubt and then it appeared, during the day, that it is in the month of Ramadan, then what is the rulingif:

a- He ate something?

b- It appeared afterzawal and he did not eat anything?

c- It appeared beforezawal and he did not eat anything?

A: In the first 2 cases he is obliged to abstain from food for the remainder of the day, from the moral aspect, and compensate thesawm for this day.

In the 3rd case he should intendsawm from that time and it would be correct and valid to be considered from the month of Ramadan.

6- What is the ruling about a person who fasted the day of doubt with the intention of being fromShaban and he ate food inattentively and it appeared later that it is in the month of Ramadan?

A: Hissawm is correct and it is valid to be considered from the month of Ramadan.

Section Three: Conditions under whichsawm becomes obligatory and correct

1. A young girl has reached the age of legal maturity [taklif ]; however, she cannot fast in the month of Ramadan due to her weak constitution. She is also unable to perform theqada of the missed days of fasting until the next Ramadan. What is the ruling in this situation?

A: The obligation of fasting orqada for the missed fasts is not removed just because of weakness or inability. Rather,qada of the missed days of fasting in Ramadan will remain obligatory upon her.

2. What is the ruling for those girls who have recently reached legal maturity and find it somewhat difficult to fast? Is nine years the age when girls become mature?

A: The legal age of maturity for girls start at the completion of nine lunar years, hence it is obligatory for them to fast. It is not permissible to forsake fasting due to some excuse. However, if fasting during the day becomes harmful for them, it is permissible to break the fast.

3. I do not know exactly when I reached the age of legal maturity [taklif ], as I was not aware of this issue at that time. Please clarify, from which time is it obligatory for me to performqada of missed prayers and fasts? Is it obligatory for, me to pay thekaffarah for the missed fasts or isqada sufficient?

A: You are only responsible for doingqada from the time that you are certain that you reached the age of legal maturity [taklif ]. Payment of thekaffarah is obligatory for fasts that were intentionally broken by persons who were certain that he/she was legally mature.

4. A nine-year old girl, upon whom it is obligatory to fast, breaks her fast because fasting was very hard for her. Does she have to performqada of those fasts?

A: Yes, she will have to performqada of the Ramadan fast that she broke.

5. Someone with a strong excuse thought it likely, with more than 50% probability, that fasting was not obligatory for him, so he did not fast.

Later it becomes clear to him that fasting was obligatory on him at that time. What is the ruling in respect of performingqada and payingkaffarah ?

A: If one breaks a fast in the month of Ramadan, assuming that fasting is not obligatory upon him, then he must carry out itsqada and also pay thekaffarah . However, if one did not fast out of fear that fasting was harmful for him, then it is not necessary for him to paykaffarah , but he must performqada .

6- If akafir converted to Islam during the day, is hissawm of that day correct especially if his conversion was beforezawal ?

A: No, thesawm of that day is not correct.

7- If a Muslim apostatizes during thesawm then he returned to Islam by repentance and renewed his intention beforezawal , would hissawm remain correct?

A: No, thesawm of that day is not correct.

8- If a Sunni person returned to the right path during the day which he is insawm , what is the ruling regarding hissawm ?

A: Thesawm of that day is not correct.

9- Is thesawm of the mad man accepted?

A: Hissawm is not correct even though his madness might have a part of the day.

10- If the drinker or the unconscious person who has already intended to fast awoke or became conscious during the day, what should he do?

A: According to the obligatory precaution, one who has awoken from drunkenness with the previous intention to fast should complete hissawm and doqada later on. While thatwho became conscious after unconsciousness, then simply completing hissawm is sufficient; otherwise he should doqada , if he had not intended to fast already.

11- If thesawm has preventedsome one from performing his job on which he is dependant for his income and he cannot perform other job is he, then, allowed to break his fast?

A: It is not permissible for him to break his fast unless thesawm would cause unendurable hardship for him.

12- If a sick person is cured from his disease beforezawal without eating anything, is he allowed to renew his intention and continue thesawm ?

A: In the given question,sawm would not be obligatory on him. However, if hebecome cure from his disease beforezawal and he did not take anything that may break the fast, it is based on the recommended precaution to intendsawm and do itsqada later.

13- A person bound by religious obligation [mukallaf ] who is affected by poliomyelitis since childhood and suffers from difficulty and weakness in all voluntary movements including walking, speaking, eating, drinking etc., thus he is crippled and should always stay at home however he is mentally normal and could distinguish between right and wrong just like the normal people. For this reason he does some things to amuse himself like listening to enrapturing songs and the like. We would like to know your view about thismukallaf and what is the ruling about hissalat ,sawm and his other duties?

A: He should act according to the rulings of all the othermukallafs regardingsalat ,sawm and other obligations and it is not permissible for him to listen to songs or trifling, enrapturing music which is suitable for the dissolute and corrupt gatherings.

Rulings of fasting on travel

1. A person who is fasting had planned to reach his place of residence before time of the afternoon prayers [zawal ]. But, along the way he came across an accident that delayed him, hence he did not reach his residency in time. Is his fast valid? Does he have to paykaffarah or will performing theqada be sufficient?

A: His fast is invalid while traveling and it is only obligatory upon him to performqada (of fasting) for the day in which he did not reach his place of residency, and he does not have to paykaffarah .

2. A passenger or a crewmember aboard an airplane flying at a high altitude and bound for a distant city - a 2:30 to 3 hour journey - has to drink water every 20 minutes to maintain his equilibrium. Does he/she have to paykaffarah in addition to performing theqada ?

A: Iffasting causes harm, one can break the fast to drink water. He will have to perform itsqada , butkaffarah will not be obligatory on him in this case.

3. Is it permitted for a person to travel intentionally during the month of Ramadan in order to break the fast and relieve himself of its burden?

A: There is no problem in doing that. Therefore, when traveling, even to escape the duty of fasting, he must break the fast.

4. A person responsible for performing an obligatory fast decided to fulfill his duty, but could not because of unforeseen circumstances. For example, he prepared to travel after sunrise - he travels, but failed to return home before noon. He had not done anything that invalidates the fast, except that the time for making intentions of an obligatory fast has elapsed; and that day is one in which fasting is recommended. Is it valid if he makes intention to perform a recommended fast?

A: When one is responsible for theqada of Ramadan fasting day, it is invalid to make intentions to perform a recommended fast, even if the time for making intentions for performing an obligatory fast has passed.

5. I am addicted to smoking. No matter how much I try not to be irritable in the blessed month of Ramadan, Ican not abstain from a conduct that disrupts the peace of my family and puts me into a nervous state. What is my duty in this situation?

A: It is obligatory upon you to fast in the month of Ramadan and it is not permissible for you, as per obligatory precaution, to smoke while fasting. Also, acting irritably with others without justification is unlawful.

6. A person finished his fast in his hometown after sunset. Then on traveling to another city, he found that the sun there had not set yet. What will be the rule regarding his fasting? Can he eat and drink in the new place before sunset?

A: His fast is valid and he can eat and drink in the new place before sunset since he hadbroke his fast atmaghrib in his city.

7. A person performing military service could not fast during the month of Ramadan last year because of frequent traveling and being stationed on base (in the service). As Ramadan approaches this year, he is still serving in the same area and does not think he will be able to fast this year, either. Does he have to pay thekaffarah after leaving the service, in addition to performing theqada of those fast?

A: When someone forgoes fasting in the month of Ramadan because of the excuse of traveling, which extends until the next Ramadan, his only duty is to performqada and nokaffarah is obligatory upon him.

8. A person who lives in the port ofDayyir kept fast from the first day of Ramadan until the twenty-seventh. On the morning of the twenty-eighth day he traveled to Dubai. Arriving there on the twenty-ninth, he noticed that they had declared that day as the first of Shawwal andEid al-Fitr there.

Now that he has returned to his hometown, does he have to make up [doqada ] for the fast he missed? If he doesqada of only one day then the month of Ramadan for him will be only twenty-eight days, and if he makes up for two days, then on the 29th day he was present in a place whereEid was declared. What is the ruling for such a person?

A: If the twenty-ninth day of Ramadan was declaredEid in accordance with valid legal [shari ] criteria, then he does not have to performqada for that day. But it indicates that he missed fasting at themonth''s beginning, which he has to make up, the number of days he is sure of having missed.

9- A person who is committed to a job in a center in Beirut and he is asked to stay in the battle-field or go and return back without determining the place or the time?

A: If he went to his job without staying for 10 days in a single place and repeated his travel for the job covering theshari distance in each time, his prayer [salat ] should be full [tamam ] and hissawm would be correct.

10- A person who is committed to a job in a place outside his homeland and he is always compelled to go and return back from the work center to his home covering theshari distance, what is his duty at home, at the traveling way or at his place of work?

A: The ruling here is that of work in traveling, i.e.salat should be full andsawm is correct.

11- One whose job is traveling in such a way that he might stay at home for twenty days and at his work place for some days, like that of the mujahidin, then what is the ruling concerning hissalat andsawm ?

A: In the given question, he should pray fullsalat and fast in his work place as long as he is intending to reside there for 10days, otherwise he should prayqasr and break fasting.

12- Some of the mujahidin have no specific time for their duties i.e. sometimes they stay in the battle-field for three days to return home and stay for fifteen days and, then, they go again to the battle-field for 3 days or sometimes 10 days or more and return home again and stay for 10 days or more. What is the ruling regarding theirsalat andsawm ?

A: The standard is what was mentioned i.e. if his travel was for work, after he had stayed for 10 days in a place, he should prayqasr on the first journey, unless he intended to stay for 10 days in the work place. While if he traveled without separating his two journeys with a 10 days stay, he should pray full and fast.

13- His Eminence, the Leader of the MuslimsAyatullah al-dhma Sayyid AliKhamenei (m.): There is a group of the brothers in Lebanon who have devoted themselves to the work with the Islamic Opposition Movements. The nature of their job is that it does not have a specific place, time or program. They are compelled to move about from one place to another and to be always ready to be present and act in certain places where they are requested, in certain places in which they may stay for 1 day or more according to the conditions.

1) According to this type of work, what is the ruling regarding theirsalat andsawm ?

2) What is the ruling regarding those who have newly joined such a work?

A: If the work in the Islamic Opposition Movements is considered conventionally as a work or job and it requires frequent traveling here and there, then as long as there is no separating period of 10 days stay, in a single place, between the two journeys, they should pray their fullsalat and fast. While if the 10 days staying period interferes, they should prayqasr andbreak fast in the first journey after the staying period.

15- I am in thetaqlid of Imam Khomeini (q.) and living in the city of Beirut for more than 15 years. I had been born in the city of Sur in the south of Lebanon and since I have no intention of staying for 10 days in Beirut, I prayqasr and cannot fast because I go weekly to the south more or less often. Is there a way to pray full and fast without intending the residency in the city of Beirut?Knowing that if I lost my job in Beirut I should return to my birthplace on the south. Then, should I prayqasr andbreak fast for all the time of my staying in Beirut or what?

A: If you were frequenting between the city of Sur and Beirut (your work place) every week, you are obliged to pray full and fast, i.e., in general, any person who frequents between his homeland and working place, at least once every 10 days, covering ashari distance, his ruling would be a completesalat (full) and hissawm would be correct whether during traveling the distance, being at the work place or home. However, if he, for once, stayed for 10 days in a single place, he should prayqasr during the first journey after the 10 days stay.

16- a) Before the end of 10 days I went to the city of Bakhtaran for important work and stayed there for 2 hours then returned to my work place. b) After this 10 days stay was finished, I traveled to the city of Bakhtaran aiming to go to a certain place there without exceeding theshari distance.

I had passed the night at that place and then returned to my place of residence. c) After a complete 10 days stay at my work place, I traveled to a certain place in the city of Bakhtaran where my intention was changed, after the arrival, to go to another place which is located at a distance more than theshari distance from my place of residency. d)if the ruling in case (b) and (c) was the abrogation of my residency, then what is the ruling regarding mysalat andsawm in my place of residency when I was ignorant about the abrogation?

A: (a & b) After the settlement of the ruling of your residency, even by just offering one fullsalat in this place, going out for a distance shorter than theshari distance, even for more than one or two hours or 1 or 2 days, would not harm this residency. So you could pray fullsalat and fast till a new travel is issued.

(c) If the distance from the point of changing the intention to the destination was equal to 4farsakhs (1/2 theshari distance) or more, or the returning distance from the destination to the place of residency was equal to 8farsakhs (=shari distance), the ruling of the last residency would be abrogated with this journey and you should renew your intention of residency after you reach the place of residency, otherwise, you are still under the ruling of the last residency when you should pray full and fast.

17- I am frequenting to my home and work place every day without covering theshari distance. Am I in need to intend residency for 10 days to pray fullsalat ?

A: If frequenting between the 2 places was after the settlement of the correct intention of residency in one of these places, it will never harm the validity of the continuance of the residency and the act of praying in full and fasting.

Section Four: Rulings ofNiyyah [Intention] for Fasting

1- If during Ramadan one ignorantly or forgetfully, intended to fast for a purpose other than Ramadan, what is the ruling about hissawm ?

A: In the given question hissawm is correct and valid to be considered as part of the fast of Ramadan.

2- Inniyyah is it obligatory to determine the subject in details?

A: It is not obligatory. It is sufficient to intend the wantedsawm , i.e. if he wanted to fast Ramadan at a time when it is obligatory, it is valid to intend thesawm of the month of Ramadan.

3- Is it possible to fast during the month of Ramadan, consciously aware of theniyyah , other than Ramadan fasts?

A: It is incorrect and cannot be applied either to the month of Ramadan or to theniyyah one had intended.

4- If themukallaf wanted to make a fast other than that of Ramadan, is he obliged to specify it in theniyyah ?

A: If the kinds ofsawm he is allowed to fast are more than one kind, he is obliged tosepcify it.

5- Is oneniyyah sufficient for the whole month of Ramadan?

A: It is sufficient if it would continue every day till the end of the month.

6- Is there a specific form ofniyyah in the Islamic law?

A: There is no specific form. The standard is theoccurance of thesawm with continuing determination or desire inone''s mind even though if this would take place just before thefajr of a day of fasting or even before that.

7- If amukallaf intends either to cancel hissawm by abolishing itsniyyah or to perform anything that would invalidate it during the month of Ramadan, itsqada or thesawm of thekaffarah ornadhr , then what is the ruling of hissawm ?

A: If he just intends to perform or take anything that would invalidate thesawm , it would not harm the correctness of thesawm unless he had already eaten something except if he became aware that this would entail the intention of canceling hissawm by abolishing itsniyyah . While theniyyah of canceling the fasting by the determination to abolish it completely will invalidate the obligatory and time specificsawm , in general. In case of obligatory time-non-specificsawm it would not be invalidated with this intention in case that he returned to theniyyah of thesawm before thezawal .

8- If amukallaf did not intend to fast for the month of Ramadan due to forgetting the ruling or the subject, then what is the ruling if he becameaware:

First: beforezawal and before eating anything.

Second: afterzawal and before eating anything. Third: after he eats something.

A: If he became aware only after he committed an act which would void thesawm , hissawm is void and he is obliged to refrain from eating for the rest of the day. While if hebecam aware before that, then if it was afterzawal , hissawm is void, while if it was beforezawal , then it is based on obligatory precaution to intend to observesawm at this day and do fast and perform itsqada later on.

PART I: THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SHI'ISM

CHAPTER I THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF SHI'ISM

Shi'ism began with a reference made for the first time to the partisans of Ali (shi'ah-i ' Ali), the first leader of the Household of the Prophet, during the lifetime of the Prophet himself. The course of the first manifestation and the later growth of Islam during the twenty-three years of prophecy brought about many conditions which necessitated the appearance of a group such as the Shi'ites among the companions of the Prophet.

The Holy Prophet during the first days of his prophecy, when according to the text of the Quran he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to his religion, told them clearly that whoever would be the first to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Ali was the first to step forth and embrace Islam. The Prophet accepted Ali's submission to the faith and thus fulfilled his promise.

From the Shi'ite point of view it appears as unlikely that the leader of a movement, during the first days of his activity, should introduce to strangers one of his associates as his successor and deputy but not introduce him to his completely loyal and devout aides and friends. Nor does it appear likely that such a leader should accept someone as his deputy and successor and introduce him to others as such, but then throughout his life and religious call deprive his deputy of his duties as deputy, disregard the respect due to his position as successor, and refuse to make any distinctions between him and others.

The Prophet, according to many unquestioned and completely authenticated hadiths, both Sunni and Shi'ite, clearly asserted that Ali was preserved from error and sin in his actions and sayings. Whatever he said and did was in perfect conformity with the teachings of religion and he was the most knowledgeable of men in matters pertaining to the Islamic sciences and injunctions.

During the period of prophecy Ali performed valuable services and made remarkable sacrifices. When the infidels of Mecca decided to kill the Prophet and surrounded his house, the Holy Prophet decided toemigrate to Medina. He said to Ali, "Will you sleep in my bed at night so that they will think that I am asleep and I will be secure from being pursued by them?" Ali accepted this dangerous assignment with open arms. This has been recounted in different histories and collections of hadith. (The emigration from Mecca to Medina marks the date of origin of the Islamic calendar, known as the hijrah.) Ali also served by fighting in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khaybar, Khandaq, and Hunayn in which the victories achieved with his aid were such that if Ali had not been present the enemy would most likely have uprooted Islam and the Muslims, as is recounted in the usual histories, lives of the Prophet, and collections of hadith.

For Shi'ites, the central evidence of Ali's legitimacy as successor to the Prophet is the event of Ghadir Khumm when the Prophet chose Ali to the "general guardianship" (walayat-i 'ammah) of the people and made Ali, like himself, their "guardian" (wali).

It is obvious that because of such distinctive services and recognition, because of Ali's special virtues which were acclaimed by all, and because of the great love the Prophet showed for him, some of the companions of the Prophet who knew Ali well, and who were champions of virtue and truth, came to love him. They assembled around Ali and followed him to such an extent that many others began to consider their love for him excessive and a few perhaps also became jealous of him. Besides all these elements, we see in many sayings of the Prophet reference to the "shi'ah of Ali" and the "shi'ah of the Household of the Prophet."

The Cause of the Separation of the Shi'ite Minority from the Sunni Majority

The friends and followers of Ali believed that after death of the Prophet the caliphate and religious authority (marja'iyat-i 'ilmi) belonged to Ali. This belief came from their consideration of Ali's position and station in relation to the Prophet, his relation to the chosen among the companions, as well as his relation to Muslims in general. It was only the events that occurred during the few days of the Prophet's final illness that indicated that there was opposition to their view. Contrary to their expectation, at the very moment when the Prophet died and his body lay still unburied, while his household and a few companions were occupied with providing for his burial and funeral service, the friends and followers of Ali received news of the activity of another group who had gone to the mosque where the community was gathered faced with this sudden loss of their leader. This group, which was later to form the majority, set forth in great haste to select a caliph for the Muslims with the aim of ensuring the welfare of the community and solving its immediate problems. They did this without consulting the Household of the Prophet, his relatives or many of his friends, who were busy with the funeral, and without providing them with the least information. Thus Ali and his companions were presented with a fait accompli.

Ali and his friends - such as 'Abbas, Zubayr, Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad and 'Ammar - after finishing with the burial of the body of the Prophet became aware of the proceedings by which the caliph had been selected. They protested against the act of choosing the caliph by consultation or election, and also against those who were responsible for carrying it out. They even presented their own proofs and arguments, but the answer they received was that the welfare of the Muslims was at stake and the solution lay in what had been done.

It was this protest and criticism which separated from the majority the minority that were following Ali and made his followers known to society as the "partisans" or "shi'ah" of Ali. The caliphate of the time was anxious to guard against this appellation being given to the Shi'ite minority and thus to have Muslim society divided into sections comprised of a majority and a minority. The supporters of the caliph considered the caliphate to be a matter of the consensus of the community (ijma') and called those who objected the "opponents of allegiance." They claimed that the Shi'ah stood, therefore, opposed to Muslim society. Sometimes the Shi'ahwere given other pejorative and degrading names.

Shi'ism was condemned from the first moment because of the political situation of the time and thus it could not accomplish anything through mere political protest. Ali, in order to safeguard the well-being of Islam and of the Muslims, and also because of lack of sufficient political and military power, did not endeavor to begin an uprising against the existing political order, which would have been of a bloody nature. Yet those who protested against the established caliphate refused to surrender to the majority in certain questions of faith and continued to hold that the succession to the Prophet and religious authority belonged by right to Ali. They believed that all spiritual and religious matters should be referred to him and invited people to become his followers.

The Two Problems of Succession and Authority in Religious Sciences

In accordance with the Islamic teachings which form its basis, Shi'ism believed that the most important question facing Islamic society was the elucidation and clarification of Islamic teachings and the tenets of the religious sciences. Only after such clarifications were made could the application of these teachings to the social order be considered. In other words, Shi'ism believed that, before all else, members of society should be able to gain a true vision of the world and of men based on the real nature of things. Only then could they know and perform their duties as human beings - in which lay their real welfare - even if the performance of these religious duties were to be against their desires. After carrying out this first step a religious government should preserve and execute real Islamic order in society in such a way that man would worship none other than God, would possess personal and social freedom to the extent possible, and would benefit from true personal and social justice.

These two ends could be accomplished only by a person who was inerrant and protected by God from having faults. Otherwise people could become rulers or religious authorities who would not be free from the possibility of distortion of thought or the committing of treachery in the duties placed upon their shoulders. Were this to happen, the just and freedom-giving rule of Islam could gradually be converted to dictatorial rule and a completely autocratic government. Moreover, the pure religious teachings could become, as can be seen in the case of certain other religions, the victims of change and distortion in the hands of selfish scholars given to the satisfaction of their carnal desires. As confirmed by the Holy Prophet, Ali followed perfectly and completely the Book of God and the tradition of the Prophet in both words and deeds. As Shi'ism sees it, if, as the majority say, only the Quraysh opposed the rightful caliphate of Ali, then that majority should have answered the Quraysh by asserting what was right. They should have quelled all opposition to the right cause in the same way that they fought against the group who refused to pay the religious tax (zakat). The majority should not have remained indifferent to what was right for fear of the opposition of the Quraysh.

What prevented the Shi'ah from accepting the elective method of choosing the caliphate by the people was the fear of the unwholesome consequences that might result from it: fear of possible corruption in Islamic government and of the destruction of the solid basis for the sublime religioussciences. As it happened, later events in Islamic history confirmed this fear (or prediction), with the result that the Shi'ites became ever firmer in their belief. During the earliest years, however, because of the small number of its followers, Shi'ism appeared outwardly to have been absorbed into the majority, although privately it continued to insist on acquiring the Islamic sciences from the Household of the Prophet and to invite people to its cause. At the same time, in order to preserve the power of Islam and safeguard its progress, Shi'ism did not display any open opposition to the rest of Islamic society. Members of the Shi'ite community even fought hand in hand with the Sunni majority in holy wars (jihad) and participated in public affairs. Ali himself guided the Sunni majority in the interest of the whole Islam whenever such action was necessary.

The Political Method of the Selection of the Caliph by Vote and Its Disagreement with the Shi'ite View

Shi'ism believes that the Divine Law of Islam (Shari'ah), whose substance is found in the Book of God and in the tradition (Sunnah) of the Holy Prophet, will remain valid to the Day of Judgment and can never, nor will ever, be altered. A government which is really Islamic cannot under any pretext refuse completely to carry out the Shari'ah's injunctions. The only duty of an Islamic government is to make decisions by consultation within the limits set by the Shari'ah and in accordance with the demands of the moment.

The vow of allegiance to Abu Bakr at Saqifah, which was motivated at least in part by political considerations, and the incident described in the hadith of "ink and paper," which occurred during the last days of the illness of the Holy Prophet, reveal the fact that those who directed and backed the movement to choose the caliph through the process of election believed that the Book of God should be preserved in the form of a constitution. They emphasized the Holy Book and paid much less attention to the words of the Holy Prophet as an immutable source of the teachings of Islam. They seem to have accepted the modification of certain aspects of Islamic teachings concerning government to suit the conditions of the moment and for the sake of the general welfare.

This tendency to emphasize only certain principles of the Divine Law is confirmed by many sayings that were later transmitted concerning the companions of the Holy Prophet. For example, the companions were considered to be independent authorities in matters of the Divine Law (mujtahid), being able to exercise independent judgment (ijtihad) in public affairs. It was also believed that if they succeeded in their task they would be rewarded by God and if they failed they would be forgiven by Him since they were among the companions. This view was widely held during the early years following the death of the Holy Prophet. Shi'ism takes a stricter stand and believes that the actions of the companions, as of all other Muslims, should be judged strictly according to the teachings of the Shari'ah. For example, there was the complicated incident involving the famous general Khalid ibn Walid in the house of one of the prominent Muslims of the day, Malik ibn Nuwajrah, which led to the death of the latter. The fact that Khalid was not at all taken to task for this incident because of his being an outstanding military leader shows in the eyes of Shi'ism an undue lenience toward some of the actions of the companions which were below the norm of perfect piety and righteousness set by the actions of the spiritual elite among the companions.

Another practice of the early years which is criticized by Shi'ism is the cutting off of the khums from the members of the Household of the Prophet and from the Holy Prophet's relatives. Likewise, because of the emphasis laid by Shi'ism on the sayings and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet it is difficult for it to understand why the writing down of the text of hadith was completely banned and why, if a written hadith were found, it would be burned. We know that this ban continued through the caliphate of the khulafa' rashidun into the Umayyad period and did not cease until the period of Umar ibn 'Abd al- 'Aziz, who ruled from A.H. 99/A.D. 717 TO A.H. 101/A.D. 719.

During the period of the second caliph (13/634-25/644) there was a continuation of the policy of emphasizing certain aspects of the Shari'ah and of putting aside some of the practices which the Shi'ites believe the Holy Prophet taught and practiced. Some practices were forbidden, some were omitted, and some were added. For instance, the pilgrimage of tamattu ' (a kind of pilgrimage in which the 'umrah ceremony is utilized in place of the hajj ceremony) was banned by Umar during his caliphate, with the decree that transgressors would be stoned; this in spite of the fact that during his final pilgrimage the Holy Prophet - peace be upon him - instituted, as in Quran, Surah II, 196, a special form for the pilgrimage ceremonies that might be performed by pilgrims coming from far away. Also, during the lifetime of the Prophet of God temporary marriage (mut'ah) was practiced, but Umar forbade it. And even though during the life of the Holy Prophet it was the practice to recite in the call to prayers, "Hurry to the best act" (hayya 'ala khayr el-'amal), Umar ordered that it be omitted because he said it would prevent people from participating in holy war, jihad. (It is still recited in the Shi'ite call to prayers, but not in the Sunni call.) There were also additions to the Shari'ah: during the time of the Prophet a divorce was valid only if the three declarations of divorce ("I divorce thee") were made on three different occasions, but Umar allowed the triple divorce declaration to be made at one time. Heavy penalties were imposed on those who broke certain of these new regulations, such as stoning in the case of mut'ah marriage.

It was also during the period of the rule of the second caliph that new social and economic forces led to the uneven distribution of the public treasury (bayt al-mal) among the people, an act which was alter the cause of bewildering class differences and rightful and bloody struggles among Muslims. At this time Mu'awiyah was ruling in Damascus in the style of the Persian and Byzantine kings and was even given the title of the "Khusraw of the Arabs" (a Persian title of the highest imperial power), but no serious protest was made against him for his worldly type of rule.

The second caliph was killed by a Persian slave in 25/644. In accordance with the majority vote of a six-man council which assembled by order of the second caliph before his death, the third caliph was chosen. The third caliph did not prevent his Umayyad relatives from becoming dominant over the people during his caliphate and appointed some of them as rulers in the Hijaz, Iraq, Egypt, and other Muslim lands. These relatives began to be lax in applying moral principles in government. Some of them openly, committed injustice and tyranny, sin and iniquity, and broke certain of the tenets of firmly established Islamic laws.

Before long, streams of protest began to flow toward the capital. But the caliph, who was under the influence of his relatives - particularly Marwan ibn Hakam - did not act promptly or decisively to remove the causes against which the people were protesting. Sometimes it even happened that those who protested were punished and driven away.

An incident that happened in Egypt illustrates the nature of the rule of the third caliph. A group of Muslims in Egypt rebelled against Uthman. Uthman sensed the dander and asked Ali for help, expressing his feeling of contrition. Ali told the Egyptians, "You have revolted in order to bring justice and truth to life. Uthman has repented saying, 'I shall change my ways and in three days will fulfill your wishes. I shall expel the oppressive rulers from their posts.'" Ali then wrote an agreement with them on behalf of Uthman and they started home. On the way they saw the slave of Uthman riding on his camel in the direction of Egypt. They became suspicious of him and searched him. On him they found a letter for the governor of Egypt containing the following words: "In the name of God. When 'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Addis comes to you beat him with a hundred lashes, shave his head and beard and condemn him to long imprisonment. Do the same in the case of 'Amr ibn al'Hamq, Suda ibn Hamran, and 'Urwah ibn Niba '." The Egyptians took the letter and returned with anger to Uthman, saying, "You have betrayed us!" Uthman denied the letter. They said, "Your slave was the carrier of the letter." He answered, "He has committed this act without my permission and knowledge." They said, "The letter is in the handwriting of your secretary." He replied, "This has been done without my permission and knowledge." They said, "In any case you are not competent to be caliph and must resign, for if this has been done with your permission you are a traitor and if such important matters take place without your permission and knowledge then your incapability and incompetence is proven. In any case, either resign or dismiss the oppressive agents from office immediately." Uthman answered, "If I wish to act according to your will, then it is you who are the rulers. Then, what is my function?" They stood up and left the gathering in anger.

During his caliphate Uthman allowed the government of Damascus, at the head of which stood Mu'awiyah, to be strengthened more than ever before. In reality, the center of gravity of the caliphate as far as political power was concerned was shifting to Damascus and the organization in Medina, the capital of the Islamic world, was politically no more than a form without the necessary power and substance to support it. Finally, in the year 35/656, the people rebelled and after a few days of siege and fighting the third caliph was killed.

The first caliph was selected through the vote of the majority of the companions, the second caliph by the will and testament of the first, and the third by a six-man council whose members and rules of procedure were organized and determined by the second caliph. Altogether, the policy of these three caliphs, who were in power for twenty-five years, was to execute and apply Islamic laws and principles in society in accordance with ijtihad and what appeared most wise at the time to the caliphs themselves. As for the Islamic sciences, the policy of these caliphs was to have the Holy Quran read and understood without being concerned with commentaries upon it or allowing it to become the subject of discussion. The hadith of the Prophet was recited and was transmitted orally without being written down. Writing was limited to the text of the Holy Quran and was forbidden in the case of hadith.

After the battle of Yamamah which ended in 12/633, many of those who had been reciters of the Holy Quran and who knew it by heart were killed. As a result Umar ibn al-Khattab proposed to the first caliph to have the verses of the Holy Quran collected in written form, saying that if another war were to occur and the rest of those who knew the Quran by heart were to be killed, the knowledge of the text of the Holy Book would disappear among men. Therefore, it was necessary to assemble the Quranic verses in written form.

From the Shi'ite point of view it appears strange that this decision was made concerning the Quran and yet despite the fact that the prophetic hadith, which is the complement of the Quran, was faced with the same danger and was not free from corruption in transmission, addition, diminution, forgery and forgetfulness, the same attention was not paid to it. On the contrary, as already mentioned, writing it down was forbidden and all of the written versions of it that were found were burned, as if to emphasize that only the text of the Holy Book should exist in written form.

As for the other Islamic sciences, during this period little effort was made to propagate them, the energies of the community being spent mostly in establishing the new sociopolitical order. Despite all the praise and consecration which are found in the Quran concerning knowledge ('ilm), and the emphasis placed upon its cultivation, the avid cultivation of the religious sciences was postponed to a later period of Islamic history.

Most men were occupied with the remarkable and continuous victories of the Islamic armies, and were carried away by the flood of immeasurable booty which came from all directions toward the Arabianpeninsula . With this new wealth and the worldliness which came along with it, few were willing to devote themselves to the cultivation of the sciences of the Household of the Prophet, at whose head stood Ali, whom the Holy Prophet had introduced to the people as the one most versed in the Islamic sciences. At the same time, the inner meaning and purpose of the teachings of the Holy Quran were neglected by most of those who were affected by this change. It is strange that, even in the matter of collecting the verses of the Holy Quran, Ali was not consulted and his mane was not mentioned among those who participated in this task, although it was known by everyone that he had collected the text of the Holy Quran after the death of the Prophet.

It has been recounted in many traditions that after receiving allegiance from the community, Abu Bakr sent someone to Ali and asked for his allegiance. Ali said, "I have promised not to leave my house except for the daily prayers until I compile the Quran." And it has been mentioned that Ali gave his allegiance to Abu Bakr after six months. Thisitself is proof that Ali had finished compiling the Quran. Likewise, it has been recounted that after compiling the Quran he placed the pages of the Holy Book on a camel and showed it to the people. It is also recounted that the battle of Yamamah after which the Quran was compiled, occurred during the second year of the caliphate of Abu Bakr. These facts have been mentioned in most works on history and hadith which deal with the account of the compilation of the Holy Quran.

These and similar events made the followers of Ali more firm in their belief and more conscious of the course that lay before them. They increased their activity from day to day and Ali himself, who was cut off from the possibility of educating and training the people in general, concentrated on privately training an elite.

During this twenty-five year period Ali lost through death three of his four dearest friends and associates, who were also among the companions of the Prophet: Salman al-Farsi, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, and Miqdad. They had been constant in their friendship with him in all circumstances. It was also during this same period that some of the other companions of the Holy Prophet and a large number of their followers in the Hijaz, the Yemen, Iraq, and other lands, joined the followers of Ali. As a result, after the death of the third caliph the people turned to Ali from all sides, swore allegiance to him and chose him as caliph.

The Termination of the Caliphate of 'Ali Amir al-mu'minin and His Method of Rule

The caliphate of Ali began toward the end of the year 35/656 and lasted about four years and nine months. During his period as caliph Ali followed the ways of the Holy Prophet and brought conditions back to their original state. He forced the resignation of all the incompetent political elementswho had a hand in directing affairs and began in reality a major transformation of a "revolutionary" nature which caused him innumerable difficulties.

On his first day as caliph, in an address to the people, Ali said, "O People, be aware that the difficulties which you faced during the apostolic period of the Prophet of God have come upon you once again and seized you. Your ranks must be turned completely around so that the people of virtue who have fallen behind should come forward and those who had come to the fore without being worthy should fall behind. There is both truth (haqq) and falsehood (batil). Each has its followers; but a person should follow the truth. If falsehood be prevalent it is not something new, and if the truth is rare and hard to come by, sometimes even that which is rare wins the day so that there is hope of advance. Of course it does not occur often that something which has turned away from man should return to him."

Ali continued his radically different type of government based more on righteousness than political efficacy but, as is necessary in the case of every movement of this kind, elements of the opposition whose interests were endangered began to display their displeasure and resisted his rule. Basing their actions on the claim that they wanted to revenge the death of Uthman, they instigated bloody wars which continued throughout almost all the time that Ali was caliph. From the Shi'ite point of view those who caused these civil wars had no end in mind other than their own personal interest. The wish to revenge the blood of the third caliph was no more than an excuse to fool the crowd. There was no question of a misunderstanding.

After the death of the Holy Prophet, a small minority, following Ali, refused to pay allegiance. At the head of the minority there were Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad, and Ammar. At the beginning of the caliphate of Ali also a sizable minority in disagreement refused to pay allegiance. Among the most persistent opponents were Sa'id ibn 'Ass, Walid ibn 'Uqbah, Marwan ibn Hakam, 'Amr ibn 'Ass, Busr ibn Artat, Samurah ibn Jundab, and Mughirah ibn Shu'bah.

The study of the biography of these two groups, and meditation upon the acts they have performed and stories recounted of them in history books, reveal fully their religious personality and aim. The firstgroup were among the elite of the companions of the Holy Prophet and among the ascetics, devout worshipers and selfless devotees of Islam who struggled on the path of Islamic freedom. They were especially loved by the Prophet. The Prophet said, "God has informed me that He loves four men and that I should love them also." They asked about their names. He mentioned Ali and then the names of Abu Dharr, Salman and Miqdad.(Sunan of Ibn Majah, Cairo, 1372, vol. I, p. 66.) 'A'ishah has recounted that the Prophet of God said, "If two alternatives are placed before Ammar, he will definitely choose that which ismore true and right."(Ibn Majah, vol. I, p. 66.) The Prophet said, "There is no one between heaven and earth more truthful than Abu Dharr."(Ibn Majah, vol. I, p. 68.) There is no record of a single forbidden act committed by these men during their lifetime. They never spilled any blood unjustly, did not commit aggression against anyone, did not steal anyone's property, never sought to corrupt and misguide people.

History is, however, full of accounts of unworthy acts committed by some of the second group. The various acts committed by some of these men in opposition to explicit Islamic teachings are beyond reckoning. These acts cannot be excused in any manner except the way that is followed by certain groups among the Sunnis who say that God was satisfied with them and therefore they were free to perform whatever act they wished, and that they would not be punished for violating the injunctions and regulations existing in the Holy Book and the Sunnah.

The first war in the caliphate of Ali, which is called the "Battle of the Camel," was caused by the unfortunate class differences created during the period of rule of the second caliph as a result of the new socioeconomic forces which caused an uneven distribution of the public treasury among members of the community. When chosen to the caliphate, Ali divided the treasury evenly as had been the method of the Holy Prophet, but this manner of dividing the wealth upset Talhah and Zubayr greatly. They began to show signs of disobedience and left Medina for Mecca with the alleged aim of making the pilgrimage. They persuaded "the mother of the Faithful" (umm al-mu'minin), A'ishah, who was not friendly with Ali, to join them and in the name of wanting to revenge the death of the third caliph they began the bloody Battle of the Camel. This was done despite the fact that this same Talhah and Zubayr were in Medina when the third caliph was besieged and killed but did nothing to defend him. Furthermore, after his death they were the first to pay allegiance to Ali on behalf of the immigrants (muhajirun) as well as on their own. Also, the "mother of the Faithful," A'ishah, did not show any opposition to those who had killed the third caliph at the moment when she received the news of his death. It must be remembered that the main investigators of the disturbances that led to the death of the third caliph were those companions who wrote letters from Medina to people near and far inviting them to rebel against the caliph, a fact which is repeated in many early Muslim histories.

As for the second war, called the Battle of Siffin, which lasted for a year and a half, its cause was the covetousness of Mu'awiyah for the caliphate which for him was a worldly political instrument rather than a religious institution. But as an excuse he made the revenge of the blood of the third caliph the main issue and began a war in which more than a hundred thousand people perished without reason. Naturally, in these wars Mu'awiyah was the aggressor rather than the defender, for the protest to revenge someone's blood can never occur in the form of defense. The pretext of this war was blood revenge. During the last days of his life, the third caliph, in order to quell the uprising against him, asked Mu'awiyah for help, but the army of Mu'awiyah which set out from Damascus to Medina purposely waited on the road until the caliph was killed. Then he returned to Damascus to begin an uprising to revenge the caliph's death. After the death of Ali and his gaining the caliphate himself, Mu'awiyah forgot the question of revenging the blood of the third caliph and did not pursue the matter further.

After Siffin there occurred the battle of Nahrawan in which a number people, among whom there could be found some of the companions, rebelled against Ali, possibly at the instigation of Mu'awiyah. These people were causing rebellion throughout the lands of Islam, killing the Muslims and especially the followers of Ali. They even attacked pregnant women and killed their babies. Ali put down this uprising as well, but a short while later washimself killed in the mosque of Kufa by one of the members of this group who came to be known as the Khawarij.

The opponents of Ali claim that he was a courageous man but did not possess political acumen. They claim that at the beginning of his caliphate he could have temporarily made peace with his opponents. He could have approached them through peace and friendship, thus courting their satisfaction and approval. In this way he could have strengthened his caliphate and only then turned to their extirpation and destruction. What people who hold this view forgot is that the movement of Ali was not based on political opportunism. It was a radical and revolutionary religious movement (in the true sense of revolution as a spiritual movement to reestablish the real order of things and not in its current political and social sense); therefore it could not have been accomplished through compromise or flattery and forgery. A similar situation can be seen during the apostleship of the Holy Prophet. The infidels and polytheists proposed peace to him many times and swore that if he were to abstain from protesting against their gods they would not interfere with his religious mission. But the Prophet did not accept such a proposal, although he could in those days of difficulty have made peace and used flattery to fortify his own position, and then have risen against his enemies. In fact, the Islamic message never allows a right and just cause,nor a falsehood to be rejected and disproven through another falsehood. There are many Quranic verses concerning this matter.


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