Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

SPIRITUALISM AND MODERN SCIENCE SERIES

SPIRITUALISM AND MAGNETISM

Dr Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri

Minhaj-ul-Quran Publications

Lahore, Pakistan

مَوْلَاي صَلِّ وَ سَلِّمْ دَآئِمًا اَبَدًا

عَلٰي حَبِيْبِکَ خَيْرِ الْخَلْقِ کُلِّهِم

مُنَزَّهٌ عَنْ شَرِيْکٍ فِيْ مَحَاسِنِه

فَجَوْهَرُ الْحُسْنِ فِيْهِ غَيْرُ مُنْقَسِم

(صَلَّي اﷲُ تَعَالٰي عَلَيْهِ وَ عَلٰي آلِه وَ اَصْحَابِه وَ بَارِکْ وَسَلِّمْ)

Table of Contents

Preface 6

Statement of Case 9

Our Dissociation with the Past 9

Our Forebears’ Ingenuity and ourClumsiness 9

Weak Defence of a Strong Case 10

How to Counter the Conspiracy? 11

Our Pseudo Scholars and their Escape from Spiritualism of Islam. 13

Convincing New Generation to see the Real Light 14

An Exhorting Episode 15

A Dire Need of the Hour 16

Analysis of Problem. 17

Why Downfall? 17

Where Do We Stand? 17

The Reassured Belief 18

What is Mysticism (Tasawwuf)? (Observation and Experimentation) 19

Imam Ghazali’s Precedence 20

Scientific Bases of Spiritual Phenomena  23

Historical Aspect 23

The purview of Reason and Science 25

The Scientists on Science 25

Science and Psychic Experience 26

Extra-Sensory Perception (ESP)^[10] 27

The Concept 27

The Case of W T Wolfe^[12] 28

Winston Churchill’s ESP^[13] 29

Obsession of Son’s Death. 29

An Out-of-Body Experience (OBE) 30

(Consciousness A & Consciousness B) 30

Some Scientific Explanations of ESP^[14] 30

Electromagnetic Energy and ESP. 32

Static Electricity and Brain. 33

Effects of -ive and +ive ions on Human Mind. 33

Man in Electromagnetic Environment 33

Hadrat Suleman (AS) and the Ant 34

The Almighty within Us^[16] 34

Tuning in. 35

It Heals 35

It Brightens 36

It Delivers 36

Demonstrate Your Beliefs 36

Some Dreams Rescue Life 36

The Faith Pays 37

Glimpses from Spiritual Life Of Auliya Allah  38

Spiritual Link between Real Self of Man and the Divine Self 38

Glimpses 39

Hasan Basri and the Fire-Worshipper 39

Knowledge and Faith. 40

When Rabe’a Basri was Born! 40

A Glimpse of Faith. 41

Gratitude & Complaint 42

Ibrahim Adham. 42

Sweet Pomegranates 42

The Wind Subsided. 43

Allah’s Remembrance 43

Beggary. 43

Sitting Cross-legged. 43

Ba Yazid Bestami and his Mother 43

(1)“Go and be God’s” 43

(2)“O Lord, Care Well for our Exile.” 44

Abu Hafs Haddad and Junaid. 45

He began to Speak Arabic 45

Self-Sacrifice 45

Broth and Halwa 45

Abu Hafs and Abu Bakr Shibli 46

Abul-Qasim al-Junaid. 46

The Worst of People 46

The Creator’s Cure 47

The Question of Need. 47

The Spiritual Awareness about the Disciple 48

Mystic Intuition and Awareness 48

Nine Litters for Martyrs 48

Private Sanctuary of God. 49

The Essence of Friendship. 49

Dhun-Noon, al-Misri 49

The Inanimate World under Spiritual Command. 50

Stone turned into Emerald. 50

A Defiant Youth. 50

Dhun-Noon and the Holy Prophet (SAW) 50

When Dhun-Noon Died. 51

Ahmad Khazruya and the Thief 51

Seventy Candles 52

Lack of Faith. 52

Yusuf Razi and the Prophet Yusuf (AS) 53

Qur'an, Science and Phenomenology of Spiritual System   54

The Holy Qur’an on Divine Status of Auliya Allah. 54

Why Companionship of Allah’s Friends? 55

A Divine Rule since the Creation of Universe 56

By My Lord, this is Allah’s Threshold. 57

Inevitability of Messenger’s Channel for Allah’s Servants 58

The Order Of Names in stamp of the Holy Prophet (SAW) 59

Distribution of Allah’s Blessing by the Holy Prophet (SAW) 60

The ‘Channel’ of Aulia Allah. 60

Co-relation between Science and the Channel of Spiritualism. 61

Science: The Greatest Contemporary Standard of Knowledge 62

Analogy of Geo-magnetism of the Earth. 63

Magnetic System of Spiritual Universe 63

The Chief Pole of the Spiritual Universe: The Holy Prophet (SAW) 63

Making of Magnets? Difference between the Leader (Sheikh) and the Disciple (Murid) 64

Heat Conduction Process and the Conduction of Spiritualism. 65

An Illustration from Modern Scientific Discoveries and Electric System. 65

Tazkia: Cessation of Sinful Resistance! 66

Wonders of Spiritual Magnetism. 66

From Self-Purification and Perseverance to Resurrection. 67

The System of Electric Supply and the Contact with Auliya Allah. 68

Conquest of the Moon and the Apollo Mission. 69

Cardiac Screen and Spiritual TV Channel 69

The Special Kindness of Allah to ‘Ashab-e-Kahf’ 70

Auliya’s Life after Death. 71

The Pet Dog of Allah’s Friends Remained Alive 71

‘Rasool Allah’ (SAW) the Fountain Head of Allah’s Bounties: 72

Epilogue 74

Endnotes 76

Preface

The modern scientific thought has undergone metamorphic changes over ages. Its spirit, however, has constantly remained to justify the existing fact on rational grounds. Eventually, the twentieth century has witnessed an unimaginable scientific advancement that has assigned a vital role to man on the globe in the conquest of the universe.

In the quest of knowledge, the modern man has also discovered that the centuries old concepts about religion are contrary to the scientific thought and, therefore, need to be either discarded or made compatible with the scientific method. This is the challenge that the religious scholars and theologians have failed to face. Instead of analyzing the problem on scientific basis, they have adhered to their timeworn ideologies with a practical surrender to the materialistic values in vogue. Even the torchbearers, the so-called intellectuals and modern scholars of Islam who pretend to be abreast with the modern scientific thought have given in to the onslaught of modern sciences and in secret depths of their hearts feel nervous how to defend their position. They are doing more harms than good by defending their post with archaic weapons.

However, towards the dawn of new millennium, there has risen one guiding star on the intellectual horizon that has showered rays of his effulgent wisdom on the modern mind fallen prey to stray ideologies. Equipped adequately with the scientific and religious knowledge, he has given the call to modern man that Islam is the religion that, ever since its revelation, has the scientific bases which the modern scientific thought is now claiming to discover and further needs to explore in its totality. What Descartes and his successors (Locke, Barkeley, Hume, Kant and Hobbes, Montesquieu, Mill and Benthem and others) did to promote scientific method and rational thought in Europe, has been accomplished in the world of theology, single-handedly by Prof. Dr Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri. The world has already recognized him as‘outstanding man of the century’ and ‘leading intellectual of the world.’

This is not in our purview here to reckon the contributions made by Prof. Dr Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri to the modern Islamic thought and its reconstruction. Nor can we measure his achievements in clearing and purifying Islamic ideology from muddling of various ‘isms’ wrought over centuries. But the aspect of his intellectual ventures focussed here relates to a sensitive issue that has disintegrated the intellectual unity of Muslim thinkers and their followers.

Who is ‘Wali’ and what role he plays in spreading light of divine guidance among the believers is a question that has been answered divergently under the reflective influences alien to Islam. A huge reservoir of literature exists on Mysticism, Islamic Mysticism, Pantheism and Transcendentalism, nature of Mystic Experience, its variety, allied philosophies and schools of thought. The antagonists too have generated colossal works proving it contrary to the ‘true Islam’ and labeling it as an impious innovation in the approved Islamic code of life. This controversy has inflicted serious damage to the modern Muslim mind leading the young educated Muslims all over the world to desperation and abhorrence from

Islam. They are confused and blatantly question the intellectual validity and logical wellbeing of Islamic thought. The Muslim scholars engaged in this unfortunate controversy, however, ill afford any attempt to recover from the ‘spin’. They drastically lack in advanced knowledge and are unaware of the ‘phenomena’ of modern scientific mind. Being the odd ones, they now stay out of this war of wits, which has spread over East and West. How to satisfy the modern scientific mind on the question of Islamic Spiritualism, its nature and significance; the ‘Friends of Allah’- Auliya, their role and task, status and dignity and the phenomenology of spiritual experience is an uphill task which Prof. Dr Tahir-ul-Qadri, however, has performed with tantamount facility, authority and command.

Without entangling himself in sterile controversy on mysticism and its various ‘schools’ and types, he has taken the Holy Qur’an as the basic and exclusive source of his logic. He triumphantly convinces the reader that a Wali Allah (a friend of Allah), whether a mystic or a saint (whatever term one may use to describe him), is a spiritually privileged Muslim. He acquires heavenly acquaintance and proximity to Allah through absolute obedience to and an overpowering love and adoration for the Holy Prophet (SAW). He then himself becomes a source of spiritual bliss and inspiration for those who stand fast in his company.

Simultaneously, endowed with a vividly historic insight, he educates the modern Muslim mind how, centuries ago, the Muslim scholars defeated their rival thinkers employing the then contemporary logic against them. He emphatically exhorts all educated Muslims of the world to acquire perfect knowledge of modern logic and defeat the antagonists of Islam who have joined hands against the ‘Ummah’ with an intention to shake the solid spiritual realities which are the bases of Islamic thought and ideology. Prof. Dr Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri, the intellectual spirit of our age, the divine genius of the new millennium and a ‘Friend of Allah’ has a sagacious eye on rise and fall of the Muslim and non-Muslim empires. He possesses a vision that penetrates into future and clearly discerns the impending dangers and their remedies.

While handling this most difficult and controversial subject of Islamic spiritual philosophy, disseminating it to the modern inquisitive mind, he has adopted an easy and logical style to communicate the ideas with the help of similitudes and parables and enviably sublime and inspiring expression. This is exactly the style of exposition and elucidation manifest in the Holy Quran where the divine principles and the spiritual realities of life are made home to man loud and clear through parables and similitudes. While explaining the nature of friendship with Almighty Allah he has based his arguments on the verses of the Holy Qur’an and has taken similitude from modern scientific subjects specially ‘Magnetism’ and ‘Electric Charge’. The concept of ‘Spiritual Magnetism’ and ‘Spiritual Charge’ enabling Auliya Allah to get into the ‘spiritual channel’ which originates from the Holy Messenger (SAW) is a dazzlingly unique and exceptional addition to the existing literature on Islamic Spiritualism. It attracts and convinces the modern educated reader and deletes his disbelief in spiritual values. It irrefutably proves that the phenomenology of Islamic Spiritualism is

compatible with the modern scientific method. This dissertation in this way is, by any standard, a classic piece of literature produced on the subject.

This work, besides spiritualism, also enlightens the reader on ventures of modern science especially in the field of parapsychology. An account of scientific research into finding the underlying reality of psychic experiences and supplying empirical interpretations to extra-sensory perception (ESP) and out-of-body-experience (OBE) has added substantial value to intellectual status of this exposition. The glimpses from spiritual life of Auliya, of their divine experiences in comparison to ESPs, OBEs and the concept of an infinite power within man, highlighting the real significance of Islamic Spiritualism, invite the scientific mind to struggle if it can and belie the spiritual reality. When they decline to disbelieve in psychic reality and its wonders on electromagnetic ground, how can they decline to believe in spirituality of real self of man, its special link with Allah and its acquired infinite spiritual competence towards conquering the universe, demonstrated by Auliya Allah. Studying spiritualism in the perspective of most modern scientific investigation in the field of parapsychology is an amazingly emphatic maiden attempt in the field. It has indeed opened the doors, to embrace Islamic Faith, on those who have been enabled by this study to develop their belief in Islamic Spiritualism on rational scientific grounds. We the believers, welcome this courage to convert to Islam on this rational basis.

While closing this prologue, I convey my sincere thanks to Dr. M. Z. Awan who provided me with his enlightening guidance towards finalizing compilation of this work. In this regard I owe to him a great deal. And Hakeem Muhammad Younas Mujaddady! I must say he is an angel who came and in a single discourse changed the course of my life. While talking about his ‘Quaid’ he glows with love and devotion. His motivation kept me in while accomplishing the assignment. He brought me spiritual proximity to the ‘Friend of Allah’ who is also a friend of all of us - Prof. Dr Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri, our great ‘Quaid’.

ABDUL AZIZ

AL-Zahrawi (ABULCASIS, BUCASIS, ALZAHRAVIUS) 930-1013 A.D.

His full name is Abu-Al-Qasim Khalaf Ibn'Abbas Al-Zahrawi . He had been known in the Western World asAbulcasis ,Bucasis orAlzahravius . He is the famous surgeon of the Arabs. In 930 A.D., he was born in Al-Zahra, a suburb of Cordova. He attended the University ofCordova which had been established for one and a half centuries. At thattime Cordova had a population of one million (Hitti 1977). It was the magnificent capital of Al-Andalus where culture and science were at their peak in Europe. In militarypower the Moslems also reached their zenith, not only in Spain but also throughout Europe after King Abdel-Rahman III defeated the Spanish kings of Navarre, Castile, and Leon at the north in 997 A.D.

Al-Zahrawi became an eminent surgeon.lie was appointed as the Court-Physician of King Abdel-Rahman III. He spent a productive life in Practicing medicine,especialy in surgery and medical writings. He died at the age of 83.

He wrote mainly four books. One of them is "Al-Tastif Liman Ajiz'an Al-Ta'lif ' which is the best medieval surgical encyclopedia. Itwas used in Europe until the 17th century. He stressed the importance of basic sciences: "... Before practicing, one should be familiar with the science of anatomy and the functions of organs so that he will understand them, recognize their shape, understand their connections, and know their borders.

Also he should know the bones, nerves, and muscles, their numbers, their origin and insertions, the arteries and the veins, their start and end. These anatomical and physiological bases are important, and as said by Hippocrates: 'These are many physicians by title and a few bypractice.' ... If one does not comprehend the anatomy and physiology, he may commit a mistake that can kill the patient. I have seen someone, who pretended to be a surgeon, incised an aneurysm in the neck of awoman , mistaking it for anabscess.The woman bled to death."

Heller stated that Al-Zahrawi described the ligature of arteries long before Ambrose Pare (Khairallah 1942). Al-Zahrawi also usedcautery to control bleeding. He used wax and alcohol to stop bleeding from the skull during cranial surgery.Sprengel said that Al-Zahrawi was the first to teach thelithotomy position for vaginal operations (Khairallah 1942). Al-Zahrawi also described the tracheotomy operation and performed it as an emergency on one of his servants.

He was the first to write on orthodontia. He showed evidence of great experience from details of clinical picture and surgical procedures e.g. his description of varicose veins stripping, even after ten centuries, is almost like modern surgery (Al-Okbi 1971): "... Have the leg shaved if it is much hairy.

The patient gets a bath and his legis kept in hot water until it becomes red and the veins dilate; or he exercises vigorously. Incise the skin opposite the varicose vein longitudinally either at the ankle or at the knee. Keep the skin opened by hooks. Expose, dissect, and separate the vein.Introducc a spatula underneath it.

When the vein is elevated above the skin level, hang it with a blunt rounded hook. Repeat the procedure about three fingers from the previous site and hang the vein with another hook as previously done. Repeat the procedure at as many sites along the varicose vein as necessary. At the ankle,ligate and strip it by pulling it from the incision just above. When it reaches there, repeat at the higher incision until all of itis stripped .

Ligate the vein and then excise it. If difficulty is encountered in pulling it,ligate its terminal part with astring and pass it under the spatula and dissect it further. Pull gently and avoid its tearing because if it does, it becomes difficult to strip all of it and can cause harm to the patient.

When you have stripped it all, put alcoholspanges at the sites of the skin incisions and take care of the incisions until they heal. If the varicose vein is tortuous, you have to incise the skin more frequently, at each change of direction. Dissectit and hang it with the hooks and strip it as previously described. Do not tear the vein or injure it. If this happens, it becomes difficult to strip it. The hooks used should be blunt, eyeless, androunded, otherwise it can injure the vein".

He also wrote about fracture of the skull (Al-Okbi 197 1): "... The types of skull fractures are numerous, their shapes are different, and their causes are many. For example, some skull fractures are due to a blow by a sword that splits the whole skull and reaches thedura , the same as the ax does to the wood, therefore itis called axial fracture. Sometimes the sword does not split the skullcompletely, it is thus called incomplete axial fracture. Such a fracture can be small or big.

Another type is comminuted fractureWhich can be due to a hit by a stone or a fall on a stone; and this fracture can reach thedura or only be limited to the outer part of the bone. This fracture can also be small or big. A third type is the hairy type of skullfracture which is so tiny and linear like a hair.

A fourth type is the depressedfracture which occurs due to a fail or a blow so the bone is depressed like a brass jar when hit by a blunt instrument. This usually happens when the bone is soft as children. The types of these fracturesare diagnosed by examining the wound, removing the debris and contused pan of the scalp, exposing the skull, and feeling it by the spatulas. The hairy fracture is difficult to discover and can be diagnosed by exposing the skull, and smearing it with ink; the linear fracture thus appears stained."

In the treatment of fractures of the skull, Al-Zahrawi wrote: "... If the patient shows serious signs such as high fever, repeated vomiting,exophthalmos , convulsions, and coma, do not touch him because he is probably going to die. Otherwise, treat him as follows: first shave the patient's head. In comminuted depressed fractures, these pieces of boneshould be removed as will be explained. If in the process of the patient's examination or during surgery bleeding occurs, itcan be controlled by pressure using towels soaked in alcohol and by wax. Then after control of the bleeding, the small pieces of bone are removed using specialforceps .

To remove the depressed fracture, first, make trephines in the healthy bone around it. These trephine instruments should not penetrate beyond the skull into the soft tissues underneath, thus they are callednon penetrating trephines. They have a rounded ring in their proximal end to prevent them from penetrating beyond certain depths. You should have a number of these trephines that can stop at different depths depending on the thickness of the skull. Connect the holes in the skull using special saws.

First, use a fine small saw, then larger ones. These should be sharp and made of steel. Avoid cutting thedura by the trephine or saw. Once the depressed bone is freed, remove it gently,then smoothen the edges of the skull by special instruments. Wash with alcohol and treat the wound with packs soaked with ointment."

Al-Zahrawi described many dental operations such as dental extractions, fixation, re implantation, and artificial teeth. He described referred tooth pain and cautioned the physician against removal of the healthy tooth to which painis referred . He used gold threads to fix teeth because other metals would tarnish and cause a reaction. Chapter 6 of his book was all devoted to foreign bodies of the ear and their treatment. He also devoted one whole chapter to midwifery , giving tips to midwives, and describing the problems of difficult labor and obstetricalmanoeuvre .

He recommended decompression of the fetal head for obstructed labor and described the instruments used. He described the management of liver abscess by treating it into two stages (Khairallah 1942). The first stage was to allow adhesions around it and to close it from the peritoneal cavity. The second stage was to incise it...."If the procedure is done in one stage, the pus may spread to the whole abdomen and the patient may die."

He describeda total of 200 surgical and dental instruments most of them were original (Fig. 3). He said "... Choose your instruments carefully beforehand according to the operation. However, you should design other devices if needed."Thus he encouraged the physician to be innovative.

During the time of Al-Zahrawi , surgery in the Islamic world became a respected specialty practiced by reputable physicians. On thecontrary in Europe, surgery was belittled and practiced by barbers and butchers. In 1163 A.D., the Council of Tours declared the following resolution "Surgery is tobe abandoned by the schools of medicine and by all decent physicians."

Ibn-Sina (AVICENNA) 980-1037 A.D.

Ibn-Sina's full name is Abu-AliHusayn lbn -Abdullahlbn-Sina , and his titles were Al-Shaykh Al-Rais (The chief Master) or Al-Muallim Al-Thani (The Second Teacher), second to Aristotle (Browne 1962). Heis known in the Western World as Avicenna.

In 980A.D. Avicenna was born in Bukhara which is now part of Russia and known asUzben . By the age of 10, he was already proficient in the Qur'an and Arabic classics. By the age of 16, he finished Islamic law studies, geometry, anatomy,logic and philosophy.His metaphysics were influenced by an earlier philosopher in Islam, Al-Farabi . By the age of 18, he completed the study of medicine.

Soon after, he became the Prime Minister (theVisier ) and Court-Physician of PrinceNuli -Ibn -Mansur, theSamanid Ruler ofBukbara . The prince was impressed by the intelligence and endurance of hisVisier and opened for him the royal librarywhich was unique in its literary richness.Ibn -Sina wrote his first book at the age of 21.

Then he becameVisier of Aliibn Maimun , the ruler ofKhawarazm orKhiva .But he ultimately fled to avoid being kidnapped by the Sultan Mohammed El-Ghazin . Ironically, fate played an important role in the life of Avicenna who was a master in planning. The ruler ofHainadan , the southern part of Persia, whowas called AmirShwnsu'd-Dawla , had renal colic.Ibn -Sina treated the Amir's colic. The latter was very pleased and appointedIbn -Sina , not only his Court-Physician but also hisVisier . Avicenna was a proud and arrogant man.

This created enemies leading to a mutiny of the military leaders against him resulting in his dismissal and imprisonment. Fortunately, the Amir got renal colic once more and no one could relieve his pain. He thus summoned back Avicenna who cured him. The Amir apologized to Avicenna and reinstated him.

Avicenna's life during this time was extraordinarily strenuous. All the day he was busy with the Amir's services. The great part of the night was passed in lecturing and writing his books, with intervals ofwine-drinking , music, and minstrelsy. After many vicissitudes, worn out by hard work and hard living, Avicenna died andwas buried in Hamadan, Persia, in 1037 A.D. at a comparatively early age of 57. In his last illness, he treated himself unsuccessfully, so thatit was said by his detractors that neither could his physics save his body nor his metaphysics save his soul (Browne 1962) .

Avicenna wrote I00 treatises, 21 of them were major of which 16 were in medicine. He wrote in philosophy, medicine, named Al-Qanon fi Al-Tibb (Canon of Medicine). It was an encyclopedia containing more than one million words. It was composed of5 volumes:

VolumeI - described the principles and theories of medicine.

Volume II- contained the simple drugs arranged alphabetically.

Volume III- described localized diseases of the body from the head to the toes.

Volume IV-was addressed to generalized diseases of the body e.g. fevers.

Volume V- explained compounddrungs .

The Canon contained all medical knowledge up to the 1Oth century. Itwas translated to many languages and was the reference for medical schools in Europe.

up to the 17th century. Although the Canon was a great book, it overshadowed the important works prior to it by Al-Razi and Al-Zahrawi , and subsequent to it byIbn -Al-Nafis and AliIbn-Abbas , HalleAbbas , (Haddad 1942).

Avicenna wrote Arabic and Persianpoems.The last of his Arabic poem, which is considered a classical beauty, describes the descent of the Soul into the Body from the Higher Sphere which is its home (Browne 1962).

Avicennais considered a great philosopher, and his writings affected the thinkers and influenced many of those who appeared after him. He was a unique phenomenon, not only because ofthis encyclopedic accomplishments in medicine, but also because of the versatility of his genius. Hehas been compared in this respect with Aristotle, Leonardoda Vinci, and Goethe.(Keys 1971).

Ibn-Rushd (AVERROES) 1126-1198 A.D.Ibn - Rashid, or Averroes as known in Europe, was born in Granada in 1126 A.D. He studied philosophy,medicine and law. Hewas appointed as a judge in Seville in 1169 A.D. where he stayed in office for a quarter of a century.He was affected by Aristotle on whom he wrote important commentaries (Black 1970, Al-A'sar 1972) . In theseinterpretations he asserted that the human soul is not independent, but shares a universal mind. This belief caused a great controversy andwas later declared heretical by both the Moslems and Christians alike because it contradicted the doctrine of personal immortality.

He was admired by the Jews of Spain who spread Ws philosophy into Europe especially into Italy and France after they were forced out of Spain . His followers interpreted some of his writings to mean that there are two kinds of truth, aphilosophical and a religious truth. This implied a separation of reason and faith and influenced philosophical and theological speculation for many centuries. Because of his bold ideas, he was dismissed from his work and sent to Morocco where he was kept in prisontill he died on December 12, 1198.his important contribution to medicine was "Al-Kulliyat fi Al-Tibb " (Colliyet ).

It was a summary of the medical science at that time and composed of seven parts. He wrote another book, "Al-Taisir " on practical medicine. It consisted of useful excerpts and a clinical description of diseases including serouspericarditis andmediastinal abscens . He personally suffered from the latter disease and left very careful records of his own symptoms. The bookis not known in Arabic, but there are several Latin editions (Haddad 1942).Ibn-Rushd was another example of the cultured Arabic physician.

IBN-MAIMON (MAIMONEDES) 1135-1204 A.D.

In 1135, MusaIbn-Maimon (Moses Maimonides) was born in Cordova, Spain (Minlcin 1968). His father was a Rabbi and had a great influence of Moses in his interests and future achievements. During that period, the Jews had a golden era in Spain.Minkin (1968), a renowned scholar and an eminent Rabbiwrote "It was Mohammedan Spain, the only land the Jews knew in nearly a thousand years of their dispersion, which made the genius of Moses Maimonides possible."

In1160 A.D.,Moscs emigrated to North Africa to the city ofFas where be studied medicine. In 1165 A.D., he left to Palestine. However, he was dissatisfied with the cultural atmosphere. Therefore, he went to Egypt where he stayed until he died in 1204 A.D. Hewas buried inTeberias , Palestine.

Maimonides first started his career as the Rabbi of thejewish Comniunity of El-Fostat city, the capital of Egypt at that time and part of old Cairo now. Later on in life, he practiced medicine. He became an eminent and respected physician. He served both KingsSalah -El-Din (Saladin) and his elder son Sultan Al-Malik Al-Afdel during his short reign (1198-1200 A.D.). He had the confidence of both. DuringSalali -El-Din war with King Richard, the Lion-Hearted, the latter fell sick.

Although those two kings were at war, they had respect and admiration of each other. Saladin sentIbn -Maimon to Richard to treat him.After being, cured. Rictiard askedIbn -Maimon to join his court.But the latter politely declined and preferred to stay with Saladin (Minkin 1968).

Ibn-Maimon's impact on the Jewish religion is very important. He wrote classical work in the Jewish religion including codification of the Jewish laws (Black and Roth 1970).Hc also wrote in philosophy. His book, "Dalalat Al-Hai'ran " (The Guide of the Perplexed) is an importantachievement which was welcomed not only by those of the Jewish faith but also by Moslems and Christians alike. Hewas affected by his contemporaryIbn -Rushd , and byAristotl'e , but he tried to unite logic and faith. He wrote his book in Arabic. He did not live long enough to see the Hebrew translation of hisbook which would have given him a great satisfaction.

Inmedicine Ibn -Maimon did two important things: First, be translated many Arabic books into Hebrew which were than translated into Latin and other European languages. An example of these books is the Canon of Avicenna. Second, bewrote a few books of his own. One of them is "Magala flTadbir Al-Sihha " (RegimenSanitatis ) which stressed proper diet, personal hygiene, and moderation in the pleasures of life. It was in the form of letters to the Sultan Al-Afdel . The other was "Kitab " Al-Fusal fi Al-Tibb " (Fisul Musa). This was a collection of 1,500 aphorisms extracted from Galen writings together with forty-two critical remarks. Moses also wrote a book on poisons and their antidotes (Al-A'sar 1971).

When he died, the Jewish Community in Egypt built a synagogue named after him.Some Jews, up-till-now, stay overnight in this synagogue in hope of receiving healing through the spirit of this great physician (Minkin 1968).

Ibn -El-Nafis 1208 - 1288 A.D.

In 1208 A.D.,Ala'El-Deen Ibn -El-Nafis was born in a small town near Damascus calledKersh (Fig. 7) (Ibrahim 1971). He learned medicine and philosophy in Damascus and spent most of his life in Cairo. He was a physician, a linguist, a philosopher, and a historian. He was the first chief of Al-Mansuri Hospital in Cairo and the dean of the School of Medicine in 1284 A.D.

During this era, the medicalprofession together with other branches of science were passing a crisis. The Mongol Tartar invasion and destruction of Baghdad in 1258 A.D. caused an injury to the Islamic civilization from which it never recovered. It destroyed forever the Caliphate, symbolic unity of the Arabian Empire, and the preeminence of Baghdad as a center for learning.

Also during thatperiod Islamic culture was declining in Spain. It was then Cairo and Damascus the centers for education and medical prestige. There, the medical professionwas characterized by the freedom of discussion and expression of opinion, something that was very new in medicine and not known to Europe until the 17th century when introduced to England bySedenbam (Ibrahim 1971).

Ibn -El-Nafis was a dedicated person. He used to start his day after dawn prayers by making rounds at the hospital, followed by case discussions with students and colleagues, then hospital administration. His evenings were spent reading,writing and discussing medicine and philosophy with frequent scholar guests at his home in El-Hussein District in Old Cairo. His house was an example of beautiful Arabic architecture, made of marble with a fountain in the central hall.

In the history ofmankind, there are persons whose importance is revealed with the flight of time and their truth glows with the passage of centuries;Ibn -El-Nafis is one of those. He wrote many books, ten of them in medicine and a special one in philosophy. In the latter book "Fadel Ibn -Natik ", he tried to present the counter point of the philosophical view of Avicenna expressed in his book "Hai Ibn-Yakzan ".

He was an authority in theology on which he wrote several books, e.g. "The complete Message of the Prophet" and "Al-Ragol Al-Kamel " (The Perfect Man) supportingunitarianism .Ibn -El-Nafis had an important character, not being a follower but a scholar. This was evident in his writings whether in philosophy or medicine.

Inmedicine he wrote many books, two of them are "Mujaz Al-Qanun " which means the "Summary of the Canon". In these twobooks which were based onavicenna's writings, he criticized the short comings of Avicenna's book and of Galen's views and added to them. That is whyhe was named by some as Avicenna the Second .

Forexample be wrote "... We have relied chiefly on his (Galen) teachings, except in a fewdetails which we think are wrong and were not given after a thorough investigation. In describing the function of the organs, we have depended on careful investigation, observation, and honest study, regardless of whether or not these fit with the teachings and theories of those who have preceded us."

Ibn -El-Nafis added lights to the physiology of the circulation. In the ancient history,Erasistratus of the AlexandriaScbool (310 B.C. - 250 B.C.) believed that blood was contained only in the eight side of the circulation, namely the veins and the fight side of the heart. The left side of the circulation, namely the left side of the heart and the arteries were supposed to contain air because arteries were found empty when an animal was sacrificed, hence the name "arteria ".

When Galen came (131 - 210 A.D.), he described blood to pass from the right side of the heart to the left side through minute openings in the septum of the heart, then it mixed with air from the lungs, andsequently distributed to the whole body. Forcenturies this was the prevalent belief and no one, including the Arab physicians and their eminent writer Avicenna, could dare to challenge this sacred view.Ibn -El-Nafis did. Fivetimes he stated in unmistakable terms that "... the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber, but there is no direct pathway between them.

The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the venaarteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substance, he mingled with air, pass through thearteria venosa (Pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart..." ( Salem 1968). In describing the anatomy of thelung Ibn -El-Nafis stated: "The lung is composed of.

first, the bronchi: second, the branches of thearteria avenosa ; and third, the branches of the venaarteriosa ; all of these are connected by loose porous flesh The need of the lung for the venaarteriosa is to transport to it the blood that has been thinned and warmed in the heart, so that what seeps through the pores of the branches of this vessel into the alveoli of the lung may mix with what is of air therein and combine with it and the mixture is carried to the left cavity of the heart by thearteria venosa " (Haddad 1936).

Ibn -El-Nafis also made other contributions in the circulation. Avicenna, following Galen's description of the anatomy, stated that the human heart has three ventricles.Ibn -El-Nafis rejected that as he said "...And his statement ((Avicenna's) that the heart has three ventricles is not correct, as the heart has onlytow ventricles..." He was also the first to describe the coronary circulation as he wrote "...Again, his statement (Avicenna's) that the blood in the right side is to nourish the heart is not true at all, for the nourishment of the heart is from the blood that goes through the vessels that permeate the body of the heart... "

Three centuries after the discovery of the pulmonary circulation byIbn - El-Nafis , others, such as Michael Servetus,Realdus Colombus , CarloRuini , AndreaCesalpino , and Francois Rabelais, claimed the same thing (Mayerhof 1935). There is a strong suspicion that these authors obtained their knowledge from the Arabicliterature which was available at that time to the European investigators without giving credit toIbn -El-Nafis (Keys 1971, Haddad 1942).

It is considered to be more than a coincidence that Servetus would discover the pulmonary circulation,and also to write a book, similar to that ofIbn -El-Nafis , on Unitarianism. Servetuswas burnt with his book, "Restitutio Christianismi " in Geneva in October 1553 at the order of Calvin because he was considered heretic.

The ArabsAnd Ophthalmology

The Arabs were much interested in ophthalmology. In the ninth century,Hunayn Ibn-Ishak (Joannitius ) translated to Arabic the Greek literature on the eye. As mentioned before, Al-Razi described the changes in the caliber of the eye produced by relaxation and contraction of the iris. He also described the cataract operation.

In 1050 A.D. at Baghdad, AliIbn -Isa (Jesu Haly ) wrote the classic book on ophthalmology,Tathkirat Al-Kahhalin (A Note for the Oculists). As stated byCunistan (1921), it is the oldest book in its original language on diseases of the eye. In a clear and logical style, the author described trachoma, conjunctivitis, and cataract, and prescribed treatment (Keys 1971).

Avicenna described the six extrinsic muscles of the eyeball.

In the thirteenth century,Ibn Abu-Al-Kawafer wrote a book on therapeutic ophthalmology entitled "Natigat -El-Fikr fi Ilag Amrad El-Bassar " (Conclusions fromExpelience on Treatment of Diseases of the Eye). According toKahil (1929) is one of several textbooks of ophthalmology consideredto be superior to any written in Europe up to the eighteenth century.

ARABS AND ANESTHESIA

Being an obstetric anesthesiologist,I feel obligated to write a little more on the contributions of the Arabs to both anesthesia and obstetrics.

First, in anesthesia, the Arabs described in detail the pharmacology of important narcotics such as opium and other central nervous system depressants such ashyoscyamus and hashish (Khairallal 1942). Burton (1886 A.D.)stated that "anesthetics have been used in surgery throughout the East for centuries before ether and chloroform became the fashion in the civilized West. In a Treatise on the Canon of Medicine byGruner it is stated by Avicenna under the article 8l4 ANESTHETICS:"If it is desirable to get a person unconscious quickly, without him being harmed, add sweet smelling moss to the wine, or lignum aloes.

If it is desirable to procure a deeply unconscious state,so as to able the pain to be borne which is involved in painful applications to a member.place darnel-water into the wine, or administer fumitory,opiuium ,hyoscyamus (half dram doses of each); nutmeg, crude aloes-wood (4 grains of each). Add this to the wine, and take as much as is necessary for the purpose.Or .boil blackhyoscyamus in water, withmandragore bark, until it becomes red. Add this to the wine."

The Arabs also introduced "the Soporific Sponge" which was commonly used for anesthesia in the middle ages. The sponge was soaked with aromatics and narcotics to besucked and then held under the nostril to provide anesthesia prior to surgery (Keys 1971).

Avicenna wrote more than 1,000 years ago about the effect of pain on ventilation: "Pain dissipates the bodily strength and interferes with the normal functions of the organs. The respiratory organs are inhibited from drawing in air, and consequently the act of breathing is interfered with, and the respiration becomes intermittent, rapid, or altogether unnatural in rhythm" (Gruner 1930).

ARABS AND OBSTETRICS

Hynayn Ibn-Ishak (Joannitius , 809-873 A.D.) translated the work of the Greek pioneer in obstetrics, Paul of Aegina, into Arabic.Hunayn also translated to the Arabic world most of the work of Hippocrates, Galen, and Ptolemy. Moreover, he was a gifted physician and philosopher. AliIbn -Al-Abas Al-Majusi (HalleAbbas ) who died in 994 A.D. was the first to describe in his book "Al-Kitab Al-Malaki " (The Royal Book) that the uterine contractions are the cause of delivery of the fetus (Keys 1971). Before him, itwas thought that the uterine contractions were only as indication of the onset of labor; subsequently the fetus would swim its way out of the womb and birth canal.

Most of the deliveries were performed by midwives at home . For complicatedobstetrics Al-Zahrawi offered advice to midwives as mentioned

www.alhassanain.org/english

AL-Zahrawi (ABULCASIS, BUCASIS, ALZAHRAVIUS) 930-1013 A.D.

His full name is Abu-Al-Qasim Khalaf Ibn'Abbas Al-Zahrawi . He had been known in the Western World asAbulcasis ,Bucasis orAlzahravius . He is the famous surgeon of the Arabs. In 930 A.D., he was born in Al-Zahra, a suburb of Cordova. He attended the University ofCordova which had been established for one and a half centuries. At thattime Cordova had a population of one million (Hitti 1977). It was the magnificent capital of Al-Andalus where culture and science were at their peak in Europe. In militarypower the Moslems also reached their zenith, not only in Spain but also throughout Europe after King Abdel-Rahman III defeated the Spanish kings of Navarre, Castile, and Leon at the north in 997 A.D.

Al-Zahrawi became an eminent surgeon.lie was appointed as the Court-Physician of King Abdel-Rahman III. He spent a productive life in Practicing medicine,especialy in surgery and medical writings. He died at the age of 83.

He wrote mainly four books. One of them is "Al-Tastif Liman Ajiz'an Al-Ta'lif ' which is the best medieval surgical encyclopedia. Itwas used in Europe until the 17th century. He stressed the importance of basic sciences: "... Before practicing, one should be familiar with the science of anatomy and the functions of organs so that he will understand them, recognize their shape, understand their connections, and know their borders.

Also he should know the bones, nerves, and muscles, their numbers, their origin and insertions, the arteries and the veins, their start and end. These anatomical and physiological bases are important, and as said by Hippocrates: 'These are many physicians by title and a few bypractice.' ... If one does not comprehend the anatomy and physiology, he may commit a mistake that can kill the patient. I have seen someone, who pretended to be a surgeon, incised an aneurysm in the neck of awoman , mistaking it for anabscess.The woman bled to death."

Heller stated that Al-Zahrawi described the ligature of arteries long before Ambrose Pare (Khairallah 1942). Al-Zahrawi also usedcautery to control bleeding. He used wax and alcohol to stop bleeding from the skull during cranial surgery.Sprengel said that Al-Zahrawi was the first to teach thelithotomy position for vaginal operations (Khairallah 1942). Al-Zahrawi also described the tracheotomy operation and performed it as an emergency on one of his servants.

He was the first to write on orthodontia. He showed evidence of great experience from details of clinical picture and surgical procedures e.g. his description of varicose veins stripping, even after ten centuries, is almost like modern surgery (Al-Okbi 1971): "... Have the leg shaved if it is much hairy.

The patient gets a bath and his legis kept in hot water until it becomes red and the veins dilate; or he exercises vigorously. Incise the skin opposite the varicose vein longitudinally either at the ankle or at the knee. Keep the skin opened by hooks. Expose, dissect, and separate the vein.Introducc a spatula underneath it.

When the vein is elevated above the skin level, hang it with a blunt rounded hook. Repeat the procedure about three fingers from the previous site and hang the vein with another hook as previously done. Repeat the procedure at as many sites along the varicose vein as necessary. At the ankle,ligate and strip it by pulling it from the incision just above. When it reaches there, repeat at the higher incision until all of itis stripped .

Ligate the vein and then excise it. If difficulty is encountered in pulling it,ligate its terminal part with astring and pass it under the spatula and dissect it further. Pull gently and avoid its tearing because if it does, it becomes difficult to strip all of it and can cause harm to the patient.

When you have stripped it all, put alcoholspanges at the sites of the skin incisions and take care of the incisions until they heal. If the varicose vein is tortuous, you have to incise the skin more frequently, at each change of direction. Dissectit and hang it with the hooks and strip it as previously described. Do not tear the vein or injure it. If this happens, it becomes difficult to strip it. The hooks used should be blunt, eyeless, androunded, otherwise it can injure the vein".

He also wrote about fracture of the skull (Al-Okbi 197 1): "... The types of skull fractures are numerous, their shapes are different, and their causes are many. For example, some skull fractures are due to a blow by a sword that splits the whole skull and reaches thedura , the same as the ax does to the wood, therefore itis called axial fracture. Sometimes the sword does not split the skullcompletely, it is thus called incomplete axial fracture. Such a fracture can be small or big.

Another type is comminuted fractureWhich can be due to a hit by a stone or a fall on a stone; and this fracture can reach thedura or only be limited to the outer part of the bone. This fracture can also be small or big. A third type is the hairy type of skullfracture which is so tiny and linear like a hair.

A fourth type is the depressedfracture which occurs due to a fail or a blow so the bone is depressed like a brass jar when hit by a blunt instrument. This usually happens when the bone is soft as children. The types of these fracturesare diagnosed by examining the wound, removing the debris and contused pan of the scalp, exposing the skull, and feeling it by the spatulas. The hairy fracture is difficult to discover and can be diagnosed by exposing the skull, and smearing it with ink; the linear fracture thus appears stained."

In the treatment of fractures of the skull, Al-Zahrawi wrote: "... If the patient shows serious signs such as high fever, repeated vomiting,exophthalmos , convulsions, and coma, do not touch him because he is probably going to die. Otherwise, treat him as follows: first shave the patient's head. In comminuted depressed fractures, these pieces of boneshould be removed as will be explained. If in the process of the patient's examination or during surgery bleeding occurs, itcan be controlled by pressure using towels soaked in alcohol and by wax. Then after control of the bleeding, the small pieces of bone are removed using specialforceps .

To remove the depressed fracture, first, make trephines in the healthy bone around it. These trephine instruments should not penetrate beyond the skull into the soft tissues underneath, thus they are callednon penetrating trephines. They have a rounded ring in their proximal end to prevent them from penetrating beyond certain depths. You should have a number of these trephines that can stop at different depths depending on the thickness of the skull. Connect the holes in the skull using special saws.

First, use a fine small saw, then larger ones. These should be sharp and made of steel. Avoid cutting thedura by the trephine or saw. Once the depressed bone is freed, remove it gently,then smoothen the edges of the skull by special instruments. Wash with alcohol and treat the wound with packs soaked with ointment."

Al-Zahrawi described many dental operations such as dental extractions, fixation, re implantation, and artificial teeth. He described referred tooth pain and cautioned the physician against removal of the healthy tooth to which painis referred . He used gold threads to fix teeth because other metals would tarnish and cause a reaction. Chapter 6 of his book was all devoted to foreign bodies of the ear and their treatment. He also devoted one whole chapter to midwifery , giving tips to midwives, and describing the problems of difficult labor and obstetricalmanoeuvre .

He recommended decompression of the fetal head for obstructed labor and described the instruments used. He described the management of liver abscess by treating it into two stages (Khairallah 1942). The first stage was to allow adhesions around it and to close it from the peritoneal cavity. The second stage was to incise it...."If the procedure is done in one stage, the pus may spread to the whole abdomen and the patient may die."

He describeda total of 200 surgical and dental instruments most of them were original (Fig. 3). He said "... Choose your instruments carefully beforehand according to the operation. However, you should design other devices if needed."Thus he encouraged the physician to be innovative.

During the time of Al-Zahrawi , surgery in the Islamic world became a respected specialty practiced by reputable physicians. On thecontrary in Europe, surgery was belittled and practiced by barbers and butchers. In 1163 A.D., the Council of Tours declared the following resolution "Surgery is tobe abandoned by the schools of medicine and by all decent physicians."

Ibn-Sina (AVICENNA) 980-1037 A.D.

Ibn-Sina's full name is Abu-AliHusayn lbn -Abdullahlbn-Sina , and his titles were Al-Shaykh Al-Rais (The chief Master) or Al-Muallim Al-Thani (The Second Teacher), second to Aristotle (Browne 1962). Heis known in the Western World as Avicenna.

In 980A.D. Avicenna was born in Bukhara which is now part of Russia and known asUzben . By the age of 10, he was already proficient in the Qur'an and Arabic classics. By the age of 16, he finished Islamic law studies, geometry, anatomy,logic and philosophy.His metaphysics were influenced by an earlier philosopher in Islam, Al-Farabi . By the age of 18, he completed the study of medicine.

Soon after, he became the Prime Minister (theVisier ) and Court-Physician of PrinceNuli -Ibn -Mansur, theSamanid Ruler ofBukbara . The prince was impressed by the intelligence and endurance of hisVisier and opened for him the royal librarywhich was unique in its literary richness.Ibn -Sina wrote his first book at the age of 21.

Then he becameVisier of Aliibn Maimun , the ruler ofKhawarazm orKhiva .But he ultimately fled to avoid being kidnapped by the Sultan Mohammed El-Ghazin . Ironically, fate played an important role in the life of Avicenna who was a master in planning. The ruler ofHainadan , the southern part of Persia, whowas called AmirShwnsu'd-Dawla , had renal colic.Ibn -Sina treated the Amir's colic. The latter was very pleased and appointedIbn -Sina , not only his Court-Physician but also hisVisier . Avicenna was a proud and arrogant man.

This created enemies leading to a mutiny of the military leaders against him resulting in his dismissal and imprisonment. Fortunately, the Amir got renal colic once more and no one could relieve his pain. He thus summoned back Avicenna who cured him. The Amir apologized to Avicenna and reinstated him.

Avicenna's life during this time was extraordinarily strenuous. All the day he was busy with the Amir's services. The great part of the night was passed in lecturing and writing his books, with intervals ofwine-drinking , music, and minstrelsy. After many vicissitudes, worn out by hard work and hard living, Avicenna died andwas buried in Hamadan, Persia, in 1037 A.D. at a comparatively early age of 57. In his last illness, he treated himself unsuccessfully, so thatit was said by his detractors that neither could his physics save his body nor his metaphysics save his soul (Browne 1962) .

Avicenna wrote I00 treatises, 21 of them were major of which 16 were in medicine. He wrote in philosophy, medicine, named Al-Qanon fi Al-Tibb (Canon of Medicine). It was an encyclopedia containing more than one million words. It was composed of5 volumes:

VolumeI - described the principles and theories of medicine.

Volume II- contained the simple drugs arranged alphabetically.

Volume III- described localized diseases of the body from the head to the toes.

Volume IV-was addressed to generalized diseases of the body e.g. fevers.

Volume V- explained compounddrungs .

The Canon contained all medical knowledge up to the 1Oth century. Itwas translated to many languages and was the reference for medical schools in Europe.

up to the 17th century. Although the Canon was a great book, it overshadowed the important works prior to it by Al-Razi and Al-Zahrawi , and subsequent to it byIbn -Al-Nafis and AliIbn-Abbas , HalleAbbas , (Haddad 1942).

Avicenna wrote Arabic and Persianpoems.The last of his Arabic poem, which is considered a classical beauty, describes the descent of the Soul into the Body from the Higher Sphere which is its home (Browne 1962).

Avicennais considered a great philosopher, and his writings affected the thinkers and influenced many of those who appeared after him. He was a unique phenomenon, not only because ofthis encyclopedic accomplishments in medicine, but also because of the versatility of his genius. Hehas been compared in this respect with Aristotle, Leonardoda Vinci, and Goethe.(Keys 1971).

Ibn-Rushd (AVERROES) 1126-1198 A.D.Ibn - Rashid, or Averroes as known in Europe, was born in Granada in 1126 A.D. He studied philosophy,medicine and law. Hewas appointed as a judge in Seville in 1169 A.D. where he stayed in office for a quarter of a century.He was affected by Aristotle on whom he wrote important commentaries (Black 1970, Al-A'sar 1972) . In theseinterpretations he asserted that the human soul is not independent, but shares a universal mind. This belief caused a great controversy andwas later declared heretical by both the Moslems and Christians alike because it contradicted the doctrine of personal immortality.

He was admired by the Jews of Spain who spread Ws philosophy into Europe especially into Italy and France after they were forced out of Spain . His followers interpreted some of his writings to mean that there are two kinds of truth, aphilosophical and a religious truth. This implied a separation of reason and faith and influenced philosophical and theological speculation for many centuries. Because of his bold ideas, he was dismissed from his work and sent to Morocco where he was kept in prisontill he died on December 12, 1198.his important contribution to medicine was "Al-Kulliyat fi Al-Tibb " (Colliyet ).

It was a summary of the medical science at that time and composed of seven parts. He wrote another book, "Al-Taisir " on practical medicine. It consisted of useful excerpts and a clinical description of diseases including serouspericarditis andmediastinal abscens . He personally suffered from the latter disease and left very careful records of his own symptoms. The bookis not known in Arabic, but there are several Latin editions (Haddad 1942).Ibn-Rushd was another example of the cultured Arabic physician.

IBN-MAIMON (MAIMONEDES) 1135-1204 A.D.

In 1135, MusaIbn-Maimon (Moses Maimonides) was born in Cordova, Spain (Minlcin 1968). His father was a Rabbi and had a great influence of Moses in his interests and future achievements. During that period, the Jews had a golden era in Spain.Minkin (1968), a renowned scholar and an eminent Rabbiwrote "It was Mohammedan Spain, the only land the Jews knew in nearly a thousand years of their dispersion, which made the genius of Moses Maimonides possible."

In1160 A.D.,Moscs emigrated to North Africa to the city ofFas where be studied medicine. In 1165 A.D., he left to Palestine. However, he was dissatisfied with the cultural atmosphere. Therefore, he went to Egypt where he stayed until he died in 1204 A.D. Hewas buried inTeberias , Palestine.

Maimonides first started his career as the Rabbi of thejewish Comniunity of El-Fostat city, the capital of Egypt at that time and part of old Cairo now. Later on in life, he practiced medicine. He became an eminent and respected physician. He served both KingsSalah -El-Din (Saladin) and his elder son Sultan Al-Malik Al-Afdel during his short reign (1198-1200 A.D.). He had the confidence of both. DuringSalali -El-Din war with King Richard, the Lion-Hearted, the latter fell sick.

Although those two kings were at war, they had respect and admiration of each other. Saladin sentIbn -Maimon to Richard to treat him.After being, cured. Rictiard askedIbn -Maimon to join his court.But the latter politely declined and preferred to stay with Saladin (Minkin 1968).

Ibn-Maimon's impact on the Jewish religion is very important. He wrote classical work in the Jewish religion including codification of the Jewish laws (Black and Roth 1970).Hc also wrote in philosophy. His book, "Dalalat Al-Hai'ran " (The Guide of the Perplexed) is an importantachievement which was welcomed not only by those of the Jewish faith but also by Moslems and Christians alike. Hewas affected by his contemporaryIbn -Rushd , and byAristotl'e , but he tried to unite logic and faith. He wrote his book in Arabic. He did not live long enough to see the Hebrew translation of hisbook which would have given him a great satisfaction.

Inmedicine Ibn -Maimon did two important things: First, be translated many Arabic books into Hebrew which were than translated into Latin and other European languages. An example of these books is the Canon of Avicenna. Second, bewrote a few books of his own. One of them is "Magala flTadbir Al-Sihha " (RegimenSanitatis ) which stressed proper diet, personal hygiene, and moderation in the pleasures of life. It was in the form of letters to the Sultan Al-Afdel . The other was "Kitab " Al-Fusal fi Al-Tibb " (Fisul Musa). This was a collection of 1,500 aphorisms extracted from Galen writings together with forty-two critical remarks. Moses also wrote a book on poisons and their antidotes (Al-A'sar 1971).

When he died, the Jewish Community in Egypt built a synagogue named after him.Some Jews, up-till-now, stay overnight in this synagogue in hope of receiving healing through the spirit of this great physician (Minkin 1968).

Ibn -El-Nafis 1208 - 1288 A.D.

In 1208 A.D.,Ala'El-Deen Ibn -El-Nafis was born in a small town near Damascus calledKersh (Fig. 7) (Ibrahim 1971). He learned medicine and philosophy in Damascus and spent most of his life in Cairo. He was a physician, a linguist, a philosopher, and a historian. He was the first chief of Al-Mansuri Hospital in Cairo and the dean of the School of Medicine in 1284 A.D.

During this era, the medicalprofession together with other branches of science were passing a crisis. The Mongol Tartar invasion and destruction of Baghdad in 1258 A.D. caused an injury to the Islamic civilization from which it never recovered. It destroyed forever the Caliphate, symbolic unity of the Arabian Empire, and the preeminence of Baghdad as a center for learning.

Also during thatperiod Islamic culture was declining in Spain. It was then Cairo and Damascus the centers for education and medical prestige. There, the medical professionwas characterized by the freedom of discussion and expression of opinion, something that was very new in medicine and not known to Europe until the 17th century when introduced to England bySedenbam (Ibrahim 1971).

Ibn -El-Nafis was a dedicated person. He used to start his day after dawn prayers by making rounds at the hospital, followed by case discussions with students and colleagues, then hospital administration. His evenings were spent reading,writing and discussing medicine and philosophy with frequent scholar guests at his home in El-Hussein District in Old Cairo. His house was an example of beautiful Arabic architecture, made of marble with a fountain in the central hall.

In the history ofmankind, there are persons whose importance is revealed with the flight of time and their truth glows with the passage of centuries;Ibn -El-Nafis is one of those. He wrote many books, ten of them in medicine and a special one in philosophy. In the latter book "Fadel Ibn -Natik ", he tried to present the counter point of the philosophical view of Avicenna expressed in his book "Hai Ibn-Yakzan ".

He was an authority in theology on which he wrote several books, e.g. "The complete Message of the Prophet" and "Al-Ragol Al-Kamel " (The Perfect Man) supportingunitarianism .Ibn -El-Nafis had an important character, not being a follower but a scholar. This was evident in his writings whether in philosophy or medicine.

Inmedicine he wrote many books, two of them are "Mujaz Al-Qanun " which means the "Summary of the Canon". In these twobooks which were based onavicenna's writings, he criticized the short comings of Avicenna's book and of Galen's views and added to them. That is whyhe was named by some as Avicenna the Second .

Forexample be wrote "... We have relied chiefly on his (Galen) teachings, except in a fewdetails which we think are wrong and were not given after a thorough investigation. In describing the function of the organs, we have depended on careful investigation, observation, and honest study, regardless of whether or not these fit with the teachings and theories of those who have preceded us."

Ibn -El-Nafis added lights to the physiology of the circulation. In the ancient history,Erasistratus of the AlexandriaScbool (310 B.C. - 250 B.C.) believed that blood was contained only in the eight side of the circulation, namely the veins and the fight side of the heart. The left side of the circulation, namely the left side of the heart and the arteries were supposed to contain air because arteries were found empty when an animal was sacrificed, hence the name "arteria ".

When Galen came (131 - 210 A.D.), he described blood to pass from the right side of the heart to the left side through minute openings in the septum of the heart, then it mixed with air from the lungs, andsequently distributed to the whole body. Forcenturies this was the prevalent belief and no one, including the Arab physicians and their eminent writer Avicenna, could dare to challenge this sacred view.Ibn -El-Nafis did. Fivetimes he stated in unmistakable terms that "... the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber, but there is no direct pathway between them.

The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the venaarteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substance, he mingled with air, pass through thearteria venosa (Pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart..." ( Salem 1968). In describing the anatomy of thelung Ibn -El-Nafis stated: "The lung is composed of.

first, the bronchi: second, the branches of thearteria avenosa ; and third, the branches of the venaarteriosa ; all of these are connected by loose porous flesh The need of the lung for the venaarteriosa is to transport to it the blood that has been thinned and warmed in the heart, so that what seeps through the pores of the branches of this vessel into the alveoli of the lung may mix with what is of air therein and combine with it and the mixture is carried to the left cavity of the heart by thearteria venosa " (Haddad 1936).

Ibn -El-Nafis also made other contributions in the circulation. Avicenna, following Galen's description of the anatomy, stated that the human heart has three ventricles.Ibn -El-Nafis rejected that as he said "...And his statement ((Avicenna's) that the heart has three ventricles is not correct, as the heart has onlytow ventricles..." He was also the first to describe the coronary circulation as he wrote "...Again, his statement (Avicenna's) that the blood in the right side is to nourish the heart is not true at all, for the nourishment of the heart is from the blood that goes through the vessels that permeate the body of the heart... "

Three centuries after the discovery of the pulmonary circulation byIbn - El-Nafis , others, such as Michael Servetus,Realdus Colombus , CarloRuini , AndreaCesalpino , and Francois Rabelais, claimed the same thing (Mayerhof 1935). There is a strong suspicion that these authors obtained their knowledge from the Arabicliterature which was available at that time to the European investigators without giving credit toIbn -El-Nafis (Keys 1971, Haddad 1942).

It is considered to be more than a coincidence that Servetus would discover the pulmonary circulation,and also to write a book, similar to that ofIbn -El-Nafis , on Unitarianism. Servetuswas burnt with his book, "Restitutio Christianismi " in Geneva in October 1553 at the order of Calvin because he was considered heretic.

The ArabsAnd Ophthalmology

The Arabs were much interested in ophthalmology. In the ninth century,Hunayn Ibn-Ishak (Joannitius ) translated to Arabic the Greek literature on the eye. As mentioned before, Al-Razi described the changes in the caliber of the eye produced by relaxation and contraction of the iris. He also described the cataract operation.

In 1050 A.D. at Baghdad, AliIbn -Isa (Jesu Haly ) wrote the classic book on ophthalmology,Tathkirat Al-Kahhalin (A Note for the Oculists). As stated byCunistan (1921), it is the oldest book in its original language on diseases of the eye. In a clear and logical style, the author described trachoma, conjunctivitis, and cataract, and prescribed treatment (Keys 1971).

Avicenna described the six extrinsic muscles of the eyeball.

In the thirteenth century,Ibn Abu-Al-Kawafer wrote a book on therapeutic ophthalmology entitled "Natigat -El-Fikr fi Ilag Amrad El-Bassar " (Conclusions fromExpelience on Treatment of Diseases of the Eye). According toKahil (1929) is one of several textbooks of ophthalmology consideredto be superior to any written in Europe up to the eighteenth century.

ARABS AND ANESTHESIA

Being an obstetric anesthesiologist,I feel obligated to write a little more on the contributions of the Arabs to both anesthesia and obstetrics.

First, in anesthesia, the Arabs described in detail the pharmacology of important narcotics such as opium and other central nervous system depressants such ashyoscyamus and hashish (Khairallal 1942). Burton (1886 A.D.)stated that "anesthetics have been used in surgery throughout the East for centuries before ether and chloroform became the fashion in the civilized West. In a Treatise on the Canon of Medicine byGruner it is stated by Avicenna under the article 8l4 ANESTHETICS:"If it is desirable to get a person unconscious quickly, without him being harmed, add sweet smelling moss to the wine, or lignum aloes.

If it is desirable to procure a deeply unconscious state,so as to able the pain to be borne which is involved in painful applications to a member.place darnel-water into the wine, or administer fumitory,opiuium ,hyoscyamus (half dram doses of each); nutmeg, crude aloes-wood (4 grains of each). Add this to the wine, and take as much as is necessary for the purpose.Or .boil blackhyoscyamus in water, withmandragore bark, until it becomes red. Add this to the wine."

The Arabs also introduced "the Soporific Sponge" which was commonly used for anesthesia in the middle ages. The sponge was soaked with aromatics and narcotics to besucked and then held under the nostril to provide anesthesia prior to surgery (Keys 1971).

Avicenna wrote more than 1,000 years ago about the effect of pain on ventilation: "Pain dissipates the bodily strength and interferes with the normal functions of the organs. The respiratory organs are inhibited from drawing in air, and consequently the act of breathing is interfered with, and the respiration becomes intermittent, rapid, or altogether unnatural in rhythm" (Gruner 1930).

ARABS AND OBSTETRICS

Hynayn Ibn-Ishak (Joannitius , 809-873 A.D.) translated the work of the Greek pioneer in obstetrics, Paul of Aegina, into Arabic.Hunayn also translated to the Arabic world most of the work of Hippocrates, Galen, and Ptolemy. Moreover, he was a gifted physician and philosopher. AliIbn -Al-Abas Al-Majusi (HalleAbbas ) who died in 994 A.D. was the first to describe in his book "Al-Kitab Al-Malaki " (The Royal Book) that the uterine contractions are the cause of delivery of the fetus (Keys 1971). Before him, itwas thought that the uterine contractions were only as indication of the onset of labor; subsequently the fetus would swim its way out of the womb and birth canal.

Most of the deliveries were performed by midwives at home . For complicatedobstetrics Al-Zahrawi offered advice to midwives as mentioned

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