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Discursive Theology Volume 1

Discursive Theology Volume 10%

Discursive Theology Volume 1 Author:
Translator: Mansoor L. Limba
Publisher: Al-Mustafa International College
Category: General Books

Discursive Theology Volume 1

This book is corrected and edited by Al-Hassanain (p) Institue for Islamic Heritage and Thought

Author: Dr. ‘Ali Rabbani Gulpaygani
Translator: Mansoor L. Limba
Publisher: Al-Mustafa International College
Category:

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Discursive Theology Volume 1

Discursive Theology Volume 1

Author:
Publisher: Al-Mustafa International College

Book library ›

Beliefs ›

Fundamentals Of Religion ›

General Books


English

This book is corrected and edited by Al-Hassanain (p) Institue for Islamic Heritage and Thought


Lesson 10: The Divine Unity in Lordship


Rubūbiyyah
or Lordship is one of the Attributes of Perfection of God.Rubūbiyyah
is derived from the wordrabb
and lexicographically an infinite (maṣdar
) which meanstarbiyyah
(nurture) but it is most frequently used in the sense of the doer of action (ism fā‘il
) meaning ‘nurturer’. This word, in the latter sense, is exclusively and absolutely applied to God, but it is also applied sometimes to other than God, as in the wordsrabb al-dār
(head of the house),rabb al-firdaws
(doyen of the paradise), etc.1



The wordtadbīr
(management) in the sense ofrubūbiyyah
(lordship) has been used a lot in Qur’anic verses and traditions (aḥādīth
).Tadbīr
means to put a thing next to another thing in a particular order and arrangement in such a way that the intended purpose of each of them could be attained.


For example, managing (tadbīr
) home affairs is to put each thing in its suitable place so that it could be used in the most appropriate manner without wasting anything. Managing the affairs of the universe means to create a particular order among the creatures in such a way that every creature could attain its desired perfection.


This kind of management is a specific management which pertains to every phenomenon but the general management in relation to the entire universe is to let such an order govern the universe so that the world of creation could reach its ultimate goal which is the return to God and the emergence of the hereafter.2




Cosmic and Legislative Lordship


What has been discussed so far pertains to the cosmic (takwīnī
) Lordship and management of the universe, but with respect to some creatures, legislative (tashrī‘ī
) lordship and management are also raised, and this pertains to the creatures which, in addition to the instinctive guidance, also possess rational guidance.


For this reason, they have also rational responsibility but since their reason is not that perfect and that capable in every aspect, they are also in need of legislative guidance which has been provided by the prophets of God (‘a
) and the heavenly religion. This subject constitutes the foundation of prophethood (nubuwwah
) and heavenly codes of law. Therefore, one of the manifestations of Lordship is the legislative one.



Lordship in This World and the Hereafter


The scope of Lordship (rubūbiyyah
) is not limited to this world as it also extends to the Hereafter, and the issues such as forgiveness and expiation of sins, permission to intercede (shafā‘ah
) and granting it and others related to the Hereafter are also among the myriad manifestations of Lordship.


Hence, Lordship or Management (tadbīr
) has numerous manifestations and expressions, some of which are related to this world while others pertain to the next world. Some concern the cosmic realm while others are relevant to the legislative domain, and the concomitance of the principle of the Divine Unity in Lordship is that all these manifestations and expressions [of Lordship] emanate from Him and Him alone. Of course, this exclusivity is related to the Independent and Essential Lordship and not to lordshipper se
, for the Holy Qur’an has also acknowledged indirect lordships emanating


from God and and affirmed the causes and intermediaries in the management of the universe. It has even sworn by the managers of the affairs of the universe:


﴿ فَالْمُدَبِّرٰتِ أَمْرًا ﴾


“By those who direct the affairs [of creatures]!”
3




The Proofs of the Divine Unity in Lordship


1. The concomitance between management (tadbīr
) and creation (khalqiyyah
)


In terms of meaning and implication, management and creation are two different things, just as in terms of applicability regarding the human artifacts they can also be distinguished from each other. That is, it is possible for a person to cause something to exist and for another person to manage it, but this state of affairs is impossible with respect to the creation and management of the universe, for management of all phenomena in the universe cannot persist and be sustained except through creation.


For instance, managing the plant is done in such a way that it is constantly provided with air, heat and other elements of subsistence and the process of life’s growth continues. In reality, they are manifestations of the Divine creation which is reflected in the law of nature. As such, the Holy Qur’an has mentioned creation and management together. We shall mention here some examples of such verses:


﴿ أَلا لَهُ الْخَلْقُ وَالأمْرُ تَبَارَكَ اللَّهُ رَبُّ الْعَالَمِينَ ﴾


“Look! All creation and command belong to Him. Blessed is Allah, the Lord of all the worlds.”
4



﴿ رَبُّنَا الَّذِي أَعْطَى كُلَّ شَيْءٍ خَلْقَهُ ثُمَّ هَدَى ﴾


“Our Lord is He who gave everything its creation and then guided it.”
5



﴿ سَبِّحِ اسْمَ رَبِّكَ الأعْلَى ٭ الَّذِي خَلَقَ فَسَوَّى ٭ وَالَّذِي قَدَّرَ فَهَدَى ﴾


“Celebrate the Name of your Lord, the Most Exalted, who created and proportioned, who determined and guided.”
6



2. Harmony and concordance in the creation and management


Harmony and concordance in the natural phenomena is something indisputable from the perspective of casual observations and scientific studies. On the other hand, the involvement of two independent entities in the creation and management of the universe necessitates chaos and disorder in the order of nature. In view of these two premises, it can be proved that the manager and controller of the universe is One. The following holy verse supports this argument:


﴿ لَوْ كَانَ فِيهِمَا آلِهَةٌ إِلا اللَّهُ لَفَسَدَتَا ﴾


“Had there been gods in them other than Allah, they would surely have fallen apart.”
7



Hishām ibn al-Ḥakam asked Imām al-Ṣādiq (‘a
) about the proof of the Oneness of God. The Imām (‘a
) replied, thus:


إتِّصالُ التَّدْبيرِ وَتَمامُ الصُّنْعِ.


“The cohesion of the management and the harmony of creation [is the proof of the Oneness of God].”8



The Imām (‘a
) then recited the holy verse quoted above.



Human Being’s Deviation Relative to the Divine Unity in Lordship


It can be inferred from a study of the history of religions that many deviations have been made relative to the Divine Unity (tawḥīd
) in Lordship (rubūbiyyah
) - be it cosmic or legislative Lordship. The Holy Qur’an which is the most reliable source in this regard has mentioned examples of polytheism in Lordship. Among them are the verses which give the account of Prophet Ibrāhīm’s (Abraham) (‘a
) debate with the polytheists of his time. It can be deduced from the said verses that they believed in the lordship of the sun and the moon.9



Prophet Yūsuf (Joseph) (‘a
) is also quoted in the Qur’an, addressing his two companions in prison, thus:


﴿ يَا صَاحِبَيِ السِّجْنِ أَأَرْبَابٌ مُتَفَرِّقُونَ خَيْرٌ أَمِ اللَّهُ الْوَاحِدُ الْقَهَّارُ ﴾


“O my prison mates! Are different masters better, or Allah, the One, the All-paramount?”
10



And Pharaoh is also quoted to have said, thus:


﴿ أَنَا رَبُّكُمُ الأعْلَى ﴾


“I am your exalted lord!”
11



It also says about the polytheists during the time of the Holy Prophet (ṣ
):


﴿ وَاتَّخَذُوا مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ آلِهَةً لِيَكُونُوا لَهُمْ عِزًّا ﴾


“They have taken gods besides Allah that they may be a [source of] might to them.”
12



Based on historical accounts, the polytheists used to regard their idols as different manifestations of the natural forces, worshipping them in a bid to benefit from these forces or to be immune from the threat and danger they brought. For instance,Ba‘l
was supposed to be the embodiment of soul, fountains and underground water sources. Worship of thejinn
was also prevalent among them and they usually took refuge in the goddess of thejinn
in horrifying deserts.13



The same point can also be deduced from an account of the beginning of idol-worship in the Arabian Peninsula, for in one of his travels to Shām,14
‘Amr ibn Laḥī observed that the people there used to worship idols. He asked them about their motive in worshipping idols. They told him that they were doing so with the aim of seeking the idols’ help in solving their problems. ‘Amr was convinced of their practice and brought idols with him upon his return to Makkah. He then named one of these idols asHubal
and put it on top of theKa‘bah
and called upon the people to worship it.15



It is worth mentioning that it is pointed out in some verses of the Qur’an that the polytheists during the time of the Prophet (ṣ
) only believed in God’s Lordship and Management of the universe,16
but in view of the earlier quoted verses and historical evidences, it must be said that the management of the entire universe and the important and basic issues of Lordship was considered exclusive to God. On issues, however, like victory, success and warding off undesirable things related to the individual and social life, they


only believed in the lordship of gods and goddesses, and thus, they were polytheists.17




The Divine Unity in Legislation


One of the manifestations and expressions of the Divine Unity in Lordship is Oneness in legislation and law-making. The Holy Qur’an says:


﴿ إِنِ الْحُكْمُ إِلا لِلَّهِ أَمَرَ أَلّا تَعْبُدُوا إِلا إِيَّاهُ ﴾


“Sovereignty belongs only to Allah. He has commanded you to worship none except Him.”
18



Since legislation and determining the duties of individuals is a kind of guardianship (wilāyah
) on them and interference in their affairs and that the guardianship and involvement in the affairs of the universe (including the human beings and others) is exclusive to God on the basis of the Divine Unity in Lordship, no one except Him has the right of legislation and determining the rights and duties of others. One the other hand, what shall be enacted as laws in the legislative houses are actually declarations of the practical and executive ways of realizing the Divine laws and decrees.


For this reason, these laws must be harmonious with the Islamic laws and decrees without any conflict with them; otherwise, they shall be devoid of legitimacy.



The Divine Unity in Sovereignty


The right of sovereignty is primarily and essentially exclusive to God, for sovereignty is a kind of guardianship and management which is peculiar to God alone. On the other hand, governance is one of the social needs of the human being and its realization depends on his sovereignty and domination.


The outcome of these two principles is that some individuals are granted the right of sovereignty by God so as to assume the leadership in society and exercise the right of sovereignty by observing the rational and legislative principles and rules. There is no dispute that the prophets of God (‘a
), in general, and the Holy Prophet (ṣ
), in particular, have enjoyed such a station.


From the Shī‘ah point of view, after the Holy Prophet (ṣ
) this station has been entrusted to his infallible successors, viz. the Imāms from theAhl al-Bayt
(‘a
), just as it was during the Period of Occultation (ghaybah
), the just, pious and competent jurists (fuqahā
) also have such a right. In other words, the system of government in Islam is founded on the concept of guardianship (wilāyah
) and the guardianship of the prophets, the Imāms and the jurists is a manifestation and expression of it.19



We will deal again with this issue in the discussions on Imamate.



The Divine Unity in Obedience


The right to earn obedience (iṭā‘ah
) is primarily and essentially exclusive to God, for He is the Creator and Master of the universe and the human beings. For this reason, obedience to God - so is servitude (‘ubūdiyyah
) to Him - is necessary for all beings. Meanwhile, God’s bestowal of the right of sovereignty and leadership on specific individuals (the prophets and the like) necessitates that obedience to them is also essential for others; otherwise, their guardianship and leadership shall be void and useless in practice.


The way of reconciling the two is to argue that obedience to other than Godper se
is not obligatory on anyone, but obedience to those who are granted guardianship by God on the human beings is obligatory on others by the decree and commandment of God, as it is thus said:


﴿ يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُواْ أَطِيعُواْ اللّهَ وَأَطِيعُواْ الرَّسُولَ وَأُوْلِي الأَمْرِ مِنكُمْ ﴾


“O you who have faith! Obey Allah and obey the Apostle and those vested with authority among you.”20



And it is also stated, thus:


﴿ وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَا مِنْ رَسُولٍ إِلا لِيُطَاعَ بِإِذْنِ اللَّهِ ﴾


“We did not send any apostle but to be obeyed by Allah’s leave.”
21



It is worth mentioning that the manifestations and expressions of the Divine Unity in Lordship and Management are not limited to the abovementioned cases, and they are only mentioned because of their particular importance in the social life of the human beings.



Review Questions


1. State the meanings and types of lordship (rubūbiyyah
).


2. Is the Lordship of God limited only to this world? Explain why.


3. State the proofs of the Divine Unity in Lordship while taking into account the verses of the Holy Qur’an.


4. By taking into account the verses of the Holy Qur’an, explain human beings’ deviation relative to the Divine Unity in Lordship.


5. Explain the Divine Unity in legislation.


6. Explain the Divine Unity in sovereignty.


7. Explain the Divine Unity in obedience while keeping in view of the verses of the Holy Qur’an.

	

	
	



	

		

References


1. Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī, Al-Mufradāt, under the word rabb.


2. Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn al-Ṭabāṭabā’ī, Al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qur’ān, vol. 11, pp. 289-290.


3. Sūrat al-Nāzi‘āt 79:5.


4. Sūrat al-A‘rāf 7:51.


5. Sūrat Ṭā Ḥā 20:50.


6. Sūrat al-A‘lā 87:1-3.


7. Sūrat al-Anbiyā’ 21:22.


8. Shaykh al-Ṣadūq, Al-Tawḥīd, section (bāb) 36, ḥadīths 1-2.


9. Sūrat al-An‘ām 6:76-78.


10. Sūrat Yūsuf 12:39.


11. Sūrat al-Nāzi‘āt 79:24.


12. Sūrat Maryam 19:81.


13. Jihān dar ‘Aṣr-e Bi‘thah (The World during the Prophet’s Mission), p. 21.


14. Shām: the land that included today’s Syria, Lebanon and parts of Jordan and Palestine up until five centuries ago. [Trans.]


15. Ibn Hishām, Al-Sīrat al-Nabawiyyah, vol. 1, p. 79.


16. Sūrat Yūnus 10:31; Sūrat al-‘Ankabūt 29:63; Sūrat al-Mu’minūn 23:86-89.


17. Sayyid Muḥsin Amīn, Kashf al-Irtiyāb, p. 170.


18. Sūrat Yūsuf 12:39.


19. For further information, see the book Dīn wa Dawlat (Religion and Government) by the author.


20. Sūrat al-Nisā’ 4:59.


21. Sūrat al-Nisā’ 4:64.

	

	
	



	

		

Lesson 11: The Divine Unity in Worship


Calling to the worship (‘ibādah
) of One and Only God and abandoning the worship of false deities is one of the most important objectives of all the prophets of God (‘a
), as the Holy Qur’an thus says:


﴿ وَلَقَدْ بَعَثْنَا فِي كُلِّ أُمَّةٍ رَّسُولاً أَنِ اعْبُدُواْ اللّهَ وَاجْتَنِبُواْ الطَّاغُوتَ ﴾


“Certainly We raised an apostle in every nation [to preach:] ‘Worship Allah, and keep away from the Rebel’.”
1



The Muslim schools of thought have a consensus of opinion on worship as exclusive to God alone, but some sects (such as the Wahhābīs) have committed mistakes in interpreting worship. As a result, they mistakenly regard many practices of Muslim as a gesture of honor and respect to the prophets and righteous people as worshipping them and polytheism in worship (shirk fī ’l-‘ibādah
).


So, by referring to the Holy Qur’an, it is necessary for us to know the true meaning of worship. Regarding the issue of the Divine Unity (tawḥīd
) in worship, the Holy Qur’an has focused on the following concepts:


1. Godhood or Divinity (ulūhiyyah
);


2. Mastership or Ownership (mālikiyyah
);


3. Creatorship (khāliqiyyah
); and


4. Lordship (rubūbiyyah
).


That is, only the Being who possesses the abovementioned Attributes is worthy of worship, and since the said Attributes can only be found in God, it follows that worship is due to Him alone, and now we shall quote examples of Qur’anic verses in this regard:


1.Sūrat al-Fātiḥah
first mentions the Lordship and Mastership of God and then declares that worship is exclusive to God alone:


﴿ الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ ٭ الرَّحْمَنِ الرَّحِيمِ ٭ مَالِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ ٭ إِيَّاكَ نَعْبُدُ وَإِيَّاكَ نَسْتَعِينُ ﴾


“All praise belongs to Allah, the Lord of the Worlds, the All-beneficent, the All-merciful, Master of the Day of Retribution. You [alone] do we worship, and to You [alone] do we turn for help.”
2



2. In a universal invitation, the human beings have been summoned to the worship of God who has created all the human beings:


﴿ يَا أَيُّهَا النَّاسُ اعْبُدُوا رَبَّكُمُ الَّذِي خَلَقَكُمْ وَالَّذِينَ مِنْ قَبْلِكُمْ ﴾


“O mankind! Worship your Lord, who created you and those who were before you.”
3



3. The apostles and prophets of God (‘a
) are reminded that Godhood (ulūhiyyah
) is exclusive to God alone. For this reason, they must worship Him alone:


﴿ وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَا مِنْ قَبْلِكَ مِنْ رَسُولٍ إِلا نُوحِي إِلَيْهِ أَنَّهُ لا إِلَهَ إِلا أَنَا فَاعْبُدُونِ ﴾


“We did not send any apostle before you but We revealed to him that ‘There is no god except Me; so worship Me.”
4



4. In another place, by citing that the Lordship (rubūbiyyah
), Godhood (ulūhiyyah
) and Creatorship (khāliqiyyah
) exclusively belong to God, all the human beings are invited to worship Him [alone]:


﴿ ذلِكُمُ اللّهُ رَبُّكُمْ لا إِلهَ إِلاّ هُوَ خالِقُ كُلِّ‏ِ شَيْ‏ءٍ فَاعْبُدُوهُ ﴾


“That is Allah, your Lord, there is no god except Him, the creator of all things; so worship Him.”
5



5. Addressing the Holy Prophet (ṣ
), it is thus stated in another verse:


﴿ وَلِلَّهِ غَيْبُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأرْضِ وَإِلَيْهِ يُرْجَعُ الأمْرُ كُلَّهُ فَاعْبُدْهُ ﴾


“To Allah belongs the Unseen of the heavens and the earth, and to Him all matters are returned. So worship Him.”
6



6. In many verses, the idol-worshippers have been reproached for worshipping objects which cannot give them neither harm nor benefit:


﴿ قُلْ أَتَعْبُدُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لا يَمْلِكُ لَكُمْ ضَرًّا وَلا نَفْعًا ﴾


“Say, ‘Do you worship, besides Allah, what has no power to bring you any benefit or harm?”
7



﴿ وَيَعْبُدُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لا يَضُرُّهُمْ وَلا يَنْفَعُهُمْ ﴾


“They worship besides Allah that which neither causes them any harm, not brings them any benefit.”
8



﴿ وَيَعْبُدُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لا يَمْلِكُ لَهُمْ رِزْقًا ﴾


“They worship besides Allah what has no power to provide them.”
9



﴿ إِنَّ الَّذِينَ تَعْبُدُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ لا يَمْلِكُونَ لَكُمْ رِزْقًا ﴾


“Indeed those whom you worship besides Allah have no control over your provision.”
10




What is Worship?


By studying the totality of the quoted verses, the meaning of worship (‘ibādah
) can be inferred; that worship means any word or gesture of humility and humbleness before a being that is believed to have possessed all or some of the following characteristics:


1. He is Independent and Self-sufficient in His existence and existential perfections;


2. He is the Creator and Originator of all human beings and the universe, and all other creatures;


3. He controls anything and anyone what or who brings benefit and harm to the human beings and other creatures; and


4. He has direct and total involvement or interference in the destiny of the human being and the universe, and He occupies the station of [Exclusive] Lordship [over the entire Creation].


Therefore, the meaning of worship is constituted by two elements, viz. belief and action.


Belief is related to one of the abovementioned characteristics while action refers to any gesture coupled with humility and humbleness, but mere belief or action cannot constitute what is called ‘worship’.


In addition to the fact that this point can clearly be established by studying the verses quoted above, other proofs and pieces of evidence also indicate the same:


1. If we say that every gesture of humility before others - though not coupled with the belief in their Creatorship or Lordship - is considered ‘worship’, we must declare that the child’s meekness in front of her parents, the student’s humility before his teacher, the young’s show of respect to an elder, the ignorant’s humbleness toward the learned, and the like are all examples of worship. As a result, doing these gestures is an act of polytheism in worship although all these actions are encouraged and appreciated by the religious law and reason. Meanwhile, polytheism is essentially evil and knows no exception. For instance, the Qur’an has described it as a great injustice (ẓulmun ‘aẓīm
),11
and injustice is essentially evil.


2. Prostration (sajdah
) in front of others is regarded as the ultimate stage of actual humility, yet as stated in the Qur’an the angels were ordered to prostrate before Prophet Ādam (‘a
),12
and Prophet Ya‘qūb (Jacob) (‘a
) and his wife and children prostrated before Prophet Yūsuf (Joseph) (‘a
).13
If humility without the belief in Godhood is an act of worship, it follows that the action of the angels, Prophet Ya‘qūb (‘a
) and his children are clear manifestations of polytheism in worship.


3. In principle, it must be stated that humility of an imperfect being in front of a perfect being is one of the universal precedents (sunan
) governing the creation. Whenever an entity feels a sense of weakness and inferiority toward another entity that is considered stronger and more perfect, he/it impulsively feels a sense of humbleness and humility toward the other entity.


4. Then, in order to benefit from the said perfection and power or to be immune from any harm to be brought by the other entity, through a suitable gesture, he/it would express his/its humility and humbleness. The humility and modesty of an ignorant person in front of a learned person, a learned person in front of a more learned person is among the many manifestations of the said innate humility, and as such, reason (‘aql
) and natural disposition (fiṭrah
) regard it as something laudable, although the agent may be totally unaware of whether or not this action earns the approval and pleasure of the Law-giver.


Therefore, once humility and lowliness is expressed on account of a perfection which exists in another entity, we cannot consider it blameworthy and objectionable; in fact, such an action is rationally and religiously laudable.


It is very well acknowledged that expressing humility in front of another person is not permissible in two instances:


1. The person to whom humility is expressed is devoid of the perceived perfection for which humility is expressed. It is like the case of someone who expresses humility in front of another person, thinking that the latter person is learned or more learned than the former. In this case, what may be inadmissible would be the action and not the agent, because the motive of the agent in doing so is desirable. Similar is the case of someone who fasts on the day of‘Īd al-Fiṭr
,14
thinking that it is the last day of the month of Ramaḍān. Although fasting on that day is blameworthy and prohibited from


the perspective of religious law, this kind of undue expression of obedience cannot be treated as ‘worship’.


2. The said being possesses the intended existential perfection but not as independent and intrinsic in nature, as in the case of all beings in the universe. Now, if someone regards that existential perfection as inherent in a being and independently his/its own and in spite of knowing that such being is created by God and is in need of his Creator in many of his existential perfections, he still believes that some of the existential attributes and effects are delegated to that being, and therefore, that being acts independently of those aspects. In this case that person worships that being in view such belief he holds and expresses humility and lowliness in front of that being. This kind of humility or worship is not only inappropriate and blameworthy but also an act of polytheism.


At any rate, this conceptual analysis arrives at the same conclusion from a study of Qur’anic verses, and thus, the essence of worship is constituted by two elements. One is belief and intention while the other is actual humility and lowliness (belief and action).



The Wahhābīs and Polytheism in Worship


It becomes clear from the abovementioned points that the scope of polytheism in worship (manifest polytheism and not the other levels of polytheism) is so restricted and it has two types: one is the practical aspect while the other is the ideological aspect. That is, the expression of humility and lowliness in front of any being other than God - in whatever manner - coupled with the belief in his/its Godhood and Lordship.


The Wahhābīs15
have taken a very broad scope of polytheism, particularly in worship. According to them, any kind of humility or humbleness expressed in front of any being other than God is considered polytheism, particularly in worship. They cite two sets of Qur’anic verses to support this point. One set refers to the verses that refer to the polytheism, particularly in worship, committed by the polytheists during the time of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ
).


In these verses, actions such as supplication, seeking intercession (shafā‘ah
) and worshipping the idols with the intention of seeking nearness (qurb
) to God have been regarded by them, the Wahhābīs, as examples of polytheism in worship. Another set refers to the verses which indicate that the polytheists during the time of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ
) had acknowledged the Divine Unity in Creatorship and Lordship. From this perspective, therefore, they were monotheists and not polytheists.


What can be concluded from these two sets of verses is that polytheism in worship has nothing to do with the belief in the Lordship and Mastership of the Object of Worship (ma‘būd
); it is rather concerned with the performance of actions which are themselves considered acts of worship, and since worship is exclusive to God, performing those practices toward any being other than God constitutes polytheism in worship. This is the most important basis of the Wahhābīs in regarding as polytheists all other Muslims and recognizing themselves as monotheists (muwaḥḥid
) with respect to worship.


Considering what we have stated in the discussion related to the Divine Unity in Lordship, the incorrectness of this basis is manifest, for the polytheists during the time of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ
) used to worship idols and other deities and their motive behind those acts of worship was to seek proximity to God and winning the intercession of the deities before God, as declared by the Qur’an, thus:


﴿ وَيَعْبُدُونَ مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ مَا لا يَضُرُّهُمْ وَلا يَنْفَعُهُمْ وَيَقُولُونَ هَؤُلاءِ شُفَعَاؤُنَا عِنْدَ اللَّهِ ﴾


“They worship besides Allah that which neither causes them any harm, not brings them any benefit, and they say, ‘These are our intercessors with Allah.’”
16



And it also says, thus:


﴿ وَالَّذِينَ اتَّخَذُوا مِنْ دُونِهِ أَوْلِيَاءَ مَا نَعْبُدُهُمْ إِلا لِيُقَرِّبُونَا إِلَى اللَّهِ زُلْفَى ﴾


“…and those who take guardians besides Him [claiming,] ‘We only worship them so that they may bring us near to Allah’.”
17



The polytheists (during the Age of Ignorance) supposed that since the Divine Essence is unfathomable and one cannot comprehend the truth of His Essence, worshipping Him directly without any intermediary is not possible. For this reason, they used to worship other beings such as angels, deceased pious people and other creatures whom and which they believed to have some influence on the destiny of man and the universe. By doing so, they were expecting to gain the intercession of their objects of worship and thus attaining comfort in life, and to get nearness to the Lord of lords (rabb al-arbāb
).


Accordingly, the idols made of wood or stone were in reality representations of those deities and objects of worship, although those deities and objects of worship were gradually forgotten in the public memory and the idols became the real deities and objects of worship.


In any case, they used to worship their idols and objectes of worship, and as declared in the previous discussion, belief in the Lordship and Mastership of the Object of Worship is implied in the meaning of worship. This is so while none of the Muslims observes the rites and ceremonies which are performed for the sake of saints (awliyā’
) with the intention of worshipping them. They recognize God alone as the only One worthy of worship and they worship Him alone.


They observe these rites and ceremonies with the intention of honor and reverence to the sublime station of the saints who enjoy the special favor of God, and in reality, this in itself is a sort of worship to God, just as some Wahhābī scholars have interpreted worship (‘ibādah
) to mean the performance of any action (verbal or bodily) which earns the good pleasure of God and has been enjoined by the Qur’an and the Prophet (ṣ
):18



أَلعِبادَةُ إسْمٌ جامِعٌ لِكُلِّ ما يُحِبُّهُ اللهُ وَيَرْضاهُ مِنْ أقْوالِ العِبادِ وَأفْعالِهِم مِمّا أمَرَهُمْ بِهِ في كِتابِهِ عَلىٰ لِسانِ رَسولِهِ.


There is no doubt that showing honor and respect to the prophets and saints of God (‘a
) by means of any action which is permissible and not


prohibited by the religious law earns the pleasure of God, and it is one of the manifestations of honoring the Divine sacraments (sha‘ā’ir Allāh
), and the Qur’an regards it as an indication of the purity of hearts, saying thus:


﴿ وَ مَنْ يُعَظِّمْ شَعَائِرَ اللَّهِ فَإِنَّهَا مِنْ تَقْوَى الْقُلُوبِ ‏ ﴾


“And whoever venerates the sacraments of Allah—indeed that arises from God-wariness of hearts.”
19



Therefore, comparing the practices of Muslims with respect to the practices which are observed for the sake of honoring the sublime station of the holy saints (awliyā’
) with the intention of worshipping God and not worshipping the saints, with the practices of the polytheists with respect to their idols and objects of worship which are done with the intention of worshipping them is totally incorrect and baseless.


If we are supposed to compare the Muslims’ visitation to the graves of pious people to something else, we must do so with the rites pertaining to the visitation to the House of God (Ka‘bah
), in general, and the kissing of the Black Stone (ḥajar al-aswad
), in particular, which are done with no intention other than worshipping God and honoring the Divine sacraments.


At this juncture, one can know the refutation to all the Wahhābī objections to the other Muslim schools of thought with respect to the Divine Unity in worship. They regard as manifestations of polytheism in worship such practices as entreating (tabarruk
) and imploring (istighāthah
) the saints of God (awliyā’
), seeking their intercession (tawassul
), swearing to God by their right, seeking blessings (tabarruk
) from their remnants, making a vow (nadhr
) for the buried ones (ahl al-qubūr
), and the like.


And their basis is nothing but comparison of these practices to the practices of the polytheists during the time of Prophet Muḥammad (ṣ
) which are outwardly similar to each other. This is exactly their error because outward similarity of two actions can never be the basis of uniformity of religious ruling for both actions; otherwise, fighting and struggle in the way of God and in the way ofṭāghūt
20
must have the same religious ruling, for they are the same outwardly and their only difference is in the intention or motive, as the Qur’an testifies, thus:


﴿ الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا يُقَاتِلُونَ فِي سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ وَالَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا يُقَاتِلُونَ فِي سَبِيلِ الطَّاغُوتِ ﴾


“Those who have faith fight in the way of Allah, and those who are faithless fight in the way of the Rebel”
21



The practices of the polytheists with respect to their objects of worship are coupled with the belief in the Lordship and Mastership of their objects of worship and the intention of worshipping them, while the practices of the Muslims in relation to the saints of God and their graves are in no way coupled with the belief in their Lordship and Mastership and the motive is to worship God through giving respect and honor to them as Divine sacraments - something which is acceptable and pleasing to God.



Review Questions


1. Concerning the issue of the Divine Unity (tawḥīd
) in worship, what are the points emphasized by the Holy Qur’an?


2. Elucidate the two elements that constitute the essence of worship.


3. In what way will humility and lowliness in front of any being other than God become laudable and in what way will the same become blameworthy and unacceptable?


4. Why do the Wahhābīs regard any gesture of humility and humbleness in front of any being other than God as polytheism?


5. Write down the invalidity of the Wahhābī view on the Divine Unity in worship.


6. Are entreating (tawassul
) and imploring (istighāthah
) the saints of God (awliyā’
) in conflict with the Divine Unity (tawḥīd
)? Why?

	

	
	



	

		

References


1. l 16:36.Sūrat an-Nah


2. ah 1:2-5.Sūrat al-Fātih


3. Sūrat al-Baqarah 2:21.


4. Sūrat al-Anbiyā’ 21:25.


5. Sūrat al-An‘ām 6:102.


6. Sūrat Hūd 11:123.


7. Sūrat al-Mā’idah 5:76.


8. Sūrat Yūnus 10:18.


9. l 16:73.Sūrat al-Nah


10. Sūrat al-‘Ankabūt 29:17.


11. Sūrat Luqmān 31:13.


12. “And when We said to the angels, ‘Prostrate before Adam,’ they prostrated, except Iblis: he refused and acted arrogantly.” (Sūrat al-Baqarah 2:34)


13. “And he seated his parents high upon the throne, and they fell down prostrate before him.” (Sūrat Yūsuf 12:100)


14. ān. [Trans.]r: the Islamic feast marking the end of the fasting month of Ramad Īd al-Fit


15. ammad ibn ‘Abdul-Wahhāb, the founder of theWahhābī: follower of Muh Wahhābī sect. For a critical review of Wahhabism, see Āyatullāh Ja‘far ānī, Wahhabism (Tehran: Naba’ Organization, 1996),ubh S http://www.al-islam.org/wahhabism; Hamid Algar, Wahhabism: A Critical Essay (New York: Islamic Publications International, 2002). [Trans.]


16. Sūrat Yūnus 10:18.


17. Sūrat al-Zumar 39:3.


18. Al-Jāmi‘ al-Farīd, p. 290, quoting the book Al-Kalimāt al-Nāfi‘ah written by ‘Abd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb.


19. Sūrat al-Ḥajj 22:32.


20. āghūt, which has been used eight times in the Qur’an,The term t applies to any idol, object, or individual that prevents people from āghūt haddoing what is good, and leads them astray. Prior to Islam, t been the name of one of the idols of the Quraysh tribe. This name is also used to mean Satan. Moreover, the term is attributed to the one who rebels against lofty values, or whose despotism surpasses all bounds and who claims the prerogatives of divinity for himself either explicitly or implicitly. [Trans.]


21. Sūrat al-Nisā’ 4:76.