Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Craig and His Concept of Eternity:

A Critique from the Standpoint of the Kālām

Author: Engin Erdem

AN ANTHOLOGY OF PHILOSOPHICAL STUDIES

VOLUME 3

Editor

Patricia Hanna

University of Utah

USA

Editorial Board

Gerald Doppelt

University of California, SanDiego

USA

Yeorgio Maniatis

University of Cyprus

Cyprus

Carol Nicholson

Rider University

USA

Donald Poochigian

University of North Dakota

USA

T. Ann Scholl

United Arab Emirates University

UAE

Board of Reviewers

Isham Ahmad, International Islamic University, Malaysia

George Bruseker, University of Athens, Greece

Chrysoula Gitsoulis, CUNY, USA

Jonas S. Green, Brikbeck College, UK

Keith Green, East Tennessee State University, USA

Jan-Christoph Heilinger, Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Germany

Effie Papoutsis Kritikos, Northeastern Illinois University, USA

Ian O'Laughlin, University of Idaho, USA

Seung-Kee Lee, Drew University, USA

Joel Martinez, Lewis & Clark College, USA

Mark A. Michael, Austin Peay State University, USA

Chris Onof, Birkbeck College, UK

Elizabeth Schiltz, College of Wooster, USA

Ioannis Trisokkas, University of Warwick, UK

First Published in Athens, Greece by the Athens Institute for Education and Research.

ISBN: 978-960-6672-48-4

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©Copyright 2009 by the Athens Institute for Education and Research.  The individual essays remain the intellectual properties of the contributors.

Table of Contents

Introduction. 13

Craig and His Concept of Eternity: A Critique from the Standpoint of the Kālām   15

Bibliography. 21

List of Contributors

Khosrow Bagheri Noaparast is Professor of Philosophy of Education at the University of Tehran and currently the president of Philosophy of Education Society of Iran (PESI). He is the author of Islamic Education (Tehran, Alhoda, 2001) and a chapter inAdvances in Personal Construct Psychology (Neimeyer, R.A. ed., London: JAI Press Inc, 1995). He has also published many articles on philosophy of psychology and philosophy of education.

Claudia Bianchi is Associate Professor at the Philosophy Faculty of the University Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan; she teaches Philosophy of Language. She has written many articles and reviews in Italian, French and English: her latest authored work isPragmatica del linguaggio (Laterza, Roma-Bari 2003, 6th edition 2008), and the most recent edited books areThe Semantics/Pragmatics Distinction (Stanford, CSLI, 2004) andFilosofia della comunicazione (Roma-Bari, Laterza, 2005, with Nicla Vassallo). She works in the field of Analytic Philosophy. Her main research interest lies in the field of Philosophy of Language and Pragmatics. Other research interests include Epistemology and Philosophy of Science.

Charles Bolyard is an Associate Professor of Philosophy at James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia, USA. He works on medieval epistemology and metaphysics generally, and he has published on the treatments Augustine, Siger of Brabant, Peter Auriol, and John Duns Scotus give of aspects of these issues.  His papers have appeared in such journals asVivarium and theJournal of the History of Philosophy .

Massimiliano Carrara is assistant professor of Logic and Philosophy of Science at the Department of Philosophy of the University of Padova, Italy. He graduated and received his Ph.D. in Philosophy from the University of Padova. His main research interests are in philosophical logic and metaphysics, in particular on the notions of identity and existence.

Julio César Diaz is an Assistant Professor at Chinese Culture University, Taiwan. His most recent work,Being in the Pampas , discusses the reception of Parmenides’s notion of being in Argentine Literature. His article on luck andpoesis in ancient Greek thoughts was published inInternational Studies in Philosophy in 2006. He is now working on Foucault’s epistemology.

Gerald Doppelt is a Professor of Philosophy and Science Studies at University of California, San Diego and also holds the title of UCSD Academic Senate Distinguished Teacher. His research focuses on issues in philosophy of science such as Kuhn, Scientific Rationality, Values in Science, Scientific Progress, and Scientific Realism. His research in Political Philosophy focuses on Rawls, Political Liberalism, Multiculturalism, Feminism, Theories of Social Justice, the Philosophy of Technology, and Critical Theory of Race. Professor Doppelt teaches large required courses on public issues and the ethics of science, technology, and society.

Engin Erdem is Researcher at Divinity School in Ankara University, Turkey. He received his MA and PhD in Philosophy of Religion from the Faculty of Divinity from Ankara University. His philosophical interests lie chiefly in the Nature of Divine Eternity, Philosophy of Time, Medieval Islamic Philosophy, and Kantian ethics especially his later philosophy.

Davide Fassio is PhD student at the University of Padova, Italy. He graduated in Philosophy at the University of Turin with a thesis on the Knowability Paradox. The topic of his PhD thesis will be the analysis of logical problems for epistemic notions of truth. His main research interests are in epistemology and epistemic logic.

Chrysoula Gitsoulis is an Adjunct Lecturer in Philosophy at City College of the City University of New York. She received a B.A. in Philosophy, B.S. in Mathematics, and Minor in Classics from Rutgers College, New Jersey, in 1991. She earned her doctorate in philosophy at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York in Oct. 2008. Her thesis was on Wittgenstein and the Philosophy of Language, supervised by Paul Horwich, Professor of Philosophy at New York University. Her research interests focus on the History of Philosophy (especially Plato, Aristotle, and Wittgenstein), and Contemporary Moral and Social Issues.

Patricia Hanna is Professor of Philosophy and Professor of Linguistics at the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. She has published on philosophy of language, ethics, children's rights, philosophy of mind, belief and reference, ontology, and Wittgenstein. She is the co-author, with Bernard Harrison, ofWord and World: Practice and the Foundations of Language. Her current work focuses on issues in theory of meaning, philosophy of mind, justification, and Chomskyan theoretical linguistics; with Harrison, she is developing a realistic ontology of interpretation which finds it roots in the late writings of Wittgenstein.

Nicole Hassoun is an Assistant Professor in Philosophy at Carnegie Mellon University. She is affiliated with Carnegie Mellon's Program on International Relations and the Center for Bioethics and Health Law at the University of Pittsburgh. Nicole writes primarily in political philosophy and ethics and focuses, in particular, on global economic and environmental justice. She is also interested in methodological issues in philosophy and the other social sciences.

Hsuan Huang is an Assistant Professor in the Department of English Language and Literature, Chinese Culture University, Taiwan. Her research interests include the political philosophy around the time of the Enlightenment, and the idea of happiness and the possibility of its realization in civil society. Her most recent publication, “No Safe Place: A Reflection on Humanity” (inHumanity at the Turning Point: Rethinking Nature, Culture and Freedom), discusses Kant’s political ideas. In 2008, she presented a paper, “Kant’s Concept of Radical Evil,” at the 9th Global Conference: Perspectives on Evil and Human Wickedness.

Hammad A. Hussain is a PhD candidate in philosophy at the University of Oklahoma in Norman, OK, U.S.A. He specializes in Ancient Greek philosophy and Aristotle in particular. He is currently working on his dissertation on Aristotle’s theory of induction. He has presented his paper “’More Familiar to Us’ vs. ‘More FamiliarSimpliciter ’” at the 41st meeting of the North Texas Philosophical Association at the University of North Texas in April 2008; at the 3rd International Conference on Philosophy, sponsored by ATINER, in Athens, Greece in June 2008; and at the “Aristotle, Ethics and Science” Conference in Philadelphia, PA, in October 2008.

Christos Kyriacou is a Ph.D student at the Philosophy Department of the University of Edinburgh, where he is currently writing a thesis entitled 'The Epistemic Justification Puzzle' under the supervision of Prof. M.Ridge and Dr M.Chrisman. His research interests focus on the semantics of normative sentences (moral and epistemic) and the relevant ramifications in metaphysics, epistemology, mind and action theory. He is also interested in Plato scholarship and in the ways that can be compared and/or contribute in contemporary debates on normativity.

Victoria O. Levinskaya obtained her PhD degree in Social and Political Philosophy at the National University of Uzbekistan, where she taught different courses in Philosophy for more then 10 years. Currently she is working at the Westminster International University in Tashkent. She has participated in many International programs including Visiting Fulbright Scholarship program and Fulbright Visiting Specialist program “Direct access to the Muslim world”. Organized a number of International Summer schools for young faculty members of NIS in Uzbekistan, including the “Islam and Civil Society” summer school. She has also taken part in international conferences, and given a number of guest lectures to ten US and European universities; in addition, she has published on different topics of Social, Political and Environmental Philosophy.

Roderick T. Long is Associate Professor of Philosophy at Auburn University, Alabama (U.S.A.); author ofReason and Value: Aristotle versus Rand (2000) andWittgenstein, Austrian Economics, and the Logic of Action (forthcoming from Routledge); and President of the Molinari Institute. He works chiefly in ancient philosophy, moral and political philosophy, and philosophy of social science, and maintains a blog at http://aaeblog.net.

Mark McEvoy is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Hofstra University in New York. His primary research interests are in philosophy of mathematics and epistemology. His work has been published in several journals, includingPhilosophia Mathematica, Dialectica, Metaphilosophy, andPhilosophical Forum.

Alan McLuckie is a PhD student in philosophy at Stanford University. He received his B.A. Honours (2005) and M.A. (2007), both in philosophy, from the University of Alberta. His interests are in the history of philosophy more generally, and the intersection between classical philosophy and 18th and 19th century German philosophy in particular.

Carol Nicholson is Professor of Philosophy at Rider University in Lawrenceville, NJ, USA. She has written on political philosophy, philosophy of education, and feminism and is currently working on an article, "Education and the Pragmatic Temperament," for theCambridge Companion to Pragmatism.

Joachim L. Oberst has a joint-appointment in the Religious Studies Program and the Department of Foreign Languages & Literatures at the University of New Mexico. He studied at the University of Marburg (Germany), Goshen College (Indiana, USA), and the University of Heidelberg (Germany) before completing his doctorate in Philosophy at McGill University (Montreal, Canada). His teaching and research interests span 19th & 20th Century Continental Philosophy, Ancient Greek Philosophy, Ethics, and 20th Century

Theology. He is presently finishing up a book on Martin Heidegger,The Bounds of Being: Heidegger on Language and Death—The Existential Connection under contract with Continuum.

Anne Peterson is a Graduate Presidential Fellow pursuing a Ph.D. in Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame, USA. She received her B.A. from the University of Notre Dame in 2007. Her areas of specialization are Metaphysics, with a particular interest in the problem of universals and modality, and Ancient Philosophy, with a particular interest in Aristotle. She is currently working on the issue of prime matter in Aristotle, both as a problem of Aristotelian scholarship and as it relates to contemporary metaphysics.

Ursula Niklas Peterson is an Associate Professor of Philosophy at Indiana University-Purdue University at Indianapolis, IN, USA. She received her Ph. D. from the University of Warsaw, Poland. She teaches a variety of courses in the history of philosophy (including seminars on Machiavelli and Heidegger), and a course on philosophy and literature. Her research focuses on philosophy and literature, especially tragedy and utopia; hermeneutics; Heidegger: published articles in philosophical journals, such asHistory of Philosophy Quarterly andClio ; she is working on a book-length research project on philosophical interpretations of tragedy. 

Dimitris Platchias is a Research Fellow in the Department of Philosophy, University of Essex and an honorary research fellow at the Centre for the Study of Perceptual Experience, University of Glasgow. His research centres on issues in the philosophy of mind, psychology and perception and he has published widely in these areas, including recent articles inPhilosophia andTeorema . He is currently editing a book on Representationalism (with Fiona Macpherson, MIT Press).

Howard Ponzer is an Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Molloy College, Rockville Centre, NY, USA. His work has focused primarily on Hegel’s dialectic and its relation to analytic logic, but he has also worked extensively on Plato, Aristotle, and Kant.  He has presented papers in the United States and Germany, where he taught for two years in Bremen and Dresden. His most recent publication is entitled, “Reconciliation in Hegel’s Idealism.” He is presently working on an article that explores whether philosophy has a voice in the discussion of gender equality.

Donald V. Poochigian is Professor of Philosophy in the Department of Philosophy and Religion at the University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota, USA.  His current research interests focus on, but are not limited to, identity theory and set theory.  Illustrating his somewhat eclectic concerns, forthcoming publications include articles entitled “Human Nature and Human Rights” and “An Epistemological Critique of Computer Learning.”  Forthcoming presentations include articles entitled “Mathematical Identity: The Algebraic Unknown Number and Casuistry” and “An Economic Paradox: Entropy and Growth.”

Elias E. Savellos is Professor of Philosophy at the State University of New York, Geneseo, NY, USA. He is the coauthor ofReasoning and the Law (Wadsworth, 2001), coeditor ofSupervenience: New Essays (Cambridge University Press, 1995), and author of various articles on philosophical logic

and analytic metaphysics. His current philosophical interests lie in ethics and the philosophy of language.

Makoto Suzuki is a Research Fellow at Nanzan University Institute for Social Ethics, Nagoya, Japan. He received his BA and MA in Letters from Kyoto University, and his PhD in Philosophy from The Ohio State University. His research interests include moral philosophy, moral psychology and history of modern philosophy.

Ioannis Trisokkas is currently an Early Career Fellow in the Warwick Institute of Advanced Studies, Warwick, UK. His research focuses on continental epistemology, philosophy of language and metaphysics. He has published extensively on Hegel and the problem of the expression of truth. He is currently an Early Career Fellow in the Warwick Institute of Advanced Studies.

Bart Vandenabeele is Professor of Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art at Ghent University (Belgium). He is the author and editor of several books in aesthetics, philosophy of art and philosophy of communication. He has published on philosophical aesthetics, the history of philosophy (especially Kant and Schopenhauer) and the philosophy of culture in English, German, Portuguese and Dutch. He has been a Visiting Professor at Missouri Western University and Stellenbosch University (South Africa), and is the editor ofA Companion to Schopenhauer (forthcoming with Blackwell’s).

Stijn Van Impe has studied philosophy at Ghent University (Belgium) where he obtained his master degree (summa cum laude) in 2007. He is currently employed as Fellow of the Scientific Research Foundation Flanders at Ghent University and is preparing a PhD on Kant’s realm of ends. He is member of the Centre for German Idealism, the Kant-Gesellschaft Bonn, the Société d’Etudes Kantiennes de la Langue Française, and the Dutch Association of Aesthetics. He has presented papers on several international conferences both in Europe and the United States and for associations such as the United Kingdom Kant Association and the European Communication Research and Education Association.     

Nicla Vassallo is Full Professor of Theoretical Philosophy in the Department of Philosophy at the University of Genova and is part of the teaching staff of the Doctorate in Philosophy. Her primary research and teaching areas are Philosophy of Knowledge and Epistemology. She also has serious research interests in Feminist Philosophy, Metaphysics, Philosophical Naturalism and Scepticism. Her latest sole-authored work isTeoria della conoscenza (Roma-Bari 2003) and her latest co-authored work isFilosofia delle donne (Roma-Bari 2007). Her most recent edited book isFilosofia delle conoscenze (Torino 2006), and her most recent co-edited book isKnowledge, Language, and Interpretation: On the Philosophy of Donald Davidson (Frankfurt, 2008). She regularly writes for the Sunday Cultural Supplement of the newspaper Sole-24 Ore.

Andrew Ward is currently teaching Philosophy at the University of York, UK. He has also taught at the Open University, UK and at the University of Florida at Gainseville, FL, USA. He writes mainly in the areas of Personal Identity, Aesthetics, and the Philosophy of Immanuel Kant. Publications include:Kant: The Three Critiques (Polity Press: Cambridge, 2006) and

numerous articles in philosophical journals, includingMind ,American Philosophical Quarterly ,Philosophy and Phenomenological Research , andHistory of Philosophy Quarterly .

C H A P T E R   O N E

Introduction

Patricia Hanna

The International Conference on Philosophy sponsored by the Athens Institute for Research and Education (ATINER) has now been held for three years. Each year, we have worked to make it better, and this volume, the third that has been produced in connection with the conferences, shows the results of these efforts. 

We now have a five member Editorial Board which works closely with the Editor in putting together the final volume. More importantly, however, we have now established a pool of reviewers which allows us to send each paper to at least two reviewers for their recommendations on the suitability of the papers for publication. It is our aim to treat the papers in a manner which parallels the review standards for professional journals in philosophy; while blind reviewing is not entirely possible, we take this as our model. Starting with Volume II (2007 Conference), we have asked reviewers to base their recommendations on the same standards they would use for reviewing papers for professional journals; for the past two years, approximately 35% of the papers presented at the conference have been accepted for inclusion in these proceedings. 

One of the strongest motivations for raising the level of expectation is that this conference is one of a vanishing breed: a small international philosophy conference which is open to all areas of philosophy. It provides an almost unique opportunity for philosophers from all over the world to get together and share ideas with the aim of expanding our understanding of our discipline, and to do so in a venue which allows all of the participants to get to know one another. It is the hope of the Editor and the Editorial Board that the conference will flourish in future years, and that it will draw the best philosophers from every country, regardless of their area or the specific approach or methodology they follow.

The world faces new challenges in terms of shrinking oil supplies, climate change and an uncertain political and economic future. Now, more than ever, bringing philosophers from around the world together to address the most fundamental questions confronting us as a species is needed. At the 2008 conference, held from 2—5 June 2008, 71 philosophers from over 20countries (including, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Cyprus, Finland, Germany, Greece, Iran, Italy, Japan, Lebanon, The Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Singapore, South Africa, Taiwan, Turkey, Uzbekistan, United Kingdom and the USA) met and talked with one another about the human condition in the shadow of the Parthenon.

We have chosen to organize the volume along traditional lines. This should not, however, mislead a reader into supposing that the topics or approaches to problems fall neatly into traditional categories. The selection of papers chosen

for inclusion here gives some sense of the variety of topics addressed at the conference. However, it would be impossible in an edited volume to ensure coverage of the full breadth and variety of subject matter or the issues brought to the conference itself by the participants, some of whom could not travel to one another's home countries without enormous difficulty.

Chapter Thirteen:

Craig and His Concept of Eternity: A Critique from the Standpoint of the Kālām

Engin Erdem

The issue of divine eternity which was dominant in medieval philosophy and theology also has a very important place in the debates of modern philosophy of religion. Looking at the views of the medieval philosophers and theologians such as Ibn Sina (d. 1037), St Anselm (d. 1109), and St Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), we see that they interpret divine eternity as timelessness, being outside of time. According to these philosophers there is a sharp distinction between God’s mode of being and that of the creatures. A created being has its life in a succession; past, present and future are real parts of its life. However, because of the fact that God is a perfect, simple, necessary and an immutable being, there is no change and succession in His life. So Boethius (d. 524) defines eternity, as having an illimitable life all at once. (1981, 430)  Here the term ‘all at once’ means not a moment of time but the absence of temporal succession. (Helm, 2007)  Also, Anselm depicts God’s relation to time as follows:

Thou wast not, then, yesterday, nor wilt thou be to-morrow; but yesterday and to-day and to-morrow thou art; or, rather, neither yesterday nor to-day nor to-morrow thou art; but simply, thou art, outside all time. For yesterday and to-day and to-morrow have no existence, except in time; but thou, although nothing exist without thee, nevertheless dost not exist in space or time, but all things exist in thee. For nothing contains thee, but thou containest all. (1962, 71)

For the medieval philosophers, whatever is in time is bounded by it; it cannot stop the process of change and of time; so, it is subject to time not its master. (Helm, 2007) Therefore, God must be timeless.

As for the modern philosophers of religion, their approach is radically different from the medieval philosophers. These philosophers oppose the classical view of eternity, saying that a timeless being cannot be God of religion, especially ‘the Christian God’. (Davies, 1983, 11) According to many of them, God, in scripture, is described as a loving, suffering, redeeming being, in brief, an acting being. But if God is unchangeable and immutable he cannot do such activities; thus, a being that is not changeable cannot be an agent. Hence, it is necessary to ascribe change and temporal properties to God and God must be temporal. What does God’s being temporal mean? Almost all of modern philosophers of religion answer this question in different ways. For example, Swinburne, one of the leading defender of divine temporality, holds that eternity means to have an everlasting life in time. He says that God exists throughout all periods of time; God exists now, he has existed at each period of past time and he will exist at each period of future time. (1994, 137)  God exists in time but there is no beginning or end for Him; so ‘a being who is both backwardly and forwardly eternal we may term an eternal being.’ (1993, 218) Similarly, Wolterstorff maintains that God exits in time and he does have a history like the creature. (2001, 211) Although modern philosophers of religion have

relatively different views on the nature of divine temporality, they all share the same opinion: God cannot be a timeless being.

As it is seen, there are mainly two views about the nature of divine eternity: divine timelessness and divine temporality. But we see that there is also a third way which is held by William Lane Craig. Craig has a distinguished place among modern religious philosophers. According to him, God is neither timeless nor temporal; God’s life has two stages: the first is timeless and the second is temporal. It seems that, as we shall see below, the turning point in his view of eternity is creation. For he claims that God is timeless without creation and than becomes temporal with creation. (2000, 152; 2001, 236) Why is God timeless; more importantly why did he become temporal when he created the universe? In what follows I shall deal with these questions in turn.

Let me begin with the first question. I think the answer of this question is closely connected with Craig’s concept of creationex nihilo ; because, according to him a robust/strong doctrine of creation implies that God is the Creator of everything except Himself and the universe was created a finite time ago in the past. (2004, 161) To prove such an idea of beginning for the universe he utilizes many scientific and metaphysical arguments. Especially the cosmological argument plays a key role in his thought. According to him, some Muslim thinkers such as al-Kindi and al-Ghazali introduced a different version of the cosmological argument, which he calls ‘The Kalām Cosmological Argument’ (2000). According to this argument, God is not only ontologically prior to the universe but also He temporally precedes it. The argument can be formulated as follows:

1- Everything that begins to exist has a cause of its existence.

2- The universe began to exist.

3- Therefore, the universe has a cause of its existence. (2000, 48-49) 

For Craig, the crucial premise in this argument is the second one. He asserts that the impossibility of actual infinity, The Big Bang Theory, Thermodynamics and other many scientific evidences show that the universe has a beginning. (2004, 219-248) Introducing those arguments in detail he tackles the question whether the beginning of the universe also entails the beginning of time. According to him, on the relational theory of time the universe was created not in time but with time. (1979) The view that there was an empty time before the beginning of the universe gives rise to an old metaphysical question: ‘Why did not God create the world sooner?’ (2001, 21) Craig argues that this question is unanswerable in the absolute theory of time. (2001, 31) So there is no time ‘before’ the beginning of the universe; the first event, that is, the creation of the universe also indicates to the first moment of time. (2001, 31; 1979) ‘When the first event occurred, the first moment of time began.’ (1979) Craig concludes that time did start with the beginning of the universe and without creation there was no time but God only; therefore, in the first stage, that is without creation God is timeless.(2001, 31 )

Now, we are coming to the second question, ‘Why God becomes temporal with creation?’ According to Craig, as I said above, God is timeless without creation and if God did not will to create the world he

would exist timelessly. (2000, 152) In other words, God could have never stood in temporal relations with a temporal world had he not willed to create the world. But Craig says that God has willed from eternity to create and to become temporal at that moment. (2000, 152) Because of the fact that with creation God enters into a new real relation which he did no have before He changes and becomes temporal. (2000, 152) Craig summarizes his view as follows:

4- God is creatively active in the temporal world.

5- If God is creatively active in the temporal world, God is really related to the temporal world.

6- If God is really related to the temporal world, God is temporal.

7- Therefore, God is temporal. (2001, 141)

Thus, for Craig, ‘the first event is the event of creation, the moment at which the temporal phase of God’s life begins.’ (2001, 31) I think what has been said so far outlines sufficiently Craig’s main thesis of eternity. Now, in light of the discussions between the classical and modern philosophers on the nature of divine eternity, we can say that Craig holds a hybrid view of eternity, partly timeless and partly temporal. It is a well known fact that, taken separately, each of the classical and modern interpretations of eternity brings about different kinds of problems, either philosophical or theological. But it seems that a mixed type of eternity held by Craig gives rise to further difficulties.

Firstly, I think the main problem arising from a hybrid view of eternity is the question that how the relationship between the timeless and temporal parts of divine eternity can be explained. As Leftow said, the expression that ‘God becomes temporal’ (1997, 259) means that God is timeless first and later becomes temporal. So God’s timeless phase comes earlier than His temporal phase, but the term ‘earlier’ or ‘before’ shows that there was a time before God’s becoming temporal and He did exist in that time. (1997, 259) And this means that God had been already temporal before having become temporal. Another problem is related to the state in which God decided to become temporal. If God, as Craig argued, did decide to become temporal, it might be asked: when did he do so. ‘He could not’, says Leftow, ‘have done so timelessly, for then He would have had to become temporal… If He did so at any time it was then too late. As He was already at that time, He was already temporal.’ (1997, 259-260) It is seen that Craig’s idea that God decided to become temporal requires a time in which God already has been.

The second problem I would like to discuss concerning Craig’s view of eternity is the question that whether the act of creation really requires God’s becoming temporal. I think it might be helpful on this issue to look at the views of the defenders of divine timeless eternity, especially to whom Craig refers in order to support his concept of creation ex nihilo, such as al-Kindi (d. 873) and al-Ghazali (d. 1111). We see that those thinkers never approve of the view that God changes and becomes temporal with creation. To these philosophers, God, as a necessary, simple, and an immutable being by definition is timeless and there cannot be any change in Him, before or after creation. Let us take al-Ghazali as an example. He criticizes the Muslim Aristotelian philosophers, al-Farabi (d. 950) and Ibn Sina, from a religious

point of view and objects to their view of eternal creation which implies that God is only ontologically prior to the universe. (1997, 31) He maintains that without creation there was only God and than the universe began to exist in accordance with God’s timeless will. (1997, 31) But he also argues that the inception of the universe does not require God’s becoming temporal. (1962, 104) For, according to him, only a timeless being can create temporal beings and can have an absolute control over them.

In order to better understand his approach to this issue I would like to touch upon his views on the relationship between God and time. He defines time, like Aristotle, as the measure of motion in terms of before and after. (1990, 172) In view of the fact that he sees an essential relation between time and motion, a question as to divine eternity might be, basically, answered in accordance with the answer given to the question of whether God has been subjected to a change or not. (Erdem, 2006, 3) Al-Ghazali tries to give an answer to this question by pointing out the radical difference between God’s mode of being and those of the created beings. (2006, 3) For him all the creatures are temporally created (hadith ), which means that they came into existence after they had not existed previously. (1962, 25; 1997, 61) The coming into existence of the temporally created is either possible or impossible; its being impossible is not possible, because what is impossible cannot come into existence. (1962, 25) Hence it is necessary for a temporally created to be possible before it exists; a possible being is at the same of level with regard to existence and non-existence. (1962, 25) So, it needs a cause/decider that would prefer its existence to its non-existence. (1962, 25-26) But, since the chain of causes cannot continue infinitely, there must be a first cause which does not require any other cause but itself. (1962, 35) Thus, this first cause, with regard to its mode of being does not need to any other cause, is said to be a necessary being. A necessary being is different from a temporally created being, not only because it does not require any cause except itself but also it is not subjected to any motion or change. (2006, 3) Because, for him, motion is the actualization of a potentiality; in order for a motion take place an agent is required to actualize the potentiality. (1990, 172) So if a change and a motion were to happen in God, this would mean that God had a potentiality and thus God would need an agent apart from Himself to put this potentiality into actuality. (2006, 3-4) In another words, if God changes, He would be at the same level of being with the created and He cannot be regarded as a First Cause. However, according to al-Ghazali since God is a necessary being, there cannot be any potentiality and any change in Him and therefore He must be timeless. (2006, 4) He expresses his view thus:

God, just like He was in eternity, in the infinite pasts, is always the same today. Just like He was before He created the universe and heavens, He would be exactly the same in the infinite future, too. Because change and alteration can not be ascribed neither to His being nor to His attributes. If one of His attributes were to change, He would be imperfect or flawed; therefore, be imperfect and would be in need of perfection and excellence. He who is in need can not be God. (1969, 112)

For al-Ghazali, God’s essence and all of His attributes, as well as His will, are timelessly eternal. (1962, 142) God decides timelessly to create the world in eternity. (1962, 104) God’s contemplation of unactualized

possibilities and His decision to actualize one of them is one timeless act. ‘This does not mean that different phases of that act cannot be distinguished, but such a distinction can only be a conceptual, not a temporal distinction. Consideration of possibilities is logically prior to actualizing one of them, but both contemplation and actualization are one eternal act of the divine nature, if God is timelessly eternal.’ (Helm, 1988, 179) To al-Ghazali, even though God’s decision to create is a timeless act, the effects of this decision come into being temporally. But the temporality of the effects does not require the temporality of the cause. For, God’s act of creation is a different kind of causation, it is a timeless causation. Timeless causation is a relation of a cause and an effect between the Creator and the creation. (Markus, 2004, 32-33) To understand timeless causation, I think it might be helpful to compare, as Davies does, the relation between the cause and the effect with the relationship between a teacher and a student. When the student learns some truth he changes from a state of ignorance to state of having knowledge. It is a real change for her/him. But the learning of the student does not require a change in the teacher. Similarly, it might be coherently thought that God’s creation does not necessarily imply a change in Him but only a change in the creature. (Davies, 1993, 147)   

At this point it might be asked that why al-Ghazali and other medieval philosophers insist so much on God’s immutability and timelessness and why they do not accept the view of God’s becoming temporal. To these philosophers, the attributes of necessity and timelessness are the marks of the Creator and the contingency and the temporality are the signs of the creature. For that reason, any explanation which implies God’s being temporal, in fact, is not a philosophically coherent explanation. Because in such a case, it would be nearly impossible to make any distinction between God and His creature and this would lead to an anthropomorphic conception of God. So from al-Ghazalian point of view, Craig’s idea that God created the universe and became temporal with creation, in fact, means that God created the universe at the expense of His perfection. Craig might reply to this, saying that God ‘willingly’ did decide to become temporal at the moment of creation. (2000, 152) But such a response also seems questionable. Because questions such as follows always reasonably be asked: ‘Is it really possible that a being can change his mode of being by her/his own will?’ and more importantly, !For what reason did a perfect and a timeless being abandon His mode of being?’ I think it is very difficult to find any philosophically coherent answer to these questions in Craig’s view of eternity.

Lastly, I would like to add one point. Metaphysically thinking, an effect is ontologically dependent on its cause, not vice versa. In the classical view of eternity, God is conceived as a First Cause and everything apart from Himself wholly dependent on Him. Accordingly, the classical philosophers argue that the act of creation does not imply a real change in God but only in the creature. But in Craig’s conception of eternity, the effect is so much powerful that it can change the mode of being of its cause substantially. I think such a view brings about the question: ‘Which one, in fact, is the real cause, God or the universe?’

In conclusion, in the classical philosophy and theology God is conceived as an ultimate principle. In this view, God is the First Cause and everything except him came into being thanks to His act of creation. The fact that God is the First Cause means that there is a radical, sharp distinction between God and his creatures in terms of mode of being. For that reason, medieval philosophers never approve of the idea of God’s becoming temporal and try to explain God’s relationship with the temporal world in accordance with this metaphysical framework. But in Craig’s view of eternity, because he concedes that God becomes temporal with creation, it is very difficult to explain, at least after creation, the difference between the Creator and the creature. Likewise, his idea that God became temporal because of His relation with temporal beings is controversial. For, if God, as Craig claims, becomes temporal due to His relations with temporal beings it might also be thought that He becomes spatial due to His relations with spatial things. Of course, God might be conceived as a temporal and even a spatial being but it is clear that such a conception of God is more anthropomorphic than the timeless one.

Table of Contents

Preface 16

Chapter 1: Arabian Peninsula the Cradle of Islamic Culture 18

Makkah 19

A Short History of Makkah 19

Madina 19

Notes 21

Chapter 2: Arabia Before Islam 22

General Morals of the Arabs 23

Were the Pre-Islamic Arabs Civilized? 23

As`ad Bin Zurarah Meets The Holy Prophet 25

Religion in Arabia 27

Thinking of The Arabs about Man After Death 29

Literature or The Stereoscope of The Mentality of a Nation 29

Position of Women amongst The Arabs 30

Social Position of Women Amongs The Arabs 31

A Brief Comparison 32

Arabs as Warriors 32

Conclusion 33

Superstitions and Myths of Arabs 33

Superstitious Beliefs Of The Arabs Of The Age Of Ignorance 35

1. Burning fire for the coming of rains 36

2. If a cow did not drink water they beat the Ox 36

3. They branded healthy camels so that the others might recover 36

4. A camel was confined by the side of a grave 36

5. They cut off the feet of a camel near a grave 36

Islam Combats With Superstitions 36

6. Treatment of the sick 37

How Islam Campaigned against these Superstitions 38

7. Some Other Superstitions 38

Notes 39

Chapter 3: Conditions of Roman and Iranian Empires 40

Seasonal Discussions in Rome 40

Iran, or The Cradle of Civilisation of that Age 42

General Conditions of Iran Simultaneous with The Dawn of Islam 42

Fondness for Luxuriousness during Sasanian Period 43

Social Conditions in Iran 43

Right of Obtaining Education was Reserved for the Upper Classes 44

Verdict of History on The Sasanian Kings 46

Unrest during The Sasanian Rule 46

Disturbed Conditions of Sasanian Iran from Religious Viewpoint 47

Wars between Iran and Rome 49

Notes 50

Chapter 4: Ancestors of The Prophet 52

1. Ibrahim, The Champion of Monotheism 52

Why Worshop of Creatures Came Into Existence? 52

Birthplace of Prophet Ibrahim 53

Ibrahim’s Campaign Against Idol Worship 54

Secret of Polytheism 55

Ibrahim’s Logic Explained 57

Method of Discussion and Debate Adopted by The Prophets 58

Was Azar The Father of Ibrahim? 58

Azar in The Holy Qur’an 59

The following verses were, however, revealed in reply to their request 59

Ibrahim The Idol-Breaker 60

Instructive Points of This Narrative 62

A New Chapter in The Life of Ibrahim 64

How The Fountain of Zamzam Came Into Existence 65

They Meet Again 66

2. Qusayy Son Of Kilab 66

3 Abd Manaf 67

4. Hashim 68

Umayyah Son of Abd Shams Feels Jealous 69

Hashim Marries 70

5. Abdul Muttalib 71

Re-Excavation Of The Well Of Zamzam 71

Steadfastness In Keeping Promise 73

Tumult Of The Year of The Elephant 74

The Origin Of This Event 75

Abdul Muttalib Goes To The Camp of Abraha 77

Quraysh Await Abdul Muttalib’s Return 78

A theoretical discussion about miracles 79

Way of Thinking of Some Scholars 80

Notable Points With Regard to The Above Mentioned Explanation 82

Two Important Points 83

After The Defeat of Abraha 83

Imaginary Frontiers of Quraysh 84

Abdullah – Father Of The Holy Prophet 85

Death Of Abdullah In Yathrib 86

Notes 87

Chapter 5: Birth of the Prophet 88

Year, Month and Date of Birth of The Prophet of Islam 89

Which of The Two Versions is Correct? 90

Ceremony of Giving A Name To The Prophet of Islam 90

The Holy Qur'an mentions two names of the Prophet.73 91

The Infancy Of The Prophet 91

Notes 92

Chapter 6: Childhood of The Prophet 93

Worshippers of Allah 93

Five Years In The Desert 95

Notes 96

Chapter 7: Rejoining the Family 97

Journey To Yathrib 98

Death of Abdul Muttalib 99

Guardianship by Abu Talib 99

A Journey to Syria 99

Falsehood of The Orientalists 100

A Glance at The Existing Taurat 102

A Glance at The Injeel 103

Prophet 'Isa Shows a Miracle 103

Notes 103

Chapter 8: Period of Youth 104

Spiritual Power of The Holy Prophet 104

The Fujjar (Unjust) Battles 104

The Prophet Participates in The Agreement 106

Notes 107

Chapter 9: From Sheperd to Merchant 108

Abu Talib's Proposal 109

Khadijah - The First Lady Of Islam 110

The Patent and Latent Causes of The Marriage 112

Circumstances of Khadijah’s Suit 113

Notes 114

Chapter 10: From Marriage upto Prophethood 115

Manhood of The Holy Prophet 115

Sentiments of His Manhood 115

His Children from Khadijah 116

Unfounded Guess 116

Adopted Son of The Prophet of Islam 117

Beginning of Differences Among The Idolaters 117

The Foundations of Idol-Worship Shake 118

These four persons consisted of 118

Another Weakness of Quraysh 118

Notes 119

Chapter 11: The First Manifestation of Reality 121

Necessity for the appointment of Prophets 121

Role of Prophets on the reformation of society 122

A Patent Example 122

The 'Honest One' Of Quraysh in The Hira Mountain 124

Commencement of Revelation 125

The World as Viewed by a Materialist 125

The Abstract Soul 126

Magnetic Sleep (Hypnotism) 127

Inspiration or Mysterious Sense 127

Kinds of Inspiration 127

Myths 128

Trail of Revelation 128

Khadijah Goes to Waraqah Bin Nawafal 129

Baselessness of These Statements 130

Notes 131

Chapter 12: The First Revelation 132

Reply by Shi'ah Scholars 132

The First Reply 132

The Second Reply 133

The Third Reply 133

The Faith of the Prophet before The Prophetic Mission 134

Comparison of Prophet Muhammad with Prophet 'Isa 135

Notes 136

Chapter 13: Who Were The First Persons to Embrace Islam? 137

The First Amongst Women to Embrace Islam was Khadijah 137

The First Amongst Men to Adopt Islam was Ali 137

The First Evidence 138

The Second Evidence 139

The Third Evidence 139

The Fourth Evidence 139

Mamun’s Discussion with Ishaq 140

Notes 140

Chapter 14: Cessatation of Revelation 141

Our opinion on This Subject 142

The Holy Prophet Commenced Reformation From A Limited Circle 142

The Manner of Inviting The Kinsfolk 144

Crimes and Breach of Trust 145

Prophethood and Imamate are Linked Together 147

Notes 147

Chapter 15: General Invitation 148

The Role of Faith and Fortitude 148

Steadfastness and Fortitude of The Holy Prophet 149

Quraysh Approached Abu Talib for The Third Time 151

Quraysh Try to Allure The Holy Prophet 151

An Example of The Tortures and Persecutions by Quraysh 152

Abu Jahl Lies in Ambush for The Holy Prophet 155

Persecution of Muslims by Quraysh 156

Bilal, The Ethiopian 156

Self-Sacrifice of Ammar and His Parents 156

Abdullah Bin Mas'ud 157

Ruthless Enemies of The Holy Prophet 158

Umar Ibn Khattab Embraces Islam 158

Notes 160

Chapter 16: Judgement of Quraysh about The Holy Qur'an 162

Judgement of Walid 162

Another Example 163

Strange Stratagem of Quraysh 164

Stimulant for The Obstinacy of the Chiefs of Quraysh 164

1. Quraysh were jealous of the Holy Prophet 165

2. Fear of the Day of Judgement 165

Some objections by the Polytheists 166

Notes 167

Chapter 17: The First Migration 168

Quraysh Send Their Representatives to The Court of Ethiopia 170

Return from Ethiopia 173

Mission of The Christians 173

The Mission of Quraysh 174

Notes 175

Chapter 18: Rusty Weapons 176

Undue Calumnies 176

Persistence in Attributing Insanity 178

Imposture of Nazar Bin Harith 179

Persistence of Quraysh in Their Faith 179

They Prohibit Hearing of The Qur’an 180

The Law-Breaking Legislators 181

Preventing People from Embracing Islam 181

Another Example 182

Notes 183

Chapter 19: The Fiction of Gharaniq 184

A Simple Accountability of This Fiction 185

Judgement of Intellect on This Myth 185

Contradiction of The Story in Another Way 186

Argument against the Myth from The Point of View of Language 187

Evidence put forward by some orientalists 187

Notes 187

Chapter 20: Economic Blockade 188

Declaration By Quraysh 188

The Pitiable Condition Of Bani Hashim 189

Notes 191

Chapter 21: Death of Abu Talib 192

Specimens Of The Kindnesses And Love Of Abu Talib 192

Change In The Programme Of The Journey 193

Defence Of His Sacred Beliefs 193

A False Idea 194

The Real Stimulant For Abu Talib 194

A Short Account Of The Sacrifices Made By Abu Talib 195

The Will Of Abu Talib At The Time Of His Death 196

The Last Journey 197

The Viewpoint Of Shi'ah Scholars 197

Notes 198

Chapter 22: Me`raj – The Heavenly Ascension 199

Me'raj According To The Qur'an, Hadith And History 199

Does Me'raj Have A Qur'anic Origin? 200

In Surah al-lsra' it has been said 200

Reports About Me'raj 201

History Of This Event 201

Was Me'raj Of The Prophet Physical? 202

What Is Spiritual Me'raj? 203

Reply To The Above Criticism 204

An Unrhythmical Song 204

Me'raj And Modern Scientific Laws 205

Reply To The Above Objections 206

The Object Of Me'raj 207

Notes 208

Chapter 23: Journey to Ta`if 209

The Prophet Returns To Makkah 210

A Point Which Deserves Attention 211

Speeches In The Famous Bazaars Of Arabia 212

Invitation To The Heads Of The Tribes During Haj Season 212

Notes 212

Chapter 24: The Agreement of Aqabah 213

The Battle Of Bu'ath 214

The Details Of This Event 214

The First Agreement At 'Aqabah 215

The Second Agreement At 'Aqabah 215

Conditions Of Muslims After The Agreement Of 'Aqabah 217

The Reaction Of QurayshTo The Agreement At 'Aqabah 218

Spiritual Influence Of Islam 219

Fear Overtakes Quraysh 220

Notes 221

Chapter 25: The Event of Migration 222

Divine Assistance 223

The Archangel Jibreel Informs The Prophet 224

Enemies Attack The House Of The Prophet 225

The Prophet In The Cave Of Thaur 225

Quraysh Do Not Hesitate In Searching Out The Prophet 226

Self-Sacrifice In The Path Of Reality 226

Statement Of Ibn Taymiyah 227

Reply To The False Interpretation 228

Detailed Reply 229

Trail Of Events Of The Migration Of The Prophet 230

Coming Out Of The Cave 231

The First Page Of History 231

Why The Year Of Migration Became The Era Of Islamic History? 231

Schedule Of The Journey 232

Arrival In The Village Of Quba 233

Tumult And Glamour Of Joy In Madina 234

Seeds Of Dissension 235

Notes 236

Chapter 26: The Events of the First Year of Migration 238

The Story Of 'Ammar 239

Nurse Kinder To The Child Than Its Mother 240

Brotherhood-The Greatest Gleam Of Faith 241

Two Great Distinctions Of Ali 242

Another Distinction Of Ali 243

The Greatest Documentary Agreement Of History 244

Part One 244

Part Two 245

Part Three 246

Part Four 246

Obstructions Of The Jews 247

ABDULLAH BIN SALAM EMBRACES ISLAM 247

Another Plan To Overthrow The Government Of Islam 247

Notes 249

Chapter 27: Some Events of the First and Second Years of Migration 250

What Was The Object Of War Manoeuvres? 252

Viewpoint Of Orientalists About These Events 253

Notes 255

Chapter 28: The Events of the Second Year of Migration 256

Difficulties Of Marriage During The Present Age 256

The Propllet Campaigned Practically Against These Difficulties 256

The Dowry Of The Prophet's Daughter 258

The Ceremonies Of The Marriage 258

Notes 259

Chapter 29: Change of Qiblah 260

Miraculous Knowledge Of The Prophet 261

Notes 262

Chapter 30: The Battle of Badr 263

The Difficulty Faced By Quraysh 264

The Forces Of Truth And Falsehood Face Each Other 265

War Consultations 265

Concealment Of Facts 266

Procurement Of Information About The Enemy 267

The Caravan Of Abu Sufyan Flees 269

Muslims Become Aware Of The Escape Of The Caravan 269

Difference Of Opinion Amongst Quraysh 269

"Arish" Or Tower Of Command 270

Examining The Question Of Setting Up A Shelter 271

Movement Of Quraysh 271

Consultations By Quraysh 272

Difference Of Opinion Amongst Quraysh 272

The Reason Which Made The Battle Unavoidable 273

Single Combats 273

General Attack Begins 274

Regard For Rights 275

Umayyah Bin Khalaf Is Killed 275

Amount Of Casualties And Losses 276

After The Battle Of Badr 276

Two Captives Were Killed Enroute 277

Men Dispatched By The Prophet To Madina 278

Makkans Come To Know About Their Chiefs Being Killed 278

Wailings And Elegizing Prohibited 279

Final Decision About The Captives 279

Statement Of Ibn Abil Hadid 280

Notes 281

Chapter 31: Dangerous Designs of the Jews 282

The Fire Of War Kindles With A Spark 283

Fresh Reports Reach Madina 284

1. Ghazwatul Kadar 284

2. Ghazwatus Saweeq 285

Ghazwah Zil Amr 285

Quraysh Change Their Trade Route 286

Notes 286

Chapter 32: The Events of the Third Year of Migration 287

Reasons For The Battle Of Uhud 287

Quraysh Decide To Meet The Expenses Of War 288

The Intelligence Organization Of The Holy Prophet Furnishes A Report 289

The Army Of Quraysh Moves 289

The Uhud Region 290

Consultations In The Matter Of Defence 290

Drawing Lots For Being Killed 291

Result Of Consultations 292

The Holy Prophet Takes Decision 293

The Holy Prophet Goes Out Of Madina 293

Two Self-Sacrificing Soldiers 293

Array Of The Two Armies 295

Strengthening The Morale Of The Soldiers 296

The Enemy Organizes His Rows 296

Psychological Stimulations 297

The Battle Begins 297

Who Were Fighting For The Sake Of Lust? 298

Defeat After Victory 299

The Rumour About The Prophet Being Killed Spreads 300

Is It Possible To Deny The Flight Of Some Persons? 301

The Holy Qur'an Reveals Some Facts 301

Bitter Experiences 302

Five Persons Conspire To Kill The Holy Prophet 303

Defence Associated With Success And Renewed Victory 304

Trail Of The Happenings At Uhud 310

The Opportunists Among The Enemy 310

End Of The Battle 311

Last Words Of Sa'd Bin Rabi' 312

The Holy Prophet Returns To Madina 313

Exciting Record Of A Faithful Woman 313

Another Example Of Self-Sacrificing Women 314

The Enemy Should Be Pursued 315

The Prophet Goes Upto Hamra'ul Asad 316

A True Believer Is Not Cheated Twice 317

Notes 317

Chapter 33: The Events of the Third and Fourth Years of Migration 319

A Dexterously Drawn Plan To Kill The Missionaries 319

Cruel Massacre Of The Missionaries Of Islam 320

Tragedy Of Bl'r Ma'unah 321

Partial Behaviour Of The Orientalists 322

A True Believer Is Never Stung From The Same Hole Twice 322

Notes 323

Chapter 34: The Jews Quit the Zone of Islam  324

How To Deal With This Crime? 325

Crocodile Tears 326

Role Of The Hypocrites 326

The Farms Of Bani Nuzayr Are Distributed Among The Muhajirs 327

Notes 327

Chapter 35: The Events of the Fourth Year of Migration 328

Prohibition Of Alcoholic Drinks 328

Battle (Ghazwah) Of Za'tur Riqa' 329

Forbearing Guards 330

The Second Badr 331

Notes 331

Chapter 36: The Events of the Fifth Year of Migration 332

Who Was Zayd Bin Harith? 332

Zayd Marries The Prophet's Cousin (Paternal Aunt's Daughter) 332

Zayd Separates From His Wife 333

Marriage For Banning Another Wrong Custom 333

The Forged Story About Zaynab Is A Mere Fiction 335

Explanation Of Two Parts Of The Verse 336

Notes 337

Chapter 37: The Battle of Ahzab 338

Intelligence Bureau Of Muslims 339

The Well-Known Remarks Of The Prophet About Salman 340

The Army Of The Arabs And The Jews Besieges Madina 341

Number Of Soldiers Of The Two Forces 341

The Rigours Of Winter And The Shortage Of Provisions 341

Hay Bin Akhtab Arrives In The Fortress Of Bani Qurayzah 342

The Prophet Becomes Aware Of The Violation Of The Pact By Bani Qurayzah 343

Initial Transgressions By Bani Qurayzah 343

Encounter Between Faith And Infidelity 344

Some Champions Of The Arab Army Cross The Ditch 345

Combat Between The Two Champions Commences 346

The Value Of This Blow 347

Magnanimity 347

The Army Of The Arabs Is Divided 347

Factors Which Divided The Arab Army 348

Representatives Of Quraysh Visit The Fortress Of Bani Qurayzah 350

The Last Factor 351

Notes 351

Chapter 38: The Last Stage of Mischief 352

Consultations By The Jews Within The Fortress 352

Betrayal By Abu Lubabah 354

The Fate Of The Fifth Group 355

A Study Of Sa'd Mu'az's Judiciousness 356

Notes 358

Chapter 39: The Events of the Fifth and Sixth Years of Migration 359

A Band Of Quraysh Proceeds To Ethiopia 360

Prevention Of Repetition Of Bitter Events 360

Battle Of Zl Qarad 361

Unpermissible Vow 361

Notes 362

Chapter 40: The Events of The Sixth Year of Migration 363

The Battle Of Bani Mustaliq 363

A Hypocrite Fans The Flame Of Dissensions 364

Conflict Between Faith And Sentiments Of A Soldier 365

The Prophet Marries Juwayriyah 366

Notes 366

Chapter 41: A Religious and Political Journey 367

The Representatives Of Quraysh Come And Meet The Holy Prophet 369

The Prophet Of Islam Sends His Representative 371

The Holy Prophet Sends Another Representative 371

The Rizwan Pledge 372

Suhayl Bin 'Amr Contacts The Prophet 372

History Repeats Itself 373

Text Of The Hudaybiyah Pact 374

Glad Tidings Of Freedom 375

Last Effort For The Preservation Of Peace 376

Evaluation Of The Peace Pact Of Hudaybiyah 377

Quraysh Insist Upon Cancellation Of One Of The Clauses Of The Pact 379

The Muslim Women Were Not Surrendered To Quraysh 380

Notes 381

Chapter 42: The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration 382

The Universality Of The Prophethood 382

The Message Of Prophethood Is Sent To Far Off Places 383

Conditions Of The World At The Time Of The Communication Of Universal Invitation 384

The Messenger Of Islam In The Roman Territory 385

Kaiser Makes Investigations About The Holy Prophet 386

The Prophet's Letter Impresses Kaiser 387

The Ambassador Of The Prophet Arrives In Iran 387

Ya'qubi's False View 389

Khusro Perviz Contacts The Ruler Of Yemen 389

Arrival Of The Messenger Of Islam In Egypt 390

The Maqauqis Writes A Letter To The Prophet 392

Envoy Of Islam Enters Ethiopia 393

Conversation Of The Envoy With The Negus 394

The Negus Writes To The Holy Prophet 395

Letters Of The Holy Prophet To The Rulers Of Syria And Yamamah 395

The Holy Prophet's Letters To The Prince Of The Ghassanians 396

The Sixth Envoy Of The Prophet Proceeds To Yamamah 397

Other Letters Of The Prophet Of Islam 399

Notes 399

Chapter 43: Fort of Khayber the Centre of Danger 400

The Army Of Islam Moves To An Unknown Destination 401

Important Places Are Occupied At Night 402

The Fortifications Of The Jews Tumble Down 403

Piety In The Very Face Of Hardships 404

The Forts Are Conquered One After The Other 405

The Great Victory At Khayber 406

Tampering With Facts 408

Three Bright Points In The Life Of Ali 409

The Factors Pertaining To Victory 410

1. Military Plan And Tactics 410

2. Procurement Of Information 411

3. Self-Sacrifice Of All 411

Kind Sentiments In The Battlefield 412

Kananah Bin Rabi' Is Killed 412

War Booty Is Divided 413

A Caravan From Ethiopia The Memorable Land 413

Figures Of Casualties 414

Forgiveness At The Time Of Victory 414

Stubborn Behaviour Of The Jews 415

The Jews Are Expelled From Khayber 417

Lie Justified By Its Motive 417

Notes 418

Chapter 44: The Story of Fadak 420

Is it possible to entertain any doubt about the matter after this clear statement? 422

The Story Of Fadak After The Prophet 422

Notes 424

Chapter 45: The Lapsed `Umrah 425

The Prophet Enters Makkah 426

The Prophet Leaves Makkah 427

Notes 428

Chapter 46: The Events of the Eighth Year of Migration 429

A Still More Tragic Event 429

Difference Of Opinion About The First Commander 430

Array Of Roman And Islamic Troops 432

Army Of Islam In Distress 434

The Soldiers Of Islam Return To Madina 435

Myth Instead Of History 435

The Prophet Wept Bitterly On The Death Of Ja'far 436

Notes 436

Chapter 47: The Battle of Zatus Salasil 437

Ali Is Selected As The Commander Of The Army 439

The Secret Of Ali's Victory In This Battle 439

Notes 440

Chapter 48: The Conquest of Makkah 441

The Prophet's Decision Makes Quraysh Uneasy 442

A Spy Is Trapped 444

The Prophet And The Muslims March Towards Makkah 446

Showing Indulgence While In Power And Authority 447

Fascinating Tactics Of The Army Of Islam 448

Abbas Makes Abu Sufyan Pass Through The Muslim Camp 449

Abu Sufyan Appears Before The Prophet 450

Makkah Surrenders Without Bloodshed 451

Abu Sufyan Proceeds To Makkah 452

Military Forces Of Islam Enter The City 453

Breaking The Idols And Washing The Ka'bah 454

The Prophet Grants General Amnesty 457

The Prophet Exhorts His Kinsmen 457

Historical Sermon Of The Prophet In The Masjidul Haram 458

Superiority On Account Of Being An Arab 459

The Hundred Years' Wars And Old Grudges 459

Islamic Brotherhood 459

The Criminals Are Arrested 460

The Story Of 'Ikrimah And Safwan 460

Events After The Conquest Of Makkah 461

Idol Temples In Makkah And In Its Suburbs Become Desolate 462

Another Offence Of Khalid 463

Notes 464

Chapter 49: The Battle of Hunayn 465

An Unmatched Army 465

Acquisition Of Information 465

Equipment Of The Muslims 467

The Steadfastness Of The Prophet And Of A Group Of Self-Sacrificing Persons 467

War Booty 468

Notes 468

Chapter 50: The Battle of Ta’if 469

Splitting The Wall Of The Fort By Means Of Military Vehicles 470

Economic And Moral Blows 470

The Last Stratagem To Conquer The Fort 471

The Army Of Islam Returns To Madina 471

Events After The War 472

Malik Bin 'Awf Embraced Islam 474

Distribution Of War Booty 474

Notes 476

Chapter 51: The Famous Panegyric of Ka’b Bin Zuhayr 477

A Young Man Becomes The Governor Of Makkah 477

Story Of Ka'b Bin Zuhayr Bin Abi Sulma 478

Grief Mingled With Joy 479

Notes 479

Chapter 52: The Events of the Ninth Year of Migration 480

Demolition Of The Idol-Temple 480

Adyy Bin Hatim Proceeds To Madina 482

Notes 483

Chapter 53: The Battle of Tabuk 484

Inviting Warriors And Procuring Expenses Of War 484

Persons Opposed To Participation In The Battle 485

Ali Did Not Participate In This Battle 486

The Army Of Islam Proceeds Towards Tabuk 487

March Past Of The Army Before The Prophet 488

The Story Of Malik Bin Qays 488

Difficulties On The Way 489

Precautionary Orders 489

Occult Information Of The Prophet 490

Another Occult Information 490

Army Of Islam Arrives In The Area Of Tabuk 490

Khalid Bin Walid Is Dispatched To Dowmatul Jandal 492

Evaluation Of The Journey To Tabuk 493

The Hypocrites Plot Against The Holy Prophet 493

Cold War 494

The Event Of Masjid Zirar 496

Notes 497

Chapter 54: The Deputation of Thaqif Goes to Madina 499

Dissensions Amongst The People Of Thaqif Tribe 499

The Deputation Of Thaqif Meets The Prophet 500

The Conditions Of The Deputation 501

Notes 502

Chapter 55: The Prophet Mourning for His Son 503

Baseless Objection 503

Campaign Against Superstitions 504

Notes 505

Chapter 56: Eradication of Idol-Worship in Arabia 506

Unfair Bias In The Assessment Of This Event 509

Notes 510

Chapter 57: Representatives of Najran in Madina 511

The Representatives Of Najran Have Discussions With The Prophet 512

The Represents Of Najran Give Up The Idea Of Mubahilah 514

Contents Of The Agreement Concluded Between The Parties 515

Notes 516

Chapter 58: The Events of the Tenth Year of Migration 517

Plot To Kill The Prophet 517

The Commander Of The Faithful Is Deputed To Yemen 518

Notes 519

Chapter 59: The Farewell Haj 520

Ali Returns From Yemen To Partake In Haj Ceremonies 521

Haj Ceremonies Begin 522

The Historical Sermon Of The Prophet At The Time Of The Farewell Haj 522

Notes 524

Chapter 60: Islam is completed by The Appointment of Successor 526

Prophethood And Imamate Were Inter-Related 527

Sermon Of The Prophet At Ghadir Khum 528

The Authentic Sources Of The Hadith Ghadir 529

Notes 530

Chapter 61: The Events of the Eleventh Year of Migration 531

The Impostors And Apprehensions Of Rome 531

A Short Biography Of Musaylimah 531

Apprehension Of Rome 532

A Lame Excuse 535

Seeking Forgiveness For Those Burled In Baqi 535

Notes 536

Chapter 62: A Will which was Not Written 537

Bring A Pen And An Ink-Pot So That I May Write A Will 537

What Did The Will Aim At? 540

Making Amends For The Matter 541

Distribution Of Dinars 542

The Prophet Is Annoyed On Account Of The Medicine Given To Him 542

Last Farewell To Friends 542

Notes 543

Chapter 63: The Last Hours of the Prophet 545

The Prophet Speaks To His Daughter 545

Brushing The Teeth 546

Recommendations Of The Prophet 546

The Last Day 547

Notes 549