Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Discursive Theology Volume 1

This text deals with a set of ideological and scholastic questions based upon Islamic theology from the perspective of Shī‘ah Imāmiyyah school of thought. Reason and revelation have been the final reference and arbiter in decisions and evaluations. A series of lessons surrounding recognition of God is presented.

Author(s): Dr. ‘Ali Rabbani Gulpaygani

Translator(s): Mansoor L. Limba

Publisher(s): Al-Mustafa International College

                                                          

Table of Contents

Foreword. 9

Reference 11

Preface 12

References 16

Lesson 1: Why Should We Know God?  18

1. The Need for Preventing Serious Losses 18

2. The Need for Gratefulness to the Benefactor 18

3. Sense of Curiosity. 19

The Benefits of Knowing God. 19

Knowledge of God as the Fountainhead of All Knowledge 20

Review Questions 20

References 21

Lesson 2: The Ways of Knowing God  22

The Rationalists 22

The Intuitionists 23

Assessment 23

The Sensualists 24

Assessment 24

The Literalists 25

Assessment 26

Review Questions 28

References 29

Lesson 3: Natural Disposition (Fiṭrah) and Knowing God  31

Definition of Fiṭrah. 31

The Distinctive Features of Fiṭrah. 31

Fiṭrah in the Domain of Knowledge and Sensory Perception. 32

Intrinsic (fiṭrī) Knowledge 32

Instinctive Inclinations 32

Fiṭrah and Search for God. 33

Fiṭrah and Inclination to God. 33

a. Love for Absolute Perfection. 33

b. Hope for a Superior Power in Moments of Danger 34

Reply to Two Objections 35

What Scholars Say. 35

Fiṭrah and Religion from the Perspective of Revelation. 37

Review Questions 38

References 39

Lesson 4: Order in the Universe and Knowing God  41

The Definition and Types of Order 41

The Order of Outcome and the Argument of Design. 42

It is Design and Not Accident! 42

Imām al-Ṣādiq (‘a) and the Proof of Order 43

Review Questions 43

References 44

Lesson 5: Assessment of Hume’s Objections to the Argument of Design  45

First Objection. 45

Reply. 45

Second Objection. 46

Reply. 46

Third Objection. 47

Reply. 47

Fourth Objection. 47

Reply. 47

Fifth Objection. 47

Reply. 48

Sixth Objection. 48

Reply. 48

Review Questions 49

References 50

Lesson 6: The Argument of Contingency  51

Objection. 51

Reply. 52

The Second Principle of Thermodynamics and the Universe’s Contingency. 52

Bertrand Russell’s Objection. 53

Reply. 54

Review Questions 54

References 55

Lesson 7: The Argument of Possibility and Necessity  56

The Argument’s Premises 56

Bertrand Russell’s Misgiving. 57

Reply. 58

Review Questions 59

Reply. 60

Lesson 8: The Unity of God’s Essence and Attributes 61

1. The Unity of the Divine Essence 61

Types of Compositeness 61

Trinity or Polytheism in the Essence of God. 62

2. The Unity of the Divine Attributes 63

The Unity of the Divine Attributes in the Traditions 64

Insufficient Formula 65

Review Questions 65

References 67

Lesson 9: The Unity of God in Creation  68

Reason and the Divine Unity in Creation. 68

The Qur’an and the Divine Unity in Creation. 68

Traditions and the Divine Unity in Creation. 68

The Interpretation of the Divine Unity in Creation. 69

1. Imāmiyyah Theologians and Muslims Theosophers 69

2. ‘Ashā‘irah. 69

3. Mu‘tazilah. 69

Examination and Criticism. 69

The Dualists and the Misgiving of Evils 70

Reply to a Question. 71

The Divine Unity in Creation and the Problem of Ascribing Evils to God. 71

Review Questions 72

References 73

Lesson 10: The Divine Unity in Lordship  74

Cosmic and Legislative Lordship. 74

Lordship in This World and the Hereafter 74

The Proofs of the Divine Unity in Lordship. 75

Human Being’s Deviation Relative to the Divine Unity in Lordship. 76

The Divine Unity in Legislation. 77

The Divine Unity in Sovereignty. 77

The Divine Unity in Obedience 77

Review Questions 78

References 79

Lesson 11: The Divine Unity in Worship  80

What is Worship? 81

The Wahhābīs and Polytheism in Worship. 83

Review Questions 85

References 87

Lesson 12: The Attributes of God. 88

Name (ism) and Attribute (ṣifah) 88

Classifications of the Divine Attributes 88

1. The Attributes of Beauty and the Attributes of Glory. 88

2. The Attributes of Essence and the Attributes of Action. 89

3. The Real and the Relative Attributes 90

4. The Transmitted Attributes 90

Are the Names of Allah Tawqīfī? 91

Review Questions 92

References 93

Lesson 13: The Knowledge of God. 94

1. God’s Knowledge of His Essence 94

2. God’s Essential Knowledge of the Creatures 94

2.1. Shaykh al-Ishrāq’s View. 94

2.2. Mu‘tazilah View. 95

2.3. Ibn Sīnā’s View. 95

2.4. Ṣadr al-Muta’allihīn’s View. 95

God’s Present Knowledge of the Creatures in the Present 96

The Divine Proofs 97

The All-hearing, the All-seeing and the Perceiver 97

Review Questions 98

References 99

Lesson 14: God’s Power and Will 100

The Essence of Power 100

The Proof of God’s Power and Will 101

The Extent of God’s Power 101

Power and Potentiality. 102

Reply to Some Misgivings 102

Review Questions 103

References 104

Lesson 15: Life, Pre-existence and Eternity  105

Divine Life 105

The Essence and Classifications of Life 105

The Essence of Life with Respect to God. 106

The Proof of Divine Life 107

Pre-existence and Eternity. 107

Review Questions 108

References 109

Lesson 16: The Divine Will and Decree 110

Some Views on the Essence of Will 110

Assessment of the Views 111

An Examination and Analysis 112

The Divine Will as Described in Traditions 113

Review Questions 114

References 115

Lesson 17: The Divine Speech and Word  116

1. The Ahl al-Ḥadīth and Ḥanbalīs 116

2. Justice-Oriented Theologians 116

3. The Ash‘arīs and Māturdīs 117

4. Muslim Philosophers 118

The Word of God in the Qur’an and the Traditions 118

The Contingency of God’s Word. 119

The Immaculate Imāms (‘a) and the Issue of Contingency of God’s Word. 120

The Absence of Lie in God’s Word. 120

Review Questions 120

References 122

Lesson 18: The Attributes of Khabariyyah  123

Literalism and Anthropomorphism. 123

Ta’wīl Approach. 124

Theological Foundation of Ta’wīl 124

Singular and Synthetic Appearance 125

Postponement (Tawaqquf) and Delegation (Tafwīḍ) 126

Bases of the Proponents of Tafwīḍ. 126

Transmitted Attributes in the School of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) 127

Review Questions 128

References 130

Lesson 19: Negative Attributes (Al-Ṣifāt al-Salbiyyah) 131

The Proofs of Impossibility of Physically Seeing God. 133

Proof of the Proponents of Ru’yah. 133

Argument on the Occurrence of Ru’yah and the Objection to It 134

Review Questions 135

References 137

Lesson 20: The Divine Justice and Wisdom   138

The Literal and Technical Meanings of Justice 138

Justice in the Parlance of Theologians 138

The Literal and Technical Meaning of Wisdom. 139

Wisdom in the Parlance of Theologians 140

1. Theoretical Wisdom. 140

2. Practical Wisdom. 140

Conclusion. 141

Manifestations of the Divine Justice and Wisdom. 141

The History and Motive for Discussing Justice 142

The Position of Justice in ‘Adliyyah Theology. 144

Review Questions 144

References 146

Lesson 21: Rational Goodness and Evil 147

An Elucidation of the Rule of Rational Goodness and Evil 147

Theoretical Reason and Practical Intellect 147

The Affirmers and Negationists 148

Appreciation and Condemnation, Reward and Punishment 148

Incumbent upon Allah. 149

The Proofs Substantiating Rational Goodness and Evil 150

Rational Goodness and Evil in the Qur’an and the Traditions 151

Review Questions 153

References 154

Lesson 22: The Proofs of Divine Justice and Wisdom   155

1. The Proof of Essential Necessity. 155

2. The Proof of Special Attention (‘ināyah) 155

3. The Omniscience and Self-sufficiency of God. 155

4. The Lack of Claimant and the Existence of Ṣārif 157

5. Signs of the Divine Justice and Wisdom in Nature 157

Design and Perfection as Viewed by Scientists and Scholars 159

Design in the Plant Kingdom. 159

Factors that Contribute to the Suitability of the Earth for Living. 160

Review Questions 161

References 162

Lesson 23: The Creation as Goal-oriented  163

The Justice-oriented Argument 163

The Ash‘arī’s Objection. 163

Reply. 163

Another Objection. 164

Reply. 164

The Goal of Action and the Goal of Agent 164

The Third View. 165

The View of Theosophers 165

Motive and Exigency. 166

The Qur’an and the Goal-orientedness of the Universe 166

The Perfect Man as the Philosophy behind Creation. 167

Review Questions 168

References 169

Lesson 24: Evil and the Best Order 170

The Skepticism on Evil and the Best Order 170

Reply [to the Skepticism] 170

The Non-discernment of Evil in the Realm of Nature 170

The Beauty of the Totality or the Perfect System. 173

Objection. 173

Reply. 174

Second Objection. 174

Reply. 174

Evil and the All-encompassing Power of God. 174

Review Questions 176

References 177

Lesson 25: Evil and the Justice of God  178

General Welfare and Public Good. 178

Unpleasant Things and Understanding the Sweetness of Doing Good. 178

Undesirables and the Blossoming of Talents 179

Painful Incidents or Warning Signs 180

Istidrāj and Ibtilā 181

The Role of Sins in the Occurrence of Painful Incidents 182

The Saints of God’s Account as Separate 183

Evil and Retributory Justice 184

Pains and Rewards 184

Concluding Points 185

Review Questions 186

References 187

Lesson 26: Man and Freewill 188

The Theologians’ Opinions on the Interpretation of Freewill 189

1. The Theory of Tafwīḍ. 189

Examination and Criticism. 190

2. The Theory of Kasb. 191

The Interpretation of Kasb. 191

A Criticism of the Theory of Kasb. 192

The Theory of the “Position between Two Positions” (amr bayn al-amrayn) 192

A Historical Survey of the “Position between Two Positions” 192

A Manifestation of the Divine Grace 193

Known Only to the True Men of Learning. 194

An Illustrious Example 194

A Firm Principle 194

Imām al-Hādī (‘a) and the Interpretation of Amr Bayn al-Amrayn. 195

The Philosophical Interpretation of Amr Bayn al-Amrayn. 196

A Study of the Book of the Self 197

Review Questions 197

References 199

Lesson 27: Misgivings of the Predeterminists 200

The Divine Decree, Predestination and the Eternal Knowledge of God. 200

The Correct Interpretation of Qaḍā and Qadr 200

Reinforcement of the Free-will on the Basis of the Principle of Qaḍā and Qadar 202

God’s Will and Man’s Free-will 202

Is Will a Voluntary Action? 203

The Divine Unity in Creation and the Issue of Predetermination. 203

Reply. 204

The Universality of the Divine Power and Man’s Freewill 204

The Divine Guidance and Misguidance and Man’s Freewill 205

Elements of Guidance 206

Elements of Misguidance 206

Review Questions 207

References 208

Lesson 28: The Mandatoriness of Obligation  209

Definition and Classification. 209

The Philosophy behind Obligation. 210

Obligation and Power 211

The Ash‘arīs and the Permissibility of Unbearable Obligation. 211

Review Questions 213

References 214

Lesson 29: The Necessity for Grace 215

The Definition and Classification of Luṭf (Grace) 215

The Conditions of Grace 216

Reasons behind the Necessity for Grace 217

The proof of wisdom. 217

God’s generosity and munificence 217

The Qur’an and the Rule of Grace 218

Divine Grace and Sayings of the Imāms (‘a) 220

Reply to the Objections 220

Review Questions 221

References 223

Foreword

بسم‌ اللّه‌ الرّحمن‌ الرّحيم

In the Name of Allah, the All-beneficent, the All-merciful

The Islamic seminaries (ḥawzah al-‘ilmiyyah ) are the inheritors of the eternal heritage of the Divine knowledge and gnosis as well as the vanguards of the frontage and domain of the Islamic law and doctrines. This crucial mission has doubled the responsibility of the religious scholars in the arena of training and education.

The persistent worries and concern of the committed scholars, inquisitive researchers and sympathetic academics over the qualitative and quantitative modification and improvement of educational methods, texts and patterns toward the development, dynamism and efficiency of the educational system in the Islamic seminaries highlight the need to review, modify and present new, innovative and effective textbooks.

Of course, on one hand, the high standing and condition of the textbooks in the Islamic seminaries and the availability of the priceless legacy and valuable assets of the classical texts of our pious predecessors and the integrity and credibility of their authors call for particular and due efforts, accurateness and reflection in the rewriting, modification and writing of textbooks.

On the other hand, the change and transformation in the orientations, needs, expectations, methods, and models in training and education, multiply the responsibilities of the administrators and officials dealing with education and research affairs as well as academic planning in the Islamic seminary, as they have to perform their functions constantly by presenting new and original categories, patterns and frameworks and by improving the substance of textbooks.

As such, on the basis of the abovementioned needs and concerns, Al-Muṣṭafā International University has embarked on reviewing, modifying and producing textbooks, thereby typesetting, compiling and publishing hundreds of titles.

Along this line, while keeping the originality and substantial richness of the surviving precious treasures of the past scholars and by utilizing the educational technology and observing the modern principles, standards and patterns, it strives to present texts compatible with the objectives and within the framework of the approved programs and subjects, intellectual level, and expectations of the students.

Walking along this long and winding road necessitates the all-out support and cooperation of the esteemed professors, experts, academic directors, and students. By offering their suggestions, criticisms and opinions, they could help us in correctly and successfully treading this difficult and tortuous path.

We take this opportunity to express our utmost gratitude to those who have done their best to bring this project to fruition, and in particular, to Professor ‘Alī Rabbānī Gulpāygānī for writing the book,1 and to Dr. Mansoor Limba for translating it. We do appreciate all their sincere efforts.

Seyed Hashem Moosavi

Al-Muṣtafā International

Makati City, Metro Manila, Philippines

2013

Reference

1. ‘Alī Rabbānī Gulpāygānī, ‘Aqā’idi Istidlālī 1 (Qum: Research Department of the Center of Management of the Qum Religious Academy for Women, Autumn 1388 AHS (2009)), 276 pages.

Preface

بسم‌ اللّه‌ الرّحمن‌ الرّحيم

In the Name of Allah, the All-beneficent, the All-merciful

Reflection, intellection and freewill are among the most manifest peculiarities of the human being. Throughout his life, man engages in the discovery of the universe by utilizing these features and on the basis of which he chooses a particular way and order in a bid to give answers to his material and spiritual needs. In other words, human actions in both the individual and social realms of his life demand that they emanate and must be patterned from a kind of attitude about the universe.

The totality of these methods and attitudes is the same with what is technically called “religion” which may vary according to the type of worldview of individuals. In a broader classification, religion can be divided into two, viz. theistic and atheistic religion. In the same manner, theistic religion can be classified into monotheistic and non-monotheistic, and monotheistic religion, in turn, can be grouped into original (immune from distortion) and non-original (distorted).

On this basis, man has never been and will never be able to live without religion. What is meant by those who technically have no religion is that they have not accepted the theistic religion, and the great mission of the prophets of God is primarily to introduce the original theistic religion to mankind - the religion whose main slogan is total submission to the One and Only God:

﴿ إِنَّ الدِّينَ عِندَ اللَّهِ الإِسْلامُ ﴾

“Indeed, with Allah religion is Islam.” 1

Submission to God means not to worship anyone or anything other than God and to obey the Divine laws and decrees. These laws and decrees are what are technically calledsharī‘ah :

﴿ لِكُلٍّ جَعَلْنَا مِنْكُمْ شِرْعَةً وَمِنْهَاجًا ﴾

“For each [community] among you We had appointed a code [of law] and a path.” 2

According to what have been mentioned in the verses of the Qur’an and Prophetic sayings (aḥādīth ), the Divinesharī‘ah is limited to five, viz. those of Prophet Nūḥ (Noah), Ibrāhīm (Abraham), Mūsā (Moses), ‘Īsā (Jesus), and the Holy Prophet (‘a ),3 the last one being the final4 and known as the Islamicsharī‘ah and Islamic creed.

The heavenlysharī‘ah s are identical and the same in terms of the foundations and principles of beliefs. The belief in the One and Unique Creator who has the loftiest Attributes of Perfection -“To Allah belong the Best Names” 5 - and in the abode of the Hereafter in which all human beings will receive the appropriate recompense of all their good or bad deeds, as well as the belief in the Divine plans conveyed by the prophets to the people so as for them to distinguish the right path from the wrong one are ideological foundations of all heavenlysharī‘ah s.

Yet, today, the onlysharī‘ah which must be compatible with the Divine beliefs and precepts is thesharī‘ah of Islam, because the othersharī‘ah s

have suffered from distortion and alteration, and incorrect beliefs such as the Trinity and extremism with respect to the prophets have crept in. The beliefs which are introduced, therefore, as the spiritual doctrines in the religions with heavenly origin are devoid of originality and credibility, and one must look for these spiritual doctrines in the Islamic theology and not in those of Christianity and others.

Islamic theology is nourished by two sources, viz. reason (‘aql ) and revelation (waḥyi ). Firstly, by citing axiomatic and definitive principles, reason proves the existence, knowledge, power, and wisdom of God, and on the basis of these rational theological doctrines, it also establishes the necessity for revelation and the infallibility of the prophets. And through revelation and prophethood (nubuwwah ), it recognizes anew all the spiritual doctrines.

Once again, by utilizing logical thinking, it embarks on elucidating and reinforcing those doctrines. On this basis, although Islamic theology is also anchored in revealed (wahyānī ) texts and facts, it utilizes the method of reflection and intellection in all cases, because through a certain medium revealed facts are also traceable to rational principles and foundations.

Of course, the method of rational thinking can be demonstrative, falsification-oriented or dialectical. This is a sort of mission which is shouldered by the Muslim theologian and to which his endeavor and rhetoric is related. Since he aims at acquiring formal and real knowledge of the spiritual beliefs, nothing will be acceptable except demonstrative proof, but if he aims at the enlightenment and teaching of the truth-seekers or the commitment and failure of the obstinate truth-evaders, he will adopt the methods of rhetoric and wholesome disputation. This is what God has commanded the Holy Prophet (ṣ ) so as to invite mankind to the Divine religion with wisdom and beautiful preaching and argue with them in the best way.

﴿ ٱدْعُ إِلِىٰ سَبِيلِ رَبِّكَ بِالْحِكْمَةِ وَالْمَوْعِظَةِ الْحَسَنَةِ وَجَادِلْهُم بِالَّتِي هِيَ أَحْسَنُ ﴾

“Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good advice and dispute with them in a manner that is best.” 6

Throughout the history of Islamic theology, various schools of theology and tendencies which have different views and varied approaches in ideological discourse have come into being. In citing outward meanings and texts of revelation or relying on reason and rational analyses, most of these schools of theology have gone into extremes.

TheAhl al-Ḥadīth 7 and Ḥanbalīs from among the Sunnīs and theAkhbārī s8 have adopted extreme literalism, just as theMu‘tazilī s9 have extremely kept aloof from the literal implications of revelation in their rational analyses and interpretations. In their midst, there have been also figures and schools (madhāhib ) that assumed the middle way, as Abū ’l-Ḥasan al-Ash‘arī10 and Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī11 had such an idea. As to whether they achieved their aim or not, it is another thing which can be dealt with elsewhere.

If we fairly and meticulously reflect on this, we will find out that out of these scholastic tendencies and schools of Muslim theology, the only school

(madhhab ) which has correctly adopted the middle path is the school of the Holy Prophet’sAhl al-Bayt (‘a ). They are the ones whom the Holy Prophet (ṣ )12 has called the Lesser of the Two Weighty Things (thiql al-aṣghar ) alongside the Qur’an which is the Greater of the Two Weighty Things (thiql al-akbar ), and clinging to them as well as to the Qur’an is the source of salvation and freedom from deviation.13

In another statement, the Prophet (ṣ ) has likened them to the Ark of Noah14 and whoever embarks on it shall be saved from storm which does not refer here to the storm of wind and drowning in the seas but the storm of capricious and fallacious views and ideas. And anyone who turns away from it will drown. Their approach - as Imām ‘Alī (‘a ) has stated - is to move along the middle way, and not to deviate toward the left or right. It is in this way that the Book (Qur’an) and theSunnah will become immune from any type of distortion and alteration.15

The Imāmiyyah theologians - whether those who had engaged in verbaljihād in the presence of the infallible Imāms (‘a ) or those who have vigilantly defended the sanctity of the ideological beliefs during the Period of Occultation (‘aṣr al-ghaybah )16 - have trodden the path of the infallible Imāms (‘a ). Because of their being not immune from error, one cannot approve of each and every theoretical view and practical approach that they have.

What is important, however, is that their strategic policy has been designed and organized according to the fundamentals and principles of the school of theAhl al-Bayt (‘a ). In every period of time, they have played their theological role according to the needs and circumstances and in the arena of writing and compiling, they have been able to produce valuable theological texts and now, Islamic thought and conceptual civilization exists in a number of important sources.

It is evident that the precedence of change and development requires that this approach must persist, and taking into account the changes and needs of the time, the Muslim theologians must assume their theological responsibility in the realm of speaking and writing.

The present book is a step toward this direction. It deals with a set of ideological and scholastic questions based upon Islamic theology from the perspective of Shī‘ah Imāmiyyah school of thought. Reason and revelation (the Qur’an andSunnah ) have been the final reference and arbiter in decisions and evaluations.

Meanwhile, the ideas and opinions of Islamic thinkers, Shī‘ah Imāmiyyah scholars in particular, have been amply utilized. With the aim of knowing the truth and exemplifying honest scholarship, the sources and references of the views and opinions of others have been cited and sometimes, their names or titles are even mentioned in the text or footnote. As pointed out, the citation of the views and opinions of others aims at knowing the truth and exemplifying honest scholarship as well as to revive the names and profiles of the thinkers who have suffered a lot in the way of religious pursuits and for whom blind following and imitation have no meaning.

Structurally, the sections of this book have been arranged in textbook style, and at the end of every lesson, related questions have been selected, thus providing for a summary of the discussion, on one hand, and an opportunity for self-test, on the other hand. Since brevity and conciseness can be regarded as a principle in any textbook, this approach has been taken into account in writing this book. It has been tried, nevertheless, that the passage of the book be clear and fluent and free from unfamiliar and obscure terms and complex or difficult phrases. Be that as it may, the author does not regard his work as free from any form of defect or error in terms of content and structure, and he will most openly and sincerely welcome constructive criticisms of the experts.

In closing, I deem it necessary to mention that in the cover of the previous edition of this book, what was erroneously written as the title isTarjumeh-ye Kitāb-e Muḥāḍirāt fī ’l-Ilāhiyyāt . This state of affairs had created ambiguities and amphibologies to the dear students and seminarians. Henceforth, this is to note that this book entitled‘Aqā’id-e Istidlālī (Discursive Theology ) is an independent work and it is neither a translation nor exposition ofMuḥāḍirāt fī ’l-Ilāhiyyāt .

Of course, since both books are written by the same author and, on the other hand, the present book has been written with the aim of replacing the bookMuḥāḍirāt fī ’l-Ilāhiyyāt for the Islamic seminaries for the respected ladies, the discussions in the present work will have a central role in understanding the subjects of the bookTalkhīṣ al-Ilāhiyyāt as many sections and topics of both books are similar or the same. As such, it can be claimed that studying the bookI‘tiqādāt-e Islāmī is a means of understanding the subjects of the bookMuḥāḍirāt fī al-Ilāhiyyāt .

It is hoped that this work could strengthen and defend the Islamic doctrines and elucidate them to the students of the genuine Islamic beliefs.

‘Alī Rabbānī Gulpāygānī

The Islamic Seminary - Qum

Farvardīn 21, 1384 AHS

Rabī‘ al-Awwal 1, 1426 AH

References

1. Sūrat Āl ‘Imrān 3:19.

Unless otherwise stated, the translation in this volume of Qur’anic passages is adapted from Sayyid ‘Alī Qulī Qarā’ī’s The Qur’an with a Phrase-by-Phrase English Translation (London: Islamic College for Advanced Studies, 2004). [Trans.]

2. Sūrat al-Mā’idah 5:48.

3. “He has prescribed for you the religion which He had enjoined upon Noah and which We have [also] revealed to you, and which We had enjoined upon Abraham, Moses and Jesus, declaring, ‘Maintain the religion, and do not be divided in it.’ Hard on the polytheists is that to which you summon them” (Sūrat al-Shūrā 42:13). See also Al-Burhān fī Tafsīr al-Qur’ān, vol. 4, pp. 179-178.

The abbreviation, “‘a” stands for the Arabic invocative phrase, ‘alayhi’s-salām, ‘alayhim’us-salām, or ‘alayhā’s-salām (may peace be upon him/them/her), which is mentioned after the names of the prophets, angels, Imāms from the Prophet’s progeny, and saints (‘a). [Trans.]

4. Sūrat al-Aḥzāb 33:40; Ḥadīth on the Station of Guardianship (ḥadīth al-manzilah) in Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 5, ḥadīth 56, p. 47 (English Translation); Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, vol. 4, ḥadīths 5913-15, pp. 1284-85 (English Translation).

5. Sūrat al-A‘rāf 7:180.

6. l 16:125.Sūrat an-Nah

7. Ahl al-Ḥadīth refers to many historical and modern Muslim movements that emphasize the use of ḥadīth in matters of religious faith and practices, as opposed to the Ahl al-Rayy or ‘the people of rhetorical theology’. [Trans.]

8. Akhbārī: follower of Akhbarism (akhbāriyyah), a movement, which started within the Shī‘ah world about four hundred years ago. Its ammad Sharīf al-Astarābādī Muhammad Amīn ibn originator was Mullā Muh (d. 1033 AH/1623-24). He openly attacked the Shī‘ah mujtahids in his ūlīs’ claim al-Madaniyyah, vehemently contesting the Us work al-Fawā‘id ūlīs’ hold thethat reason is one of the sources of fiqh. The Us Qur’an, the Sunnah, reason, and ijma‘ (consensus) as valid sources for deduction of the rules of sharī‘ah. The Akhbārīs accepted the validity of only the Sunnah and rejected the rest. Understanding the Qur’an, they claimed, is beyond the capacity of a commoner, being restricted exclusively to the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a). [Trans.]

9. Mu‘tazilī: follower of Muʿtazilah, a Muslim school of theology that flourished in the 8th-10th centuries Baṣrah and Baghdad, which asserts that since knowledge is derived from reason (‘aql), the injunctions of God are accessible to rational thought and inquiry, and reason is the ‘final arbiter’ in distinguishing right from wrong. [Trans.]

10. Abū ’l-Ḥasan al-Ash‘arī (died 330 AH): the founder of Ash‘ariyyah school of theology.

11. Abū Manṣūr Māturīdī (died 333 AH): the founder of Māturīdī school of theology.

12. The abbreviation, “ṣ”, stands for the Arabic invocative phrase, ṣallallāhu ‘alayhi wa ālihi wa sallam (may God’s blessings and peace be upon him and his progeny), which is mentioned after the name of the Holy Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ). [Trans.]

13. It alludes to the Tradition on Two Weighty Things (ḥadīth al-thaqalayn) which is one of the uninterruptedly transmitted (mutawātir) ḥadīths.

See, inter alia, Muslim, Al-Ṣaḥīḥ, (English Translation), Book 31, adīths 3786,ḥadīths 5920-3; Al¬Tirmidhī, Al-Ṣaḥīḥ, vol. 5, pp. 621-2, h adīth 3788; vol. 2, p. 219; Al-Nasā’ī, Khaṣā’iṣ ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, h 79. [Trans.]

14. It alludes to the Tradition on the Ark of Noah (ḥadīth al-ṣafīnah) which is acceptable to and relied upon by ḥadīth scholars (muḥaddithūn).

See, inter alia, Al¬-Ḥakim al¬-Nayshābūrī, Al¬-Mustadrak ‘alā ’ṣ-Ṣaḥīḥayn, vol. 3, p. 151; vol. 2, p. 343; Al-Ṣūyūṭī, Al-Dhurr al-Manthūr, vol. 1, pp. 71-72; Ibn Ḥajar al-Makkī, Al-Sawā’iq al-Muhriqah, p. 140. [Trans.]

15. As recorded in Nahj al-Balāghah, Sermon 16, Imām ‘Alī (‘a) said:

الْيَمِينُ وَالشِّمَالُ مُضَلَّةٌ، وَالطَّرِيقُ الْوُسْطَىٰ هِيَ ٱلْجَادَّةُ عَلَيْهَا بَاقي ٱلْكِتَابِ وَآثَارُ النُّبُوَّةِ.

“On right and left there are misleading paths. Only the middle way is the [right] path which is the Everlasting Book and the traditions of the Prophet.”

16. Minor Occultation (ghaybat al-ṣughrā): the period of about 70 years (260 AH/872 CE-329 AH/939 CE) when the Twelfth Imām Muḥammad al-Mahdī was hidden from the physical plane but remained in communication with his followers through a succession of four appointed deputies, viz., ‘Uthmān ibn Sa‘īd, Muḥammad ibn ‘Uthmān, Ḥusayn ibn Rūḥ, and ‘Alī ibn Muḥammad. At the death of the fourth deputies no successor was named, and the Major Occultation (ghaybat al-kubrā) began, and continues to this day. See Muhammad Bāqir as-Sadr and Murtadā Mutahhari, Awaited Saviour (Karachi: Islamic Seminary Publications), http://www.islam.org/saviour/index.htm; Jassim M. Husain, The Occultation of the Twelfth Imām: A Historical Background (London: Muhammadi Trust, 1982); Ibrāhīm Amīni, Al-Imām Al-Mahdī: The Just Leader of Humanity, trans. ‘Abdul ‘Azīz Sachedina (Qum: Ansariyan Publications), http://www.al-islam.org/mahdi/nontl/index.htm. [Trans.]

Lesson 1: Why Should We Know God?

The question being posed in the context of the ideological discussions about God is this: why should we know God? What is the factor that prompts man to delve into the existence of God? What is the benefit of doing so? What is the harm of not paying attention to it? Two questions, therefore, must be examined here:

1. What is the factor or factors that prompt man to delve into the existence of God?

2. What is the benefit he may get in knowing God and having faith in Him?

In reply to the first question, Muslim theologians have given answers which we shall examine here.

1. The Need for Preventing Serious Losses

No intelligent person will ever doubt the necessity for preventing serious harms. The rule of “the necessity for preventing harm” is considered one of the most enduring principles in human life, and centuries of experience in human life affirm its endurance. Whenever the loss or harm is more serious, the said principle becomes more decisive and conspicuous. In this case, the probability of harm is already enough for man to think of ways to prevent loss.

On the other hand, throughout history, there had been outstanding personalities called prophets and Divine leaders who have emerged, talked about the existence of God, the Divine laws and decrees, and rewards and punishments in the Hereafter, and called upon the people to believe in those doctrines and they themselves were sincerely devoted to the religion while faithfully abiding by their words. If ever from their words and actions there is no certainty about the existence of God, religion and Divine order, the probability of their existence becomes stronger.

It is evident that if such probability is correct, not paying attention to it means incurring extremely great and miserable loss. As such, reason dictates and instinct decrees that one must not be indifferent toward this probability but rather one must discuss and investigate it. On this basis, discussion and study about the existence of God and the heavenly religion becomes essential and definite. As a marginal note to this reason, Muḥaqqiq Baḥrānī writes:

اِنَّ دَفْعَ الضَّرَرِ الْمَظْنونِ الَّذي يَلْحَقُ بِسَبَبِ الْجَهْلِ بِمَعْرِفَةِ اللهِ واجِبٌ عَقْلاً، وَ وُجوبُ دَفْعِ ذلِكَ الضَّرَرِ مُسْتَلْزِمٌ لِوُجوبِ الْمَعْرِفَة.

“To avoid probable harm as a result of not having knowledge of God is compulsory according to the dictate of reason, and the compulsoriness of avoiding this harm necessitates the compulsoriness of knowing God.”1

2. The Need for Gratefulness to the Benefactor

According to reason, thanking one’s benefactor is a desirable and essential act, and refusing to do so is undesirable and abominable. On the other hand, man enjoys enormous bounties in his worldly life. Although the non-existence of the Bestower or Giver of these bounties is possible, His

existence is also possible. The second possibility, therefore, must be taken seriously and one must discuss about the existence or non-existence of a Benefactor, so that if ever He exists, gratitude must be expressed to Him.

In this regard, Muḥaqqiq Baḥrānī said:

اِنَّ الْعاقِلَ إذا فَكَّرَ في خَلْقِهِ وَجَدَ آثارَ النِّعْمَةِ عَلَيْهِ ظاهِرَةً، وَ قَدْ تَقَرَّرَ في عَقْلِهِ وُجوبُ شُكْرِ المُنْعِمِ، فَيَجِبُ عَلَيهِ شُكْرُهُ، فَيَجِبُ إذَنْ مَعْرِفَتُهُ.

“If a wise man reflects on His creation, he will find in himself signs of bounty, and the compulsoriness of thanking the Benefactor is consistent with the dictate of his reason and so he must thank the Benefactor. Therefore, knowing Him is obligatory.”2

3. Sense of Curiosity

Sense of curiosity is one of the powerful human senses. Searching and discussing about the cause [or causes] of events and phenomena are among the clear manifestations of this innate feeling. According to the dictate of this innate tendency, man asks about the causes and reasons for every happening he witnesses.

This innate feeling stimulates him to search for the cause or causes of the totality of happenings in the universe. Just as each of the natural or unnatural events and phenomena has a cause or causes, does the totality of the events and phenomena in the universe have also a metaphysical cause or causes? From this perspective, delving into the existence of a Creator of the universe is a response to an innate need and feeling, i.e. the nature of knowing the cause.

In this regard, ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī said:

“If we do not regard the affirmation of this subject as innate in man (although it is), the essence of the discussion of the Creator of the universe is innate in man because he sees the universe as a whole, observing it as a single unit. And he wants to understand whether or not the cause which can be affirmed through his natural instinct about every phenomenon in the universe can also be affirmed about the universe as a whole.”3

The Benefits of Knowing God

In reply to the second question, it is worthwhile to note the following points:

Firstly, once the discussion is about rational and instinctive investigations, to ask about its benefit is not allowed because such a discussion is the benefit itself. The human being lives in a world whose beginning, end and origin he is not aware of. Naturally, he likes to know its beginning, end and origin. This knowledge in itself, apart from any other benefit it has, is desirable for him. It is not necessary for every scientific or theoretical issue to have definitely scientific benefit.

Secondly, belief and faith is God is one of the most useful and essential beliefs of the human being in life. From the individual perspective, belief and faith in God gives peace of mind and tranquility of the heart as well as nourishes moral virtues, and collectively, it guarantees the implementation of law and justice and the observance of the rights of one another.4

Knowledge of God as the Fountainhead of All Knowledge

At the conclusion of this lesson, we shall quote some sayings of the infallible Imāms (‘a ) in which knowing God has been regarded as the fountainhead of all knowledge:

1. One day, a man came to the Holy Prophet (ṣ ), requesting for the most astonishing of knowledge (gharā’ib al-‘ilm ). The Holy Prophet (ṣ ) asked him, “What do you think is the fountainhead of all knowledge (ra’s al-‘ilm ) such that you are asking for the most astonishing of them?” The man replied, “What is the fountainhead of knowledge [by the way]?” The Holy Prophet (ṣ ) said, “That is to know God as He deserves it.”5

2. Imām ‘Alī (‘a ) said about the station of knowing God:

مَعْرِفَةُ اللهِ اَعْلَى الْمَعارِفِ.

“Knowledge of Allah is the highest level of knowledge.” 6

3. Imām al-Ṣādiq (‘a ) said:

إنَّ أفْضَلَ الفَرائِضِ وَأوْجَبَها عَلَى الإنْسانِ مَعْرِفَةُ الرَّبِّ وَالإقْرارُ لَهُ بِالعُبودِيَّةِ.

“The most superior of all obligations and commandments is to know God and acknowledge Him through servitude [to Him].”

Review Questions

1. Write the first factor that prompts man to delve into the existence of God.

2. State the relationship between the need for being grateful to the Beneficent God and the obligation of knowing Him.

3. State the role of the human nature (fiṭrah ) in knowing God.

4. Enumerate the benefits of knowing God.

5. Write the saying of the Prophet (ṣ) about knowledge as the fountainhead of all knowledge.

References

1. Ibn Maytham Baḥrānī, Qawā’id al-Marām fī ‘Ilm al-Kalām, p. 28.

2. Ibid., p. 29.

3. Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn al-Ṭabāṭabā’ī, Uṣūl-e Falsafeh wa Rawish-e Realism (The Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism), vol. 5, p. 4.

4. Ibid., p. 8 (footnote).

5. Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, Al-Tawḥīd, section (bāb) 40, ḥadīth 5.

6. Ghurar al-Ḥikam wa Durar al-Kalam, p. 81.