Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Salat al-Ayaat

Issue 1500: * Salat al-Ayaat whose methods will be explained later, becomes obligatory due the following four things:

• Solar Eclipse

• Lunar Eclipse

The prayer becomesWajib even if the moon or the sun are partially eclipsed, and even if they do not engender any fear.

• Earthquake, as an obligatory precaution, even if no one is frightened.

• Thunder and lightning, red and black cyclone and other similar celestial phenomena, which frightens most of the people; similarly for the terrestrial events like receding sea water, or falling mountains which engender fear in these circumstances, as per recommended precaution, Salat al-Ayaat be offered.

Issue 1501: If several events which make Salat al-Ayaat obligatory occur together, one should offer Salat al-Ayaat for each of them. For example, if solar eclipse as well as an earthquake take place, one should offer separate Salat al-Ayaat for each of these two occurrences.

Issue 1502: If a number of qadha Salat al-Ayaat is obligatory on a person, irrespective of whether they have become obligatory due to one and the same thing, like, solar eclipse occurring three times, or due to different events like solar eclipse, lunar eclipse and earthquake, it is not necessary for him while offering the qadha prayers to specify the event for which he is offering the prayer.

Issue 1503: Offering of Salat al-Ayaat is obligatory for the residents of only that town in which the event takes place. It is not obligatory for the people of other towns.

Issue 1504: * The time of Salat al-Ayaat sets in as the eclipse starts, and remains till the eclipse is over. It is better, however, not to delay till the reversal of eclipse commences, though completion of Salat al-Ayaat may coincide with the time of reversal.

Issue 1505: If a person delays offering of Salat al-Ayaat till the sun or the moon starts coming out of eclipse, the niyyat of Ada (i.e. praying within time) will be in order, but if he offers the prayers after the eclipse is over, he should make a niyyat of qadha.

Issue 1506:* If the duration of solar or lunar eclipse allows time for one or less Rak'at, Salat al-Ayaat can be offered with the niyyat of Ada. Similarly, if a person has enough duration of eclipse at his disposal, but he delays till the time to offer one Rak'at remains before the eclipse is over, he will pray with the niyyat of Ada (i.e. within time).

Issue 1507: * When earthquake, thunder lightning and other similar events take place, a person should offer Salat al-Ayaat immediately, not allowing undue delay. But if these occurrences continue for a protracted time, praying immediately is not obligatory. If one delays when one should not, then, as per recommended precaution, Salat al-Ayaat should be offered without the niyyat of ada or qadha.

Issue 1508: If a person did not know about the sun or the moon eclipse, and came to know after the eclipse was over, he should give its qadha if it

was a total eclipse. And if he comes to know that the eclipse was partial, qadha will not be obligatory.

Issue 1509: * If certain people say that the sun or the moon has been eclipsed, but a person hearing that is not satisfied with what they say, and consequently does not offer Salat al-Ayaat, if it transpires later that what they said was true, the person should offer Salat al-Ayaat if it was a total eclipse. And if it was a partial eclipse, it is not obligatory upon him to offer Salat al-Ayaat. The same rule applies if two persons who he does not consider Adil, say that the sun or the moon has been eclipsed and it transpires later that they are Adil''.

Issue 1510: * If a person is satisfied with the statement of persons who know the time of solar or lunar eclipse according to scientific calculation, he should pray Salat al-Ayaat. Also, if they inform him that the sun or moon will be eclipsed at a particular time, and give him the duration of the eclipse, he should accept their words and act accordingly, provided he is fully satisfied with them.

Issue 1511: If a person realises that Salat al-Ayaat offered by him was void, he should offer it again. And if the time has passed, he should offer its qadha.

Issue 1512: If Salat al-Ayaat becomes obligatory on a person at the time of daily prayers, and if he has enough time at his disposal for both, he can offer any of them first. If the time for one of them is short, he should offer that prayers first, and if the time for both of them is short, he should offer the daily prayers first.

Issue 1513: If a person realises during the daily prayers that the time for Salat al-Ayaat is short, and if the time for daily prayers is also short, he should complete the daily prayers and then offer Salat al-Ayaat. But if the time for daily prayers is not short, he should break that prayers and first offer Salat al-Ayaat and then offer the daily prayers.

Issue 1514: If a person realises while offering Salat al-Ayaat, that the time for daily prayers is short, he should leave Salat al-Ayaat and start offering the daily prayers. After completing the daily prayers, and before performing any act which invalidates the prayers, he should start Salat al-Ayaat from where he left.

Issue 1515: * If solar or lunar eclipse, thunder, lightning or any other similar events take place when a woman is in her menses or nifas, it will not be obligatory for her to offer Salat al-Ayaat, nor is there any qadha upon her.

Method of Offering Salat al-Ayaat

Issue 1516: Salat al-Ayaat consists of two Rak'ats, and there are five Ruku in each. Its method is as follows: After making niyyat of offering the prayers, one should say takbir (Allahu Akbar) and recite Surah al-Hamd and the other Surah, and then perform the Ruku. Thereafter, he should stand and recite Surah al-Hamd and a Surah and then perform another Ruku. He should repeat this action five times, and, when he stands after the fifth Ruku, he should perform two Sajdah, and then stand up to perform the second Rak'at in the same manner as he has done in the first. Then he should recite tashahhud and Salam.

Issue 1517: * Salat al-Ayaat can also be offered in the following manner:

After making niyyat to offer Salat al-Ayaat, a person is allowed to say takbir and recite Surah al-Hamd and then divide the verses of the other Surah into five parts, and recite one verse or more or less, and thereafter perform the Ruku.

He should then stand up and recite another part of the Surah (without reciting Surah al-Hamd) and then perform another Ruku. He should repeat this action, and finish that Surah before performing the fifth Ruku.

For example, he may say: Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim Qul a-ao thu bi rabil falaq, and perform the Ruku. He should then stand up and say, Min sharri ma khalaq, and perform another Ruku.

He should then stand up and say, Wa min sharri ghaassiqin e-tha waqab, and perform the third Ruku. Thereafter he should stand up again and say, Wa min sharril nafathaati fil oqaad, and perform the fourth Ruku.

Then he should stand up again and say, Wa min sharri haassidin e-tha hassad, and then perform two Sajdah and then rise for the second Rak'at, the same way as the first Rak'at.

At the end, he should recite tashahhud and Salam after the two Sajdah. It is also permissible to divide a Surah into less than five parts. In that event, however, it is necessary that when the Surah is over, one should recite Surah al-Hamd before the next Ruku.

Issue 1518: There is no harm if in one Rak'at of Salat al-Ayaat, a person after Surah Al Hamd recites another Surah five times, and in the second Rak'at recites Surah Al Hamd, and divides the other Surah into five parts.

Issue 1519: * The things which are obligatory andMustahab in daily prayers are also obligatory andMustahab in Salat al-Ayaat. However, if Salat al-Ayaat is offered in congregation, one may say 'As-salaat' three times in place of Adhan and Iqamah. If the prayer is not being offered in congregation, it is not necessary to say anything.

Issue 1520: It isMustahab that the person offering Salat al-Ayaat should say takbir before and after Ruku, and after the fifth and tenth Ruku he should say Sami'allahu liman hamida before takbir.

Issue 1521: It isMustahab that qunut be recited before the second, fourth, sixth, eighth and tenth Ruku, but it will be sufficient if qunut is recited only before the tenth Ruku.

Issue 1522: If a person doubts as to how many Rak'ats he has offered in Salat al-Ayaat, and is unable to arrive at any decision, his prayer is void.

Issue 1523: * If a person doubts whether he is in the last Ruku of the first Rak'at, or in the first Ruku of the second Rak'at, and he cannot arrive at any decision, his Salat al-Ayaat is void. But if he doubts whether he has performed four Ruku or five, and if the doubt takes place before he goes into Sajdah, he should perform the Ruku about which he is doubtful. But if he has reached the stage of Sajdah, he should ignore his doubt.

Issue 1524: * Every Ruku of Salat al-Ayaat is a Rukn, and if any addition or deduction takes place in them, the prayer is void. Similarly, if an omission takes place inadvertently, or, as a precaution, an addition is made to it unintentionally, the prayers will be void.

Eid ul Fitr and Eid ul Azha Prayers

Issue 1525: Eid ul Fitr and Eid ul Azha prayers are obligatory during the time of Imam (A.S.), and it is necessary to offer them in congregation. However during the present times when the Holy Imam is in Occultation, these prayers areMustahab , and may be offered individually as well as in congregation

Issue 1526: The time for Eid prayers is from sunrise till Zuhr.

Issue 1527: It isMustahab that Eid ul Azha prayers is offered after sunrise. As for Eid ul Fitr, it isMustahab that one should have a breakfast after sunrise, pay Zakatul Fitr and then offer Eid prayers.

Issue 1528: * Eid prayers has two Rak'ats. In the first Rak'at, a person should recite Surah al Hamd and a Surah and then they say five takbirs, and after every takbir he should recite qunut. After the fifth qunut, he should say another takbir and then perform Ruku and two Sajdah. He should then stand up and say four takbirs in the second Rak'at, and recite qunut after everyone of these takbirs. Thereafter, he should say the fifth takbir and then perform Ruku and two Sajdah. After the second Sajdah he should recite tashahhud, and then complete the prayers with Salam.

Issue 1529: Any recital or Dua will suffice in qunut of the Eid Prayers. However, it is better that the following Dua is recited: Allahumma ahlal kibriya'i wal 'azamah, wa ahlal judi wal jaburat, wa ahlal 'afwi war rahmah, wa ahlat taqwa wal maghfirah. As aluka bihaqqi hazal yawmil lazi ja'altahu lil muslimina 'ida, wali Muhammadin sal lal lahu 'Alaihi wa Alihi, zukhran wa sharafan wa karamatan wa mazida an tusalliya 'ala Muhammad wa Ali Muhammad wa an tudkhilani fi kulli khayrin adkhalta fihi Muhammadan wa Ala Muhammad wa an tukhrijani min kulli su'in akhrajta minhu Muhammadan wa Ala Muhammad salawatuka 'alahi wa 'alahim. Alla humma inni as aluka khayra ma sa alaka bihi ibadukas salihun, wa auzubika mim masta aza minhu ibadukal mukhlasun.

Issue 1530: * During the period of 0ccultation of Imam (A.S.), it is an obligatory precaution that two sermons (khutbas) be delivered after Eid prayers, and it is better that on Eid ul-fitr, the sermons should explain rules regarding Zakatul Fitr, and on Eid ul-Azha, rules regarding sacrificing the animals be explained.

Issue 1531: No particular Surah has been specified for Eid prayers. But, it is better that after reciting Surah al Hamd in the first Rak'at, Surah Wash Shams be recited and in the second Rak'at Surah al Ghashiya. Or in the first Rak'at, to recite Surah of Sabbi Hism, and in the second Rak'at Surah Wash Shams.

Issue 1532: It is recommended that Eid prayers be performed in the open fields. However, in Makkah, it isMustahab that it should be offered in Masjidul Haram.

Issue 1533: It isMustahab to walk barefooted to attend Eid prayers, with all the dignity, and to do Ghusl before Salat, and to place a white turban on one's head.

Issue 1534: It isMustahab that in Eid prayers Sajdah be performed on earth, and hands be raised while saying takbirs. It is alsoMustahab that a

person who is offering Eid prayers alone, or as an Imam of the congregation, recites prayers loudly.

Issue 1535: It isMustahab that the following takbirs be said on Eid ul Fitr night (ie night preceding the Eid day), after Maghrib and Isha prayers, and on Eid day after Fajr prayers, as well as after Eid ul fitr prayers: “Allahu Akbar, Alllahu Akbar, la ilaha illal lah wallahu akbar, Allahu Akbar, wa lilla hil hamd, Allahu akbar ala ma hadana”“

Issue 1536: In Eid ul Azha, it isMustahab that the above mentioned takbirs be said after ten prayers, of which the first is the Zuhr prayers of Eid day and the last is the Fajr of 12th Zillhajj. It is alsoMustahab that after the above mentioned takbirs, the following be recited: “Allahu Akbar 'ala ma razaqana min bahimatil an 'am, wal hamdu lil lahi ala ma ablana”.

If, a person happens to be in Mina on the day of Eid ul Azha, it isMustahab that he should say these takbirs after fifteen prayers, of which the first is Zuhr prayers of Eid day, and the last is the Fajr prayers of the 13th of Zillhajj.

Issue 1537: The recommended precaution is that women should avoid going to offer Eid prayers. This precaution does not apply to elderly women.

Issue 1538: Like in all other prayers, the follower should recite everything in the Eid prayers, except Surah al-Hamd and the other Surah.

Issue 1539: If a follower joins the prayers at a time when the Imam has already said some takbirs, he should, while the Imam performs Ruku, say all the takbirs and qunut which he has missed, and it will be sufficient if in each qunut he says: Subhanallah or Alhamdu lillah only.

Issue 1540: If a person joins the Eid prayers when the Imam is in Ruku, he can make niyyat, say the first takbir of the prayers, and then go into Ruku.

Issue 1541: If a person forgets one Sajdah in Eid prayers, he should perform it after the prayers. Similarly, if something takes place for which a Sajadatus Sahv would be necessary after daily prayers, it will also be necessary after the Eid prayers.

Hiring a Person to Offer Prayers

Issue 1542: After the death of a person, another person can be engaged to offer, on payment of wages, those prayers and other acts of worship which the dead person did not offer during his lifetime. And it is also in order if a person offers the services without taking payment for it.

Issue 1543: * A person can accept engagement to offer someMustahab acts like Ziyarat, Umrah, Hajj, on behalf of the living persons. Also he can perform someMustahab acts, and dedicate their thawab to living or dead persons.

Issue 1544: * A person who is hired to offer the qadha prayers of a dead person, should be aMujtahid , or should know the rules of the prayers correctly according to Taqleed, or should act according to precaution, provided that he knows fully on what occasions precaution is to be observed.

Issue 1545: At the time for making niyyat, the hired person must specify the dead person, but it is not necessary that he should know his/her name. Hence, it is enough if he intends: “I am offering prayers for the person on whose behalf I am hired.”

Issue 1546: The hired person should act with the niyyat that he is acting to discharge the obligation of the dead person. It will not be enough if he performs and dedicates its thawab to the dead person.

Issue 1547: One who hires a person, should be satisfied that the hired person will perform the act for which he is hired.

Issue 1548: If it transpires that the person hired for offering prayers for a dead person has not performed it, or has performed incorrectly, another person should be hired for the purpose.

Issue 1549: * If a person doubts whether or not the hired person has performed the act, and in spite of the hired person's assurance, he is not satisfied, he must hire another person. But if he doubts whether or not the hired person has performed it correctly, he should presume that it has been correct.

Issue 1550: * A person who has some excuse (for example, if he offers prayers with tayammum or in a sitting position) should never be hired for offering prayers for a dead person, even if the prayers of the dead person may have become qadha that way.

Issue 1551: A man can be hired on behalf of a woman, and a woman can be hired on behalf of a man, and in the matter of offering prayers loudly or silently, the hired person should act according to his/her own obligation.

Issue 1552: Observing order is not obligatory for the qadha prayers of a dead person, except in the case of prayers whose performance is prescribed in an order, like, Zuhr and Asr prayers or Maghrib and Isha prayers of one day, as has been mentioned earlier.

Issue 1553: If it is agreed with the hired person that he will accomplish it in a particular manner, the hired person should follow the agreement. If nothing has been agreed, then he can perform according to his own obligation. And the recommended precaution is that between his own obligation and that of the dead person, he should choose that which is nearer to precaution - for example if the obligation of the dead person was to say

tasbihat arba'ah (recital of the third or fourth Rak'at while standing) three times, and his own obligation is to say it once, he should recite three times.

Issue 1554: If it is not agreed with the hired person how manyMustahab acts he will perform, he should perform as much as is usual.

Issue 1555: If a person engages several people for offering the qadha prayers of a dead person, it is necessary, as explained in rule no.1552, that he should fix a time for each one of them.

Issue 1556: If, a hired person agrees to offer the prayers of a dead person within one year, but he dies before the year ends, another person should be hired to offer the uncompleted prayers. And if he feels that the hired person probably did not offer some prayers, even then, as an obligatory precaution, another person should be hired.

Issue 1557: * If a person hired for offering the prayers of a dead person, dies before offering all the prayers, and if he had taken wages for all the prayers, if the hirer has placed a condition that he would offer all the prayers himself, the hirer can take back the proportionate amount of wages for the remaining prayers. Or he can cancel the contract and pay an adequate sum. And if it was not agreed that the hired person would offer all the prayers himself, then the heirs of the deceased should pay from his estate, and engage another person to complete the task. And if there is nothing in the estate, it is not obligatory upon the heirs.

Issue 1558: If the hired person dies before offering all the qadha prayers of the dead, and if he himself had some qadha of his own, if there is any residue from his estate after acting according to the above rule, someone should be hired to perform all his qadha if he has willed, and his heirs give permission. And if they do not permit, his one-third (thuluth) should be spent for the qadha prayers.

Haa

al-hass al-‘amm

A term used by al-Khawarizmi to denote common sense. See also al-hiss al-mushtarik.

hashiyatain

Lit. "two margins or limits"; technically the term denotes the doctrine of the philosophers, particularly that of Mulla Sadra, according to which all existents have "two limits", one towards the Necessary Being (al-wajib al-wujud, q.v.) and the other towards the prime matter (hayula, q.v.). See also al-Shaikh al-Yunani (Plotinus) in whom we already meet a similar view about existents.

hal

An intermediate "mode of existence", between being and non-being. In tasawwuf the term denotes an instantaneous trans-temporal mystical state by which a Sufi is seized in the act of encounter with a "favour" or grace from God.

hujjat al-Islam

"The convincing proof of Islam”, the honorific title given to the greatest theologian of Islam, Imam al-Ghazali (450-505/1058-1111), one of the greatest and most original thinkers, not only in the history of Muslim philosophy but in the history of human thought. This title befits him most because of his defense of the teachings of Islam through a remarkable criticism of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers in his celebrated work: Tahafut al-Falasifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers). Links: Ghazali's Site.

hadd

A term, i.e. word or combination of words, which by itself can be used as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.); also the definition of a term. See also the various kind of hadd.

al-hadd al-asghar

The minor term, i.e. the term which is used as a subject in the conclusion of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.).

al-hadd al-akbar

The major term, i.e. the term which is used as predicate in the conclusion of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.).

al-hadd al-ausat

The middle term; the term which is common to the two premises in a syllogism and functions as a uniting link between them; it is, however, absent from the conclusion.

al-hadd al-tamm

The complete definition of a thing consisting of its proximate genus and differentia, e.g. the definition of man as a rational animal; also called al-hadd al-kamil.

hads

The capacity of the mind to draw immediate inferences from the data presented to it or to see through a kind of mental illumination the necessary connection between premises and conclusion.

al-hadd ghair al-muwati

The syncategorematic word, i.e. one which by itself cannot be used as a term (hadd), i.e. as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.), by itself without the support of other words, such, for example, as definite or indefinite article, preposition, etc.

al-hadd al-kamil

The perfect definition of a thing consisting of its proximate genus and differentia, e.g. the definition of man as a rational animal.

al-hadd al-muwati

The categorematic word which can be used as a term (hadd), i.e. as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.), by itself without the support of other words; such is usually a noun, pronoun, an adjective, etc.

al-hadd al-naqis

The imperfect definition of a thing referring merely to its differentia or to the differentia and the remote genus, e.g. definition of man as one who is rational or a "body" which is rational.

al-hudud al-thalathah

"The three terms", i.e. the three terms of syllogism (qiyas, q.v.), viz. the major term (al-hadd al-akbar, q.v.), the minor term (al-hadd al-asghar, q.v.) and the middle term (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.).

hadith

Temporal, originated. (AnAc)

harakat al-Ittisal

Continuous. See Fazlur Rahman, Sadra, 103, line 27. (AnAc)

al-harakat al-iradiyah

Voluntary movement as opposed to constrained or forced movement (al-harakat al-qasriyah, q.v.); al-harakat al-iradiyah is also distinguished from al-harakat al-tabi‘iyah (q.v.) for, whereas the former is multidirectional, the latter is unidirectional.

al-harakat al-dhatiyah

The movement of a body not through an intermediary but by itself -opposed to al-harakat al-‘ardiyah (q.v.).

al-harakat al-tabi‘iyah

Natural movement, for example, a stone falling on the ground; it is necessarily a linear or unidirectional movement as compared to al-harakat al-iradiyah (q.v.) which may be multilinear or multidirectional.

al-harakat al-‘ardiyah

Lit. "accidental movement"; technically movement of a body through an intermediary, e.g. the movement of a ring on the finger along the movement of the finger or the movement of a person sitting in a boat along the movement of the boat -opposed to al-harakat al-dhatiyah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-ain

Movement of a body from one place to another; it is also called naqlah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-kamm

Quantitative change in a body; it is of four kinds: when the quantitative change in a body is due to nourishment or lack of it is called namuw (growth) or dhubul (decay or dimunition); and when a change is independent of the factor of nourishment or lack of it, it is either takhalkhul (q.v.), i.e. expansion, e.g. of water into steam takathuf (q.v.), i.e. compression or condensation, e.g. of steam vapours into water.

harakat fi’l-kaif

Qualitative change in a body from one state or condition into another, e.g. water becoming hot after it was cold; also called istihalah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-wad‘

Movement on account of the change in the position of a body, e.g. a man who is sitting suddenly lies down; sometimes identified with al-harakat al-mustadirah (q.v.), e.g. the movement of a millstone in a mill which is a movement within the surrounding surface or space of a body of the millstone and not from one place to another.

al-harakat al-qasriyah

Forced or constrained movement, for example, of a stone thrown upwards; opposed to al-harakat al-iradiyah (q.v.).

al-harakat al-mustadirah

Lit. "the circular movement"; technically the movement of body within the surrounding surface or space of that body as distinguished from harakat fi’l-ain (q.v.) which is a movement from place (makan) to another; this movement is peculiar to the celestial spheres in the Ptolemaic astronomy.

al-harakat al-mustaqimah

Linear or unidirectional movement peculiar to bodies in the world of elements; contrasted with al-harakat al-mustadirah (q.v.) peculiar to the heavenly bodies in the world of celestial spheres.

al-hiss al-mushtarik

The common sense (sensus communis) located in the first ventricle of the front brain; it combines all the forms of the sensible objects that are received through the five external senses (al-hawas al-khamsah, q.v.). It may be said

that it is a faculty in which all the sense-perceptions are so coalesced that they assume a single form. This is how when we see the yellow colour of honey, we can internally tell that it is sweet, good-smelling and fluid; true, we have our past experiences of the taste, smell and touch of honey without sensing them again has become possible only through the functioning of the faculty of common sense.

hissah

Case (see Asfar, 1: 43) (AnAc)

hukm

A proposition, i.e. a logical judgement expressed in a sentence. It is an assertion or statement of the relation of agreement or disagreement between two terms one of which is called the predicate (mahmul, q.v.) and the other the subject (maudu‘, q.v.) of that predicate synonymous with qadiyah (q.v.).

al-hukm al-salib

A logical judgement in which the predicate is mentally denied of the subject.

al-hukm al-mujib

A logical judgement in which the predicate is mentally affirmed of the subject.

al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah

"Illuminationist theosophy": a school of thought in Muslim religio-philosophical thought which identifies philosophy with wisdom and gnosis rather than with abstract speculation and rational systematisation. Accordingly, unlike the Peripatetic philosophers of whom it is mostly critical, it lays greater emphasis on intuition (attained through invocation, meditation and purification of the soul) than on discursive intellect to reach the light of wisdom which, it maintains, was first revealed to the prophets and only partly understood and even misinterpreted by the Greek philosophers. As enunciated in the Hikmat al-Ishraq (528/1186) by Shihab al-Din al-Suharwardi (549-587/1153-1191), the founder of the school, it integrates Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy with the Zoroastrian principles of light and darkness along with its peculiar angelogy and Hermetic ideas and places the whole system within the context of Sufism. the outstanding among those who kept up the tradition of Ishraqi school were Mir Damad (d. 1041/1631), Mulla Sadra (d. 1050/1640) and Haji Hadi Sabziwari (d. 1295/1878). See also al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah.

al-hikmat al-bahthiyah

Philosophy based on discursive intellect and its abstract speculations, a name given by the philosophers of Illuminationism to the philosophy of Aristotle and his representatives in Muslim philosophy (masha’iyun). See also al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah.

al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah

Philosophy based on Illuminative disclosures of inner experiences and mystical intuitions as opposed to al-hikmat al-bahthiyah (q.v.), the

philosophy based on discursive intellect and theoretical speculations. A distinction made by the philosophers of Illuminationism (, q.v.). While the former opens up new frontiers of experience and suggestion and inner illumination, the latter merely enters into subtle dialectical discussions through definitions, explanations and abstract speculations. See also al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah.

al-hikmat al-riyadiyah

The science of mathematics which consists of four disciplines: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and theory of music.

al-hikmat al-majhuulah

"The unknown wisdom", i.e. those acts of God the wisdom of which remain unknown to human beings, for example the infliction of pain upon the innocent and virtuous. The term is used equally with reference to such religious beliefs as are beyond our finite understanding.

al-hikmat al-muwwahamah

The Arabic title given by al-Farabi to Aristotle’s sixth book on logic, viz. Sophistici Elenchi. See also Sufistiqah.

hay'ah

State [see al-Farabi, Fusul al-Madani, Fasl 1, 103, Dunlop trans. 27. composition [see my translation of Asfar 1: 21, line 1] (AnAc)

haduth

Temporal origination, temporal emergence, becoming. (AnAc)

hulul

Fusion, permeation or indewelling; a term used in philosophy in different senses: (1) the substantial union of the body and soul; (2) indewelling of the divine spirit in man; (3) inherence of an accident in its substance; (4) the union of form (surah) with prime matter (hayula, q.v.); (5) the relation between a body and its place.

al-hulul al-jawari

The relation of something being contained in a container like water in a water-pot, a term used synonymous with (al-hulul al-tarayani, q.v.).

al-hulul al-sarayani

The fusion of a thing into another so that it penetrates into every part of the latter like the fragrance of a rose into the rose flower.

al-hulul al-tarayani

The relation of something being contained in a container like water in a water-pot; also sometimes called al-hulul al-jawari opposed to al-hulul al-sarayani (q.v.).

haml al-ishtiqaq

Incomplete or partial prediction of a subject in a subject-predicate proposition, e.g. when we say that man is a biped.

haml al-muwatah

Complete prediction of a subject in the subject-predicate proposition so that the two become congruent and convertible with each other, e.g. when we say that man is a rational animal; opposed to haml al-ishtiqaq (q.v.).

al-hawas al-batinah

The internal senses; these include common sense(al-hiss al-mushtarik, q.v.), formative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah, q.v.), memory (al-quwwat al-mutadhakkirah, q.v.), imagination (al-quwwat al-mutakhayyilah, q.v.) and estimative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutawahhimah, q.v.); see also al-quwwat al-mudrikah.

al-hawas al-khamsah

The five external sense: touch (lams), taste (dhauq), smell (shamm), sight (basr) and hearing (sam‘), which this order according to the philosophers, from a series in a graded order in which the distinctive nature of the sensation receiving the form without the mother of its object is increasingly manifested.

al-hawas al-zahirah

The external senses; include touch (lams), taste (dhauq), smell (shamm), sight (basr) and hearing (sam‘); these are five senses (al-hawas al-khamsah) if touch is considered a single sense, but eight (al-hawas al-thamaniyah) if it is supposed to comprise the four pairs of contraries: hot (hararah) and cold (burudah); dry (yubusah) and moist (rutubah); hard (salabah) and soft (rakhamah); and smooth (mulasah) and rough (khushunah).

Hayy Ibn Yaqzan

"The living One, Son of the Vigilant", the title of the celebrated philosophical romance -one of the most remarkable works of the Middle Ages -by the Andulsian Muslim philosopher Ibn Tufail (504?-581/ 1110?-1185). No book on Muslim philosophy perhaps has been translated into so many languages of the world as this. link: an English language translation that was done in 1906(?).

Khaa

khas

Lit. "particular". The fifth predicable of the alfaz al-khamsah as set out by Porphyry (233-c. 304 C.E.) in his Isagoge(Isaghuji, q.v.) that was the introduction to Aristotle's work titled "categories." This entry is not the printed text..

kharq al-‘adah

"The splitting of nature"; that which is against the usual or customary way of nature, i.e. any extraordinary or miraculous phenomenon.

al-Khatabah

The Arabic title given to Aristotle's seventh book on logic, viz. Rhetorica; see also Rituriqa.

khasm

Lit. "enemy", but technically the adversary in a discussion, i.e. each one of the two controversialists who speaks either for or against an issue.

khala’

"Void". According to most philosophers, particularly the Peripatetics, void or vacuum as empty nothingness does not exist and that it is "only a name" or better "an empty thought". Void is impossible, it is argued, because all space can be increased, diminished or divided into parts and so must contain something which is capable of being increased, diminished, or divided.

khalf

The antithesis of a thesis or a proposition which falsifies another proposition; in general khalf means simply an objection.

khalq

Creation of the world of nature, i.e. an act of creation which is through the intermediaries of matter and time and which presupposes causal priority; to be distinguished from ibda‘ (q.v.).

khawalif

Lit. "surrogates", a term used by the logicians for demonstrative or personal pronouns.

al-khayal al-muttasil

The universal or Idea as embodied in and conjoined with the particulars of which it is the universal-a thesis of Aristotle and the Aristotelians.

al-khayal al-munfasil

The universal or Idea separated from the particulars and subsisting in the realm of (Platonic) Ideas-a view held by Plato and the Platonists.

Daal

dakhilatan taht al-tadadd

The two sub-contrary propositions; see al-qadiyatan al-dakhilatan taht al-tadadd.

da‘im

Perpetual. (AnAc)

darajah

Stage. (AnAc)

dalalah

The manner in which a vocable (lafz) signifies the meaning of a thing that it designates; it is of three kinds: dalalat al-mutabaqah (q.v.), dalalat al-tadammun (q.v.) and. dalalat al-iltizam (q.v.). {Also: connotation, signify the meaning (of something) [see S. Afnan, Avicenna: His Life and Works, 92-3]. (updated by: AnAc)}

dalalat al-iltizam

Signification by association or implication between the word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "roof" is used to designate the walls as well; the latter designatum is associated with or implied in the former.

dalalat al-tadammun

Signification of partial accord between the word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "house" is used to signify only a part of the house, i.e. its roof only or walls only, etc.

dalalat al-tatafful

A term used by Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul (549-587/1153-1191) for dalalat al-iltizam (q.v.).

dalalat al-haitah

A term used by Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul for dalalat al-tadammun (q.v.)

dalalat al-mutabaqah

Signification of complete accord between a word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "house" is used to signify the whole of the house taking all its parts, the walls, the roofs, the floors, etc. into consideration.

dalil

A word of common use in philosophical discourse but bearing different meanings among which the following should be distinguished: ( i ) designation or indication by which a sign "leads" to another sign or thing; (2) proof in a general sense to be distinguished from a proof in the strict sense, i.e. from the syllogistic proof [al-burhan al-mutlaq (q.v.) or al-burhan al-qati‘ (q.v.)] in deductive logic by which the particular is deduced from the

universal; (3) more specifically the proof by which the cause is inferred from the effect or universal from the particular; see also istidlal and al-burhan al-’inni.

al-dalil al-iqna‘i

The persuasive argument; see iqna and qiyas al-iqna‘i.

al-dalil al-murafa‘ah ila al-shakhs

The fallacy of argumentum ad hominem: a kind of the fallacy of ignoratio elenchi (mughalatat al-natijah ghair al-muta‘alliqah, q.v.) ; see also mughalatat al-dalil al-murafa‘ah ila al-shakhs.

dahr

The eternal duration in which eternity in past (azal, q.v.) is in a constant union with eternity in future (abad, q.v.). Dahr being the innermost essence or part of time (zaman, q.v.), encompasses it altogether. Dahr, compared with time and measured by it, is found to have a permanence corresponding exactly to the permanence of time with reference to what is contained in it; see also sarmad.

daur

A term used in logic to denote the circularity in argument or proof which occurs when a proposition is put forward followed by a number of propositions successively and at the end the last proposition is posited as the proof of the original proposition. It is, thus, a kind of petitio principii. In a simpler form it may be merely the rotation of two proposition, one used as a proof of the other. See also al-musadarah ‘ala’l-matlub al-awwal and muqati‘.

Dimiqratis

Democritus of Abdera (c. 460-370 B.C.): famous in Muslim philosophy for his theory of atoms; generally considered to be the founder of Greek atomism and also of the notion of empty space.

Dayujans al-Kalabi

Diogenes of Sinope (412-323 B.C.): Greek cynic philosopher; studied under Antisthenes (c. 444-368 B.C.); the founder of cynicism (kalabiyah, q.v.). Diogenes rejected all social conventions. According to a tradition current in Arabic as well as in Persian literature, he once went through streets holding up a lantern "looking for an honest man". According to another similar tradition, he was visited at Corinth by Alexander the Great who asked if he could oblige the philosopher in any way, "Yes", Diogenes, "stand from between me and the sun."

Dhal

dha’i‘at

Generally accepted or widespread data or premises, i.e. propositions to which the evidence of the majority of people as well as of those learned in the sciences causes our assent.

dhat

A common term in philosophical discourse but used in different senses of which the following should be noted: (1) Thing or individual (in this sense identical with shai or ‘ain, q.v.). (2) Being or self (identical with anniyah, q.v.). (3) The essence of a thing, its inner meaning or its essential qualities (in this sense identical with mahiyah, q.v.). (4) Substance or substratum of a thing in which the qualities inhere or of which the attributes can be predicated (in this sense more or less identical with jauhar, q.v.).

dhakirah

The faculty of memory or reminiscence; see al-quwwat al-mutadhakirah.

dhubul

Dimunition or decay of body due to lack of nourishment; one of the four kinds of harakah fi’l-kamm (q.v.).

dhu

The category of "ownership" or possession as one of the ten Aristotelian categories (al-maqulat al-‘ashr, q.v.); see also milk.

dhu al-jihatain

Dilemma, i.e. the complex syllogism which has for its major premise the two conditional conjunctive propositions (al-sharti al-muttasilah, q.v.) and for the minor premise the conditional disjunctive (al-sharti al-munfasil, q.v.) which together lead to a conclusion either in the categorical or in the conditional disjunctive; see also qiyas dhu al-jihatain.

dhauq

Taste sensation, a power placed in the gustatory nerves. spread out on the skin of the tongue. By this power or faculty tastes are perceived through the mixing of the saliva which is in the mouth with the thing tasted and through its stimulating the gustatory nerves. The two senses of touch and taste are found in all animals for these are of primary importance for the animal life. The rest of the three senses, i.e. smell, sight and hearing, being of secondary importance, are found in some animals only. See also tu‘um.

Dhiyasquridhus

Dioscorides: Greek physician of first century C.E.; his work on Materia Medica was translated into Arabic by Hunain ibn Ishaq (d. 264/877).

Dhayufantus

Diophantus: Greek mathematician of the second half of third century C.E., said to be a great Greek writer on algebra.

Raa

ribatah

Lit. "connection", technically the copula, i.e. the relation between subject and predicate in a proposition.

al-radd ‘ala al-imtina‘

Reductio ad impossibile, the refutation of a proposition by showing that its consequences are impossible or logically absurd. See also muqati‘.

ridf

Lit. "consequent"; a term sometimes used in logic to denote the conclusion in a syllogism, i.e. the inferred propositions or premises. See also qiyas.

al-rasm al-tamm

The complete description of a thing as distinguished from its complete definition (al- hadd al-tamm, q.v.); it generally refers to the proximate genus and the proprium of a thing, e.g. the description of man as a laughing animal.

al-rasm al-naqis

The imperfect description of a thing which refers to one of its properties (propria) or the property along with the remote genus (al-jins al-ba‘id), e.g. the description of man as one who laughs or a "body" that laughs. More often it refers merely to the accidents (a‘rad) of a thing, e.g. when we describe man as one who stands erect, walks on his feet, grasps things with his hands, etc.

raf‘ al-tali

The denial of the consequent in the minor premise of a hypothetical syllogism (al-qiyas al-sharti al-istithna’i, q.v.) leading to the denial of the antecedent in the conclusion; a valid mode of reasoning know as Modus Tollens, i.e. the negative mode of hypothetical syllogism; opposed to wad‘ al-tali (affirmation of the consequent in the minor premise) which is a form of logical fallacy. See also mughalatah wad‘ al-tali.

raf‘ al-muqaddam

The fallacy of the denial of antecedent; see also mughalatah raf‘ al-muqaddam.

Rawaqiyah

Stoicism, so named by the Muslim philosophers because the founder of the school of Stoicism, Zeno (Zainun, q.v. as distinguished from Zainun al-Akbar, q.v.) used to teach in a rawaq, i.e. in Stoa Poecile or a Painted Porch at Athens. According to the Stoics, virtue alone is good while there are no degrees of moral goodness: it is all or nothing. One ought to have a full control of one’s passions and desires by becoming completely indifferent to pain and pleasure; for, thus, alone could one attain to the life of virtue. The Stoics enlarge the area of moral responsibility from the confines of a City-

State to include all human beings. Everyone is a citizen of one and the same state, i.e. the State of Humanity. All men are of one blood, of one family and so each should treat everyone else as "scared beings". In their view of the universe they included a kind of pantheism. The Muslim philosophers welcomed their humanitarianism and cosmopolitanism, and also keenly studied their theory of knowledge and logic.

al-ruh al-jariyah

The travelling spirit or soul which is supposed to leave the body during sleep and give rise to dreams; opposed to (al-ruh al-muhkam, q.v.).

al-ruh al-hayawaniyah

The animal soul, common to the rational and the non-rational animals. It is supposed to be located in the heart from where the animal spirits spread into the arteries and capillaries and thus in all parts of the body; also called (al-ruh al-ghariziyah, q.v.). See also al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-tabi‘iyah

"The natural soul", common to animals and plants. In animals it is supposed to be located in the liver from where it spreads into all the veins of the body. See also al-nafs al-nabatiyah and al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-ghariziyah

The animal spirits emanating from the heart and spreading in all parts of the body. See also al-ruh al-hayawaniyah and al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-muhkam

The resident soul which unlike the travelling soul (al-ruh al-jariyah, q.v.) is supposed never to leave the body.

al-ruh al-nabatiyah

The vegetable soul; see al-ruh al-tabi‘iyah and al-nafs al-nabatiyah.

al-ruh al-nafsaniyah

The sensual soul; it is supposed to reside in the brain from where, through the nerves, it spreads itself in all parts of the body.

ru’us al-fada’il

Four cardinal virtues, viz. wisdom (hikmah), courage (shaja‘ah), temperance (‘iffah) and justice (‘adalah); each of them has been further divided by Muslim ethicists into many sub-species of virtues. See also ummahat al-fada’il.

Rituriqa

Rhetorica or the Rhetoric: Aristotle’s seventh book on logic, also entitled as al-Khatabah (q.v.) in Arabic; it deals with the art of persuading through oratorical devices.

Zaa

zuhal

The planet Saturn or its sphere ( falak, q.v.); see also al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

zaman

Time. It is dependent on movement and yet different from it. Whereas movement shows diversity in direction, time proceeds always and only in one direction. Time is known only in relation of before and after like a movement in a straight line and at a uniform rate. It, thus, can be expressed only in a series of continuous quantities (al-kamm al-muttasil, q.v.). Bodies are in time, not in their essence, but because they are in movement and movement is in time. Time belongs to the category of the created beings, but it is nowhere except in itself. So far as this world of ours is concerned it is measured and made known by the movements of the heavenly bodies. See also dahr and sarmad.

zuhrah

The planet Venus or its sphere ( falak, q.v.); see also al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

zauj al-zauj

"Pair of pair": a number, say 64, which is continuously divisible by two till the dividend is one.

Zainun

Zeno of Citium (c. 340-265 B.C.), the founder of Stoicism; distinguished generally in the Muslim works on history of philosophy from Zeno of Elea by calling the latter as Zainun al-Akbar (q.v.); see also Ashab al-Mazallah and Rawaqiyah.

Zainun al-Akbar

Zeno of Elea (c. 490-430 B.C.), disciple of Parmenides (Barminidus, q.v.). He is famous for his paradoxes on motion and plurality, which he advanced to defend the block-reality monism of his master. They, however, raised good deal of controversy and, thus, contributed to increase logical and mathematical rigour throughout the ages.

Seen

al-salibat al-juz’iyah

The particular affirmative proposition; see al-qadiyat al-salibat al-juz’iyah.

al-salibat al-kulliyah

The universal negative proposition; see al-qadiyat al-salibat al-kulliyah.

Sirr al-Asrar

Secreta Secretorum, an apocryphal work ascribed by Muslim scholars to Aristotle (Aristatalis, q.v.). It is a work on folklore, physiognomy and dietetics and is superstitious in its tone rather than scientific; hence its wide popularity in medieval times. It was also well known in the Western Caliphate, for a reference to it is found in al-‘Iqd al-Farid (The Unique Necklace), an anthology by Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih (d. 328/940) of Cordova. The first Arabic translation of the work from Greek original is ascribed to Yahya ibn Batriq (3rd/9th century C.E.).

sarmad

Absolute eternity, i.e. eternity without beginning (azal, q.v.) and also without end (abad, q.v.); sometimes considered time as absolutely fixed and unchanging. Sarmad is distinguished from dahr (q.v.) by maintaining that whereas dahr encompasses zaman (q.v.) sarmad encompasses dahr. Sarmad is used with reference to the relation between the two eternals (as, for example, between the essence of God and His attributes); dahr with reference to the relation between the eternal and the changing (as, for example, between God and the world); and zaman with reference to the relation between the two changing series (as, for example, between the movement of the heavenly spheres and the phenomenal changes on earth). See also zaman.

sufustah

Sophism, i.e. a piece of false reasoning which is employed. with the intention of deceiving somebody.

Suqratis

Socrates (c. 470-399 B.C.): Greek philosopher, the teacher of Plato whose Dialogues represent the essential philosophical teachings of the master. As Socrates did not himself write anything on philosophy, his influence on Muslim philosophical thought was only through Plato.

sam‘

a power placed in the nerves spread out in the cavity of the ear-hole (meatus) by which sounds are perceived. Sound is a vibratory movement of the outer air which is transmitted to the air in the ear-hole through impact. This transmitted vibration in the inner air stimulates the auditory nerves resulting in the sensation of hearing.

Sinibliqus

Simplicus : Greek philosopher, one of the last Neoplatonists. After the closing of Plato’s Academy in 529 C.E. he sought refuge at the court of Chosroës and remained there until about 533. He wrote commentaries on a number of Aristotle’s works, viz. De Coelo, Physica, De Anima and Categoriae.

su’ i‘tibar al-haml

The fallacy of secundum quid; see mughalatah su’ i‘tibar al-haml.

sur

The quantifier of a proposition indicated by the expressions. like "all", "some", "not all", "not some", "one", or "not one" specifying the quantity of a proposition; such a proposition is named al-qadiyat al-mussawarah (q.v.) or al-qadiyat al-mahsurah (q.v.) as opposed to al-qadiyat al-muhmalah (q.v.).

Sufistiqa

Sophistici Elenchi, Aristotle’s sixth book on logic, also entitled as al-Maghalit or al-Hikmat al-Muwwahmah (q.v.) in Arabic; it deals with the fallacies of logical reasoning, intentional or otherwise.

Haa

al-hass al-‘amm

A term used by al-Khawarizmi to denote common sense. See also al-hiss al-mushtarik.

hashiyatain

Lit. "two margins or limits"; technically the term denotes the doctrine of the philosophers, particularly that of Mulla Sadra, according to which all existents have "two limits", one towards the Necessary Being (al-wajib al-wujud, q.v.) and the other towards the prime matter (hayula, q.v.). See also al-Shaikh al-Yunani (Plotinus) in whom we already meet a similar view about existents.

hal

An intermediate "mode of existence", between being and non-being. In tasawwuf the term denotes an instantaneous trans-temporal mystical state by which a Sufi is seized in the act of encounter with a "favour" or grace from God.

hujjat al-Islam

"The convincing proof of Islam”, the honorific title given to the greatest theologian of Islam, Imam al-Ghazali (450-505/1058-1111), one of the greatest and most original thinkers, not only in the history of Muslim philosophy but in the history of human thought. This title befits him most because of his defense of the teachings of Islam through a remarkable criticism of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers in his celebrated work: Tahafut al-Falasifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers). Links: Ghazali's Site.

hadd

A term, i.e. word or combination of words, which by itself can be used as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.); also the definition of a term. See also the various kind of hadd.

al-hadd al-asghar

The minor term, i.e. the term which is used as a subject in the conclusion of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.).

al-hadd al-akbar

The major term, i.e. the term which is used as predicate in the conclusion of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.).

al-hadd al-ausat

The middle term; the term which is common to the two premises in a syllogism and functions as a uniting link between them; it is, however, absent from the conclusion.

al-hadd al-tamm

The complete definition of a thing consisting of its proximate genus and differentia, e.g. the definition of man as a rational animal; also called al-hadd al-kamil.

hads

The capacity of the mind to draw immediate inferences from the data presented to it or to see through a kind of mental illumination the necessary connection between premises and conclusion.

al-hadd ghair al-muwati

The syncategorematic word, i.e. one which by itself cannot be used as a term (hadd), i.e. as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.), by itself without the support of other words, such, for example, as definite or indefinite article, preposition, etc.

al-hadd al-kamil

The perfect definition of a thing consisting of its proximate genus and differentia, e.g. the definition of man as a rational animal.

al-hadd al-muwati

The categorematic word which can be used as a term (hadd), i.e. as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.), by itself without the support of other words; such is usually a noun, pronoun, an adjective, etc.

al-hadd al-naqis

The imperfect definition of a thing referring merely to its differentia or to the differentia and the remote genus, e.g. definition of man as one who is rational or a "body" which is rational.

al-hudud al-thalathah

"The three terms", i.e. the three terms of syllogism (qiyas, q.v.), viz. the major term (al-hadd al-akbar, q.v.), the minor term (al-hadd al-asghar, q.v.) and the middle term (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.).

hadith

Temporal, originated. (AnAc)

harakat al-Ittisal

Continuous. See Fazlur Rahman, Sadra, 103, line 27. (AnAc)

al-harakat al-iradiyah

Voluntary movement as opposed to constrained or forced movement (al-harakat al-qasriyah, q.v.); al-harakat al-iradiyah is also distinguished from al-harakat al-tabi‘iyah (q.v.) for, whereas the former is multidirectional, the latter is unidirectional.

al-harakat al-dhatiyah

The movement of a body not through an intermediary but by itself -opposed to al-harakat al-‘ardiyah (q.v.).

al-harakat al-tabi‘iyah

Natural movement, for example, a stone falling on the ground; it is necessarily a linear or unidirectional movement as compared to al-harakat al-iradiyah (q.v.) which may be multilinear or multidirectional.

al-harakat al-‘ardiyah

Lit. "accidental movement"; technically movement of a body through an intermediary, e.g. the movement of a ring on the finger along the movement of the finger or the movement of a person sitting in a boat along the movement of the boat -opposed to al-harakat al-dhatiyah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-ain

Movement of a body from one place to another; it is also called naqlah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-kamm

Quantitative change in a body; it is of four kinds: when the quantitative change in a body is due to nourishment or lack of it is called namuw (growth) or dhubul (decay or dimunition); and when a change is independent of the factor of nourishment or lack of it, it is either takhalkhul (q.v.), i.e. expansion, e.g. of water into steam takathuf (q.v.), i.e. compression or condensation, e.g. of steam vapours into water.

harakat fi’l-kaif

Qualitative change in a body from one state or condition into another, e.g. water becoming hot after it was cold; also called istihalah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-wad‘

Movement on account of the change in the position of a body, e.g. a man who is sitting suddenly lies down; sometimes identified with al-harakat al-mustadirah (q.v.), e.g. the movement of a millstone in a mill which is a movement within the surrounding surface or space of a body of the millstone and not from one place to another.

al-harakat al-qasriyah

Forced or constrained movement, for example, of a stone thrown upwards; opposed to al-harakat al-iradiyah (q.v.).

al-harakat al-mustadirah

Lit. "the circular movement"; technically the movement of body within the surrounding surface or space of that body as distinguished from harakat fi’l-ain (q.v.) which is a movement from place (makan) to another; this movement is peculiar to the celestial spheres in the Ptolemaic astronomy.

al-harakat al-mustaqimah

Linear or unidirectional movement peculiar to bodies in the world of elements; contrasted with al-harakat al-mustadirah (q.v.) peculiar to the heavenly bodies in the world of celestial spheres.

al-hiss al-mushtarik

The common sense (sensus communis) located in the first ventricle of the front brain; it combines all the forms of the sensible objects that are received through the five external senses (al-hawas al-khamsah, q.v.). It may be said

that it is a faculty in which all the sense-perceptions are so coalesced that they assume a single form. This is how when we see the yellow colour of honey, we can internally tell that it is sweet, good-smelling and fluid; true, we have our past experiences of the taste, smell and touch of honey without sensing them again has become possible only through the functioning of the faculty of common sense.

hissah

Case (see Asfar, 1: 43) (AnAc)

hukm

A proposition, i.e. a logical judgement expressed in a sentence. It is an assertion or statement of the relation of agreement or disagreement between two terms one of which is called the predicate (mahmul, q.v.) and the other the subject (maudu‘, q.v.) of that predicate synonymous with qadiyah (q.v.).

al-hukm al-salib

A logical judgement in which the predicate is mentally denied of the subject.

al-hukm al-mujib

A logical judgement in which the predicate is mentally affirmed of the subject.

al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah

"Illuminationist theosophy": a school of thought in Muslim religio-philosophical thought which identifies philosophy with wisdom and gnosis rather than with abstract speculation and rational systematisation. Accordingly, unlike the Peripatetic philosophers of whom it is mostly critical, it lays greater emphasis on intuition (attained through invocation, meditation and purification of the soul) than on discursive intellect to reach the light of wisdom which, it maintains, was first revealed to the prophets and only partly understood and even misinterpreted by the Greek philosophers. As enunciated in the Hikmat al-Ishraq (528/1186) by Shihab al-Din al-Suharwardi (549-587/1153-1191), the founder of the school, it integrates Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy with the Zoroastrian principles of light and darkness along with its peculiar angelogy and Hermetic ideas and places the whole system within the context of Sufism. the outstanding among those who kept up the tradition of Ishraqi school were Mir Damad (d. 1041/1631), Mulla Sadra (d. 1050/1640) and Haji Hadi Sabziwari (d. 1295/1878). See also al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah.

al-hikmat al-bahthiyah

Philosophy based on discursive intellect and its abstract speculations, a name given by the philosophers of Illuminationism to the philosophy of Aristotle and his representatives in Muslim philosophy (masha’iyun). See also al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah.

al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah

Philosophy based on Illuminative disclosures of inner experiences and mystical intuitions as opposed to al-hikmat al-bahthiyah (q.v.), the

philosophy based on discursive intellect and theoretical speculations. A distinction made by the philosophers of Illuminationism (, q.v.). While the former opens up new frontiers of experience and suggestion and inner illumination, the latter merely enters into subtle dialectical discussions through definitions, explanations and abstract speculations. See also al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah.

al-hikmat al-riyadiyah

The science of mathematics which consists of four disciplines: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and theory of music.

al-hikmat al-majhuulah

"The unknown wisdom", i.e. those acts of God the wisdom of which remain unknown to human beings, for example the infliction of pain upon the innocent and virtuous. The term is used equally with reference to such religious beliefs as are beyond our finite understanding.

al-hikmat al-muwwahamah

The Arabic title given by al-Farabi to Aristotle’s sixth book on logic, viz. Sophistici Elenchi. See also Sufistiqah.

hay'ah

State [see al-Farabi, Fusul al-Madani, Fasl 1, 103, Dunlop trans. 27. composition [see my translation of Asfar 1: 21, line 1] (AnAc)

haduth

Temporal origination, temporal emergence, becoming. (AnAc)

hulul

Fusion, permeation or indewelling; a term used in philosophy in different senses: (1) the substantial union of the body and soul; (2) indewelling of the divine spirit in man; (3) inherence of an accident in its substance; (4) the union of form (surah) with prime matter (hayula, q.v.); (5) the relation between a body and its place.

al-hulul al-jawari

The relation of something being contained in a container like water in a water-pot, a term used synonymous with (al-hulul al-tarayani, q.v.).

al-hulul al-sarayani

The fusion of a thing into another so that it penetrates into every part of the latter like the fragrance of a rose into the rose flower.

al-hulul al-tarayani

The relation of something being contained in a container like water in a water-pot; also sometimes called al-hulul al-jawari opposed to al-hulul al-sarayani (q.v.).

haml al-ishtiqaq

Incomplete or partial prediction of a subject in a subject-predicate proposition, e.g. when we say that man is a biped.

haml al-muwatah

Complete prediction of a subject in the subject-predicate proposition so that the two become congruent and convertible with each other, e.g. when we say that man is a rational animal; opposed to haml al-ishtiqaq (q.v.).

al-hawas al-batinah

The internal senses; these include common sense(al-hiss al-mushtarik, q.v.), formative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah, q.v.), memory (al-quwwat al-mutadhakkirah, q.v.), imagination (al-quwwat al-mutakhayyilah, q.v.) and estimative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutawahhimah, q.v.); see also al-quwwat al-mudrikah.

al-hawas al-khamsah

The five external sense: touch (lams), taste (dhauq), smell (shamm), sight (basr) and hearing (sam‘), which this order according to the philosophers, from a series in a graded order in which the distinctive nature of the sensation receiving the form without the mother of its object is increasingly manifested.

al-hawas al-zahirah

The external senses; include touch (lams), taste (dhauq), smell (shamm), sight (basr) and hearing (sam‘); these are five senses (al-hawas al-khamsah) if touch is considered a single sense, but eight (al-hawas al-thamaniyah) if it is supposed to comprise the four pairs of contraries: hot (hararah) and cold (burudah); dry (yubusah) and moist (rutubah); hard (salabah) and soft (rakhamah); and smooth (mulasah) and rough (khushunah).

Hayy Ibn Yaqzan

"The living One, Son of the Vigilant", the title of the celebrated philosophical romance -one of the most remarkable works of the Middle Ages -by the Andulsian Muslim philosopher Ibn Tufail (504?-581/ 1110?-1185). No book on Muslim philosophy perhaps has been translated into so many languages of the world as this. link: an English language translation that was done in 1906(?).

Khaa

khas

Lit. "particular". The fifth predicable of the alfaz al-khamsah as set out by Porphyry (233-c. 304 C.E.) in his Isagoge(Isaghuji, q.v.) that was the introduction to Aristotle's work titled "categories." This entry is not the printed text..

kharq al-‘adah

"The splitting of nature"; that which is against the usual or customary way of nature, i.e. any extraordinary or miraculous phenomenon.

al-Khatabah

The Arabic title given to Aristotle's seventh book on logic, viz. Rhetorica; see also Rituriqa.

khasm

Lit. "enemy", but technically the adversary in a discussion, i.e. each one of the two controversialists who speaks either for or against an issue.

khala’

"Void". According to most philosophers, particularly the Peripatetics, void or vacuum as empty nothingness does not exist and that it is "only a name" or better "an empty thought". Void is impossible, it is argued, because all space can be increased, diminished or divided into parts and so must contain something which is capable of being increased, diminished, or divided.

khalf

The antithesis of a thesis or a proposition which falsifies another proposition; in general khalf means simply an objection.

khalq

Creation of the world of nature, i.e. an act of creation which is through the intermediaries of matter and time and which presupposes causal priority; to be distinguished from ibda‘ (q.v.).

khawalif

Lit. "surrogates", a term used by the logicians for demonstrative or personal pronouns.

al-khayal al-muttasil

The universal or Idea as embodied in and conjoined with the particulars of which it is the universal-a thesis of Aristotle and the Aristotelians.

al-khayal al-munfasil

The universal or Idea separated from the particulars and subsisting in the realm of (Platonic) Ideas-a view held by Plato and the Platonists.

Daal

dakhilatan taht al-tadadd

The two sub-contrary propositions; see al-qadiyatan al-dakhilatan taht al-tadadd.

da‘im

Perpetual. (AnAc)

darajah

Stage. (AnAc)

dalalah

The manner in which a vocable (lafz) signifies the meaning of a thing that it designates; it is of three kinds: dalalat al-mutabaqah (q.v.), dalalat al-tadammun (q.v.) and. dalalat al-iltizam (q.v.). {Also: connotation, signify the meaning (of something) [see S. Afnan, Avicenna: His Life and Works, 92-3]. (updated by: AnAc)}

dalalat al-iltizam

Signification by association or implication between the word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "roof" is used to designate the walls as well; the latter designatum is associated with or implied in the former.

dalalat al-tadammun

Signification of partial accord between the word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "house" is used to signify only a part of the house, i.e. its roof only or walls only, etc.

dalalat al-tatafful

A term used by Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul (549-587/1153-1191) for dalalat al-iltizam (q.v.).

dalalat al-haitah

A term used by Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul for dalalat al-tadammun (q.v.)

dalalat al-mutabaqah

Signification of complete accord between a word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "house" is used to signify the whole of the house taking all its parts, the walls, the roofs, the floors, etc. into consideration.

dalil

A word of common use in philosophical discourse but bearing different meanings among which the following should be distinguished: ( i ) designation or indication by which a sign "leads" to another sign or thing; (2) proof in a general sense to be distinguished from a proof in the strict sense, i.e. from the syllogistic proof [al-burhan al-mutlaq (q.v.) or al-burhan al-qati‘ (q.v.)] in deductive logic by which the particular is deduced from the

universal; (3) more specifically the proof by which the cause is inferred from the effect or universal from the particular; see also istidlal and al-burhan al-’inni.

al-dalil al-iqna‘i

The persuasive argument; see iqna and qiyas al-iqna‘i.

al-dalil al-murafa‘ah ila al-shakhs

The fallacy of argumentum ad hominem: a kind of the fallacy of ignoratio elenchi (mughalatat al-natijah ghair al-muta‘alliqah, q.v.) ; see also mughalatat al-dalil al-murafa‘ah ila al-shakhs.

dahr

The eternal duration in which eternity in past (azal, q.v.) is in a constant union with eternity in future (abad, q.v.). Dahr being the innermost essence or part of time (zaman, q.v.), encompasses it altogether. Dahr, compared with time and measured by it, is found to have a permanence corresponding exactly to the permanence of time with reference to what is contained in it; see also sarmad.

daur

A term used in logic to denote the circularity in argument or proof which occurs when a proposition is put forward followed by a number of propositions successively and at the end the last proposition is posited as the proof of the original proposition. It is, thus, a kind of petitio principii. In a simpler form it may be merely the rotation of two proposition, one used as a proof of the other. See also al-musadarah ‘ala’l-matlub al-awwal and muqati‘.

Dimiqratis

Democritus of Abdera (c. 460-370 B.C.): famous in Muslim philosophy for his theory of atoms; generally considered to be the founder of Greek atomism and also of the notion of empty space.

Dayujans al-Kalabi

Diogenes of Sinope (412-323 B.C.): Greek cynic philosopher; studied under Antisthenes (c. 444-368 B.C.); the founder of cynicism (kalabiyah, q.v.). Diogenes rejected all social conventions. According to a tradition current in Arabic as well as in Persian literature, he once went through streets holding up a lantern "looking for an honest man". According to another similar tradition, he was visited at Corinth by Alexander the Great who asked if he could oblige the philosopher in any way, "Yes", Diogenes, "stand from between me and the sun."

Dhal

dha’i‘at

Generally accepted or widespread data or premises, i.e. propositions to which the evidence of the majority of people as well as of those learned in the sciences causes our assent.

dhat

A common term in philosophical discourse but used in different senses of which the following should be noted: (1) Thing or individual (in this sense identical with shai or ‘ain, q.v.). (2) Being or self (identical with anniyah, q.v.). (3) The essence of a thing, its inner meaning or its essential qualities (in this sense identical with mahiyah, q.v.). (4) Substance or substratum of a thing in which the qualities inhere or of which the attributes can be predicated (in this sense more or less identical with jauhar, q.v.).

dhakirah

The faculty of memory or reminiscence; see al-quwwat al-mutadhakirah.

dhubul

Dimunition or decay of body due to lack of nourishment; one of the four kinds of harakah fi’l-kamm (q.v.).

dhu

The category of "ownership" or possession as one of the ten Aristotelian categories (al-maqulat al-‘ashr, q.v.); see also milk.

dhu al-jihatain

Dilemma, i.e. the complex syllogism which has for its major premise the two conditional conjunctive propositions (al-sharti al-muttasilah, q.v.) and for the minor premise the conditional disjunctive (al-sharti al-munfasil, q.v.) which together lead to a conclusion either in the categorical or in the conditional disjunctive; see also qiyas dhu al-jihatain.

dhauq

Taste sensation, a power placed in the gustatory nerves. spread out on the skin of the tongue. By this power or faculty tastes are perceived through the mixing of the saliva which is in the mouth with the thing tasted and through its stimulating the gustatory nerves. The two senses of touch and taste are found in all animals for these are of primary importance for the animal life. The rest of the three senses, i.e. smell, sight and hearing, being of secondary importance, are found in some animals only. See also tu‘um.

Dhiyasquridhus

Dioscorides: Greek physician of first century C.E.; his work on Materia Medica was translated into Arabic by Hunain ibn Ishaq (d. 264/877).

Dhayufantus

Diophantus: Greek mathematician of the second half of third century C.E., said to be a great Greek writer on algebra.

Raa

ribatah

Lit. "connection", technically the copula, i.e. the relation between subject and predicate in a proposition.

al-radd ‘ala al-imtina‘

Reductio ad impossibile, the refutation of a proposition by showing that its consequences are impossible or logically absurd. See also muqati‘.

ridf

Lit. "consequent"; a term sometimes used in logic to denote the conclusion in a syllogism, i.e. the inferred propositions or premises. See also qiyas.

al-rasm al-tamm

The complete description of a thing as distinguished from its complete definition (al- hadd al-tamm, q.v.); it generally refers to the proximate genus and the proprium of a thing, e.g. the description of man as a laughing animal.

al-rasm al-naqis

The imperfect description of a thing which refers to one of its properties (propria) or the property along with the remote genus (al-jins al-ba‘id), e.g. the description of man as one who laughs or a "body" that laughs. More often it refers merely to the accidents (a‘rad) of a thing, e.g. when we describe man as one who stands erect, walks on his feet, grasps things with his hands, etc.

raf‘ al-tali

The denial of the consequent in the minor premise of a hypothetical syllogism (al-qiyas al-sharti al-istithna’i, q.v.) leading to the denial of the antecedent in the conclusion; a valid mode of reasoning know as Modus Tollens, i.e. the negative mode of hypothetical syllogism; opposed to wad‘ al-tali (affirmation of the consequent in the minor premise) which is a form of logical fallacy. See also mughalatah wad‘ al-tali.

raf‘ al-muqaddam

The fallacy of the denial of antecedent; see also mughalatah raf‘ al-muqaddam.

Rawaqiyah

Stoicism, so named by the Muslim philosophers because the founder of the school of Stoicism, Zeno (Zainun, q.v. as distinguished from Zainun al-Akbar, q.v.) used to teach in a rawaq, i.e. in Stoa Poecile or a Painted Porch at Athens. According to the Stoics, virtue alone is good while there are no degrees of moral goodness: it is all or nothing. One ought to have a full control of one’s passions and desires by becoming completely indifferent to pain and pleasure; for, thus, alone could one attain to the life of virtue. The Stoics enlarge the area of moral responsibility from the confines of a City-

State to include all human beings. Everyone is a citizen of one and the same state, i.e. the State of Humanity. All men are of one blood, of one family and so each should treat everyone else as "scared beings". In their view of the universe they included a kind of pantheism. The Muslim philosophers welcomed their humanitarianism and cosmopolitanism, and also keenly studied their theory of knowledge and logic.

al-ruh al-jariyah

The travelling spirit or soul which is supposed to leave the body during sleep and give rise to dreams; opposed to (al-ruh al-muhkam, q.v.).

al-ruh al-hayawaniyah

The animal soul, common to the rational and the non-rational animals. It is supposed to be located in the heart from where the animal spirits spread into the arteries and capillaries and thus in all parts of the body; also called (al-ruh al-ghariziyah, q.v.). See also al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-tabi‘iyah

"The natural soul", common to animals and plants. In animals it is supposed to be located in the liver from where it spreads into all the veins of the body. See also al-nafs al-nabatiyah and al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-ghariziyah

The animal spirits emanating from the heart and spreading in all parts of the body. See also al-ruh al-hayawaniyah and al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-muhkam

The resident soul which unlike the travelling soul (al-ruh al-jariyah, q.v.) is supposed never to leave the body.

al-ruh al-nabatiyah

The vegetable soul; see al-ruh al-tabi‘iyah and al-nafs al-nabatiyah.

al-ruh al-nafsaniyah

The sensual soul; it is supposed to reside in the brain from where, through the nerves, it spreads itself in all parts of the body.

ru’us al-fada’il

Four cardinal virtues, viz. wisdom (hikmah), courage (shaja‘ah), temperance (‘iffah) and justice (‘adalah); each of them has been further divided by Muslim ethicists into many sub-species of virtues. See also ummahat al-fada’il.

Rituriqa

Rhetorica or the Rhetoric: Aristotle’s seventh book on logic, also entitled as al-Khatabah (q.v.) in Arabic; it deals with the art of persuading through oratorical devices.

Zaa

zuhal

The planet Saturn or its sphere ( falak, q.v.); see also al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

zaman

Time. It is dependent on movement and yet different from it. Whereas movement shows diversity in direction, time proceeds always and only in one direction. Time is known only in relation of before and after like a movement in a straight line and at a uniform rate. It, thus, can be expressed only in a series of continuous quantities (al-kamm al-muttasil, q.v.). Bodies are in time, not in their essence, but because they are in movement and movement is in time. Time belongs to the category of the created beings, but it is nowhere except in itself. So far as this world of ours is concerned it is measured and made known by the movements of the heavenly bodies. See also dahr and sarmad.

zuhrah

The planet Venus or its sphere ( falak, q.v.); see also al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

zauj al-zauj

"Pair of pair": a number, say 64, which is continuously divisible by two till the dividend is one.

Zainun

Zeno of Citium (c. 340-265 B.C.), the founder of Stoicism; distinguished generally in the Muslim works on history of philosophy from Zeno of Elea by calling the latter as Zainun al-Akbar (q.v.); see also Ashab al-Mazallah and Rawaqiyah.

Zainun al-Akbar

Zeno of Elea (c. 490-430 B.C.), disciple of Parmenides (Barminidus, q.v.). He is famous for his paradoxes on motion and plurality, which he advanced to defend the block-reality monism of his master. They, however, raised good deal of controversy and, thus, contributed to increase logical and mathematical rigour throughout the ages.

Seen

al-salibat al-juz’iyah

The particular affirmative proposition; see al-qadiyat al-salibat al-juz’iyah.

al-salibat al-kulliyah

The universal negative proposition; see al-qadiyat al-salibat al-kulliyah.

Sirr al-Asrar

Secreta Secretorum, an apocryphal work ascribed by Muslim scholars to Aristotle (Aristatalis, q.v.). It is a work on folklore, physiognomy and dietetics and is superstitious in its tone rather than scientific; hence its wide popularity in medieval times. It was also well known in the Western Caliphate, for a reference to it is found in al-‘Iqd al-Farid (The Unique Necklace), an anthology by Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih (d. 328/940) of Cordova. The first Arabic translation of the work from Greek original is ascribed to Yahya ibn Batriq (3rd/9th century C.E.).

sarmad

Absolute eternity, i.e. eternity without beginning (azal, q.v.) and also without end (abad, q.v.); sometimes considered time as absolutely fixed and unchanging. Sarmad is distinguished from dahr (q.v.) by maintaining that whereas dahr encompasses zaman (q.v.) sarmad encompasses dahr. Sarmad is used with reference to the relation between the two eternals (as, for example, between the essence of God and His attributes); dahr with reference to the relation between the eternal and the changing (as, for example, between God and the world); and zaman with reference to the relation between the two changing series (as, for example, between the movement of the heavenly spheres and the phenomenal changes on earth). See also zaman.

sufustah

Sophism, i.e. a piece of false reasoning which is employed. with the intention of deceiving somebody.

Suqratis

Socrates (c. 470-399 B.C.): Greek philosopher, the teacher of Plato whose Dialogues represent the essential philosophical teachings of the master. As Socrates did not himself write anything on philosophy, his influence on Muslim philosophical thought was only through Plato.

sam‘

a power placed in the nerves spread out in the cavity of the ear-hole (meatus) by which sounds are perceived. Sound is a vibratory movement of the outer air which is transmitted to the air in the ear-hole through impact. This transmitted vibration in the inner air stimulates the auditory nerves resulting in the sensation of hearing.

Sinibliqus

Simplicus : Greek philosopher, one of the last Neoplatonists. After the closing of Plato’s Academy in 529 C.E. he sought refuge at the court of Chosroës and remained there until about 533. He wrote commentaries on a number of Aristotle’s works, viz. De Coelo, Physica, De Anima and Categoriae.

su’ i‘tibar al-haml

The fallacy of secundum quid; see mughalatah su’ i‘tibar al-haml.

sur

The quantifier of a proposition indicated by the expressions. like "all", "some", "not all", "not some", "one", or "not one" specifying the quantity of a proposition; such a proposition is named al-qadiyat al-mussawarah (q.v.) or al-qadiyat al-mahsurah (q.v.) as opposed to al-qadiyat al-muhmalah (q.v.).

Sufistiqa

Sophistici Elenchi, Aristotle’s sixth book on logic, also entitled as al-Maghalit or al-Hikmat al-Muwwahmah (q.v.) in Arabic; it deals with the fallacies of logical reasoning, intentional or otherwise.

Haa

al-hass al-‘amm

A term used by al-Khawarizmi to denote common sense. See also al-hiss al-mushtarik.

hashiyatain

Lit. "two margins or limits"; technically the term denotes the doctrine of the philosophers, particularly that of Mulla Sadra, according to which all existents have "two limits", one towards the Necessary Being (al-wajib al-wujud, q.v.) and the other towards the prime matter (hayula, q.v.). See also al-Shaikh al-Yunani (Plotinus) in whom we already meet a similar view about existents.

hal

An intermediate "mode of existence", between being and non-being. In tasawwuf the term denotes an instantaneous trans-temporal mystical state by which a Sufi is seized in the act of encounter with a "favour" or grace from God.

hujjat al-Islam

"The convincing proof of Islam”, the honorific title given to the greatest theologian of Islam, Imam al-Ghazali (450-505/1058-1111), one of the greatest and most original thinkers, not only in the history of Muslim philosophy but in the history of human thought. This title befits him most because of his defense of the teachings of Islam through a remarkable criticism of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers in his celebrated work: Tahafut al-Falasifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers). Links: Ghazali's Site.

hadd

A term, i.e. word or combination of words, which by itself can be used as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.); also the definition of a term. See also the various kind of hadd.

al-hadd al-asghar

The minor term, i.e. the term which is used as a subject in the conclusion of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.).

al-hadd al-akbar

The major term, i.e. the term which is used as predicate in the conclusion of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.).

al-hadd al-ausat

The middle term; the term which is common to the two premises in a syllogism and functions as a uniting link between them; it is, however, absent from the conclusion.

al-hadd al-tamm

The complete definition of a thing consisting of its proximate genus and differentia, e.g. the definition of man as a rational animal; also called al-hadd al-kamil.

hads

The capacity of the mind to draw immediate inferences from the data presented to it or to see through a kind of mental illumination the necessary connection between premises and conclusion.

al-hadd ghair al-muwati

The syncategorematic word, i.e. one which by itself cannot be used as a term (hadd), i.e. as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.), by itself without the support of other words, such, for example, as definite or indefinite article, preposition, etc.

al-hadd al-kamil

The perfect definition of a thing consisting of its proximate genus and differentia, e.g. the definition of man as a rational animal.

al-hadd al-muwati

The categorematic word which can be used as a term (hadd), i.e. as a subject (maudu‘, q.v.) or a predicate (mahmul, q.v.) of a logical proposition (qadiyah, q.v.), by itself without the support of other words; such is usually a noun, pronoun, an adjective, etc.

al-hadd al-naqis

The imperfect definition of a thing referring merely to its differentia or to the differentia and the remote genus, e.g. definition of man as one who is rational or a "body" which is rational.

al-hudud al-thalathah

"The three terms", i.e. the three terms of syllogism (qiyas, q.v.), viz. the major term (al-hadd al-akbar, q.v.), the minor term (al-hadd al-asghar, q.v.) and the middle term (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.).

hadith

Temporal, originated. (AnAc)

harakat al-Ittisal

Continuous. See Fazlur Rahman, Sadra, 103, line 27. (AnAc)

al-harakat al-iradiyah

Voluntary movement as opposed to constrained or forced movement (al-harakat al-qasriyah, q.v.); al-harakat al-iradiyah is also distinguished from al-harakat al-tabi‘iyah (q.v.) for, whereas the former is multidirectional, the latter is unidirectional.

al-harakat al-dhatiyah

The movement of a body not through an intermediary but by itself -opposed to al-harakat al-‘ardiyah (q.v.).

al-harakat al-tabi‘iyah

Natural movement, for example, a stone falling on the ground; it is necessarily a linear or unidirectional movement as compared to al-harakat al-iradiyah (q.v.) which may be multilinear or multidirectional.

al-harakat al-‘ardiyah

Lit. "accidental movement"; technically movement of a body through an intermediary, e.g. the movement of a ring on the finger along the movement of the finger or the movement of a person sitting in a boat along the movement of the boat -opposed to al-harakat al-dhatiyah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-ain

Movement of a body from one place to another; it is also called naqlah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-kamm

Quantitative change in a body; it is of four kinds: when the quantitative change in a body is due to nourishment or lack of it is called namuw (growth) or dhubul (decay or dimunition); and when a change is independent of the factor of nourishment or lack of it, it is either takhalkhul (q.v.), i.e. expansion, e.g. of water into steam takathuf (q.v.), i.e. compression or condensation, e.g. of steam vapours into water.

harakat fi’l-kaif

Qualitative change in a body from one state or condition into another, e.g. water becoming hot after it was cold; also called istihalah (q.v.).

harakat fi’l-wad‘

Movement on account of the change in the position of a body, e.g. a man who is sitting suddenly lies down; sometimes identified with al-harakat al-mustadirah (q.v.), e.g. the movement of a millstone in a mill which is a movement within the surrounding surface or space of a body of the millstone and not from one place to another.

al-harakat al-qasriyah

Forced or constrained movement, for example, of a stone thrown upwards; opposed to al-harakat al-iradiyah (q.v.).

al-harakat al-mustadirah

Lit. "the circular movement"; technically the movement of body within the surrounding surface or space of that body as distinguished from harakat fi’l-ain (q.v.) which is a movement from place (makan) to another; this movement is peculiar to the celestial spheres in the Ptolemaic astronomy.

al-harakat al-mustaqimah

Linear or unidirectional movement peculiar to bodies in the world of elements; contrasted with al-harakat al-mustadirah (q.v.) peculiar to the heavenly bodies in the world of celestial spheres.

al-hiss al-mushtarik

The common sense (sensus communis) located in the first ventricle of the front brain; it combines all the forms of the sensible objects that are received through the five external senses (al-hawas al-khamsah, q.v.). It may be said

that it is a faculty in which all the sense-perceptions are so coalesced that they assume a single form. This is how when we see the yellow colour of honey, we can internally tell that it is sweet, good-smelling and fluid; true, we have our past experiences of the taste, smell and touch of honey without sensing them again has become possible only through the functioning of the faculty of common sense.

hissah

Case (see Asfar, 1: 43) (AnAc)

hukm

A proposition, i.e. a logical judgement expressed in a sentence. It is an assertion or statement of the relation of agreement or disagreement between two terms one of which is called the predicate (mahmul, q.v.) and the other the subject (maudu‘, q.v.) of that predicate synonymous with qadiyah (q.v.).

al-hukm al-salib

A logical judgement in which the predicate is mentally denied of the subject.

al-hukm al-mujib

A logical judgement in which the predicate is mentally affirmed of the subject.

al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah

"Illuminationist theosophy": a school of thought in Muslim religio-philosophical thought which identifies philosophy with wisdom and gnosis rather than with abstract speculation and rational systematisation. Accordingly, unlike the Peripatetic philosophers of whom it is mostly critical, it lays greater emphasis on intuition (attained through invocation, meditation and purification of the soul) than on discursive intellect to reach the light of wisdom which, it maintains, was first revealed to the prophets and only partly understood and even misinterpreted by the Greek philosophers. As enunciated in the Hikmat al-Ishraq (528/1186) by Shihab al-Din al-Suharwardi (549-587/1153-1191), the founder of the school, it integrates Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy with the Zoroastrian principles of light and darkness along with its peculiar angelogy and Hermetic ideas and places the whole system within the context of Sufism. the outstanding among those who kept up the tradition of Ishraqi school were Mir Damad (d. 1041/1631), Mulla Sadra (d. 1050/1640) and Haji Hadi Sabziwari (d. 1295/1878). See also al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah.

al-hikmat al-bahthiyah

Philosophy based on discursive intellect and its abstract speculations, a name given by the philosophers of Illuminationism to the philosophy of Aristotle and his representatives in Muslim philosophy (masha’iyun). See also al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah.

al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah

Philosophy based on Illuminative disclosures of inner experiences and mystical intuitions as opposed to al-hikmat al-bahthiyah (q.v.), the

philosophy based on discursive intellect and theoretical speculations. A distinction made by the philosophers of Illuminationism (, q.v.). While the former opens up new frontiers of experience and suggestion and inner illumination, the latter merely enters into subtle dialectical discussions through definitions, explanations and abstract speculations. See also al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah.

al-hikmat al-riyadiyah

The science of mathematics which consists of four disciplines: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and theory of music.

al-hikmat al-majhuulah

"The unknown wisdom", i.e. those acts of God the wisdom of which remain unknown to human beings, for example the infliction of pain upon the innocent and virtuous. The term is used equally with reference to such religious beliefs as are beyond our finite understanding.

al-hikmat al-muwwahamah

The Arabic title given by al-Farabi to Aristotle’s sixth book on logic, viz. Sophistici Elenchi. See also Sufistiqah.

hay'ah

State [see al-Farabi, Fusul al-Madani, Fasl 1, 103, Dunlop trans. 27. composition [see my translation of Asfar 1: 21, line 1] (AnAc)

haduth

Temporal origination, temporal emergence, becoming. (AnAc)

hulul

Fusion, permeation or indewelling; a term used in philosophy in different senses: (1) the substantial union of the body and soul; (2) indewelling of the divine spirit in man; (3) inherence of an accident in its substance; (4) the union of form (surah) with prime matter (hayula, q.v.); (5) the relation between a body and its place.

al-hulul al-jawari

The relation of something being contained in a container like water in a water-pot, a term used synonymous with (al-hulul al-tarayani, q.v.).

al-hulul al-sarayani

The fusion of a thing into another so that it penetrates into every part of the latter like the fragrance of a rose into the rose flower.

al-hulul al-tarayani

The relation of something being contained in a container like water in a water-pot; also sometimes called al-hulul al-jawari opposed to al-hulul al-sarayani (q.v.).

haml al-ishtiqaq

Incomplete or partial prediction of a subject in a subject-predicate proposition, e.g. when we say that man is a biped.

haml al-muwatah

Complete prediction of a subject in the subject-predicate proposition so that the two become congruent and convertible with each other, e.g. when we say that man is a rational animal; opposed to haml al-ishtiqaq (q.v.).

al-hawas al-batinah

The internal senses; these include common sense(al-hiss al-mushtarik, q.v.), formative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutasawwirah, q.v.), memory (al-quwwat al-mutadhakkirah, q.v.), imagination (al-quwwat al-mutakhayyilah, q.v.) and estimative faculty (al-quwwat al-mutawahhimah, q.v.); see also al-quwwat al-mudrikah.

al-hawas al-khamsah

The five external sense: touch (lams), taste (dhauq), smell (shamm), sight (basr) and hearing (sam‘), which this order according to the philosophers, from a series in a graded order in which the distinctive nature of the sensation receiving the form without the mother of its object is increasingly manifested.

al-hawas al-zahirah

The external senses; include touch (lams), taste (dhauq), smell (shamm), sight (basr) and hearing (sam‘); these are five senses (al-hawas al-khamsah) if touch is considered a single sense, but eight (al-hawas al-thamaniyah) if it is supposed to comprise the four pairs of contraries: hot (hararah) and cold (burudah); dry (yubusah) and moist (rutubah); hard (salabah) and soft (rakhamah); and smooth (mulasah) and rough (khushunah).

Hayy Ibn Yaqzan

"The living One, Son of the Vigilant", the title of the celebrated philosophical romance -one of the most remarkable works of the Middle Ages -by the Andulsian Muslim philosopher Ibn Tufail (504?-581/ 1110?-1185). No book on Muslim philosophy perhaps has been translated into so many languages of the world as this. link: an English language translation that was done in 1906(?).

Khaa

khas

Lit. "particular". The fifth predicable of the alfaz al-khamsah as set out by Porphyry (233-c. 304 C.E.) in his Isagoge(Isaghuji, q.v.) that was the introduction to Aristotle's work titled "categories." This entry is not the printed text..

kharq al-‘adah

"The splitting of nature"; that which is against the usual or customary way of nature, i.e. any extraordinary or miraculous phenomenon.

al-Khatabah

The Arabic title given to Aristotle's seventh book on logic, viz. Rhetorica; see also Rituriqa.

khasm

Lit. "enemy", but technically the adversary in a discussion, i.e. each one of the two controversialists who speaks either for or against an issue.

khala’

"Void". According to most philosophers, particularly the Peripatetics, void or vacuum as empty nothingness does not exist and that it is "only a name" or better "an empty thought". Void is impossible, it is argued, because all space can be increased, diminished or divided into parts and so must contain something which is capable of being increased, diminished, or divided.

khalf

The antithesis of a thesis or a proposition which falsifies another proposition; in general khalf means simply an objection.

khalq

Creation of the world of nature, i.e. an act of creation which is through the intermediaries of matter and time and which presupposes causal priority; to be distinguished from ibda‘ (q.v.).

khawalif

Lit. "surrogates", a term used by the logicians for demonstrative or personal pronouns.

al-khayal al-muttasil

The universal or Idea as embodied in and conjoined with the particulars of which it is the universal-a thesis of Aristotle and the Aristotelians.

al-khayal al-munfasil

The universal or Idea separated from the particulars and subsisting in the realm of (Platonic) Ideas-a view held by Plato and the Platonists.

Daal

dakhilatan taht al-tadadd

The two sub-contrary propositions; see al-qadiyatan al-dakhilatan taht al-tadadd.

da‘im

Perpetual. (AnAc)

darajah

Stage. (AnAc)

dalalah

The manner in which a vocable (lafz) signifies the meaning of a thing that it designates; it is of three kinds: dalalat al-mutabaqah (q.v.), dalalat al-tadammun (q.v.) and. dalalat al-iltizam (q.v.). {Also: connotation, signify the meaning (of something) [see S. Afnan, Avicenna: His Life and Works, 92-3]. (updated by: AnAc)}

dalalat al-iltizam

Signification by association or implication between the word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "roof" is used to designate the walls as well; the latter designatum is associated with or implied in the former.

dalalat al-tadammun

Signification of partial accord between the word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "house" is used to signify only a part of the house, i.e. its roof only or walls only, etc.

dalalat al-tatafful

A term used by Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul (549-587/1153-1191) for dalalat al-iltizam (q.v.).

dalalat al-haitah

A term used by Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul for dalalat al-tadammun (q.v.)

dalalat al-mutabaqah

Signification of complete accord between a word and its designatum, when, for example, the word "house" is used to signify the whole of the house taking all its parts, the walls, the roofs, the floors, etc. into consideration.

dalil

A word of common use in philosophical discourse but bearing different meanings among which the following should be distinguished: ( i ) designation or indication by which a sign "leads" to another sign or thing; (2) proof in a general sense to be distinguished from a proof in the strict sense, i.e. from the syllogistic proof [al-burhan al-mutlaq (q.v.) or al-burhan al-qati‘ (q.v.)] in deductive logic by which the particular is deduced from the

universal; (3) more specifically the proof by which the cause is inferred from the effect or universal from the particular; see also istidlal and al-burhan al-’inni.

al-dalil al-iqna‘i

The persuasive argument; see iqna and qiyas al-iqna‘i.

al-dalil al-murafa‘ah ila al-shakhs

The fallacy of argumentum ad hominem: a kind of the fallacy of ignoratio elenchi (mughalatat al-natijah ghair al-muta‘alliqah, q.v.) ; see also mughalatat al-dalil al-murafa‘ah ila al-shakhs.

dahr

The eternal duration in which eternity in past (azal, q.v.) is in a constant union with eternity in future (abad, q.v.). Dahr being the innermost essence or part of time (zaman, q.v.), encompasses it altogether. Dahr, compared with time and measured by it, is found to have a permanence corresponding exactly to the permanence of time with reference to what is contained in it; see also sarmad.

daur

A term used in logic to denote the circularity in argument or proof which occurs when a proposition is put forward followed by a number of propositions successively and at the end the last proposition is posited as the proof of the original proposition. It is, thus, a kind of petitio principii. In a simpler form it may be merely the rotation of two proposition, one used as a proof of the other. See also al-musadarah ‘ala’l-matlub al-awwal and muqati‘.

Dimiqratis

Democritus of Abdera (c. 460-370 B.C.): famous in Muslim philosophy for his theory of atoms; generally considered to be the founder of Greek atomism and also of the notion of empty space.

Dayujans al-Kalabi

Diogenes of Sinope (412-323 B.C.): Greek cynic philosopher; studied under Antisthenes (c. 444-368 B.C.); the founder of cynicism (kalabiyah, q.v.). Diogenes rejected all social conventions. According to a tradition current in Arabic as well as in Persian literature, he once went through streets holding up a lantern "looking for an honest man". According to another similar tradition, he was visited at Corinth by Alexander the Great who asked if he could oblige the philosopher in any way, "Yes", Diogenes, "stand from between me and the sun."

Dhal

dha’i‘at

Generally accepted or widespread data or premises, i.e. propositions to which the evidence of the majority of people as well as of those learned in the sciences causes our assent.

dhat

A common term in philosophical discourse but used in different senses of which the following should be noted: (1) Thing or individual (in this sense identical with shai or ‘ain, q.v.). (2) Being or self (identical with anniyah, q.v.). (3) The essence of a thing, its inner meaning or its essential qualities (in this sense identical with mahiyah, q.v.). (4) Substance or substratum of a thing in which the qualities inhere or of which the attributes can be predicated (in this sense more or less identical with jauhar, q.v.).

dhakirah

The faculty of memory or reminiscence; see al-quwwat al-mutadhakirah.

dhubul

Dimunition or decay of body due to lack of nourishment; one of the four kinds of harakah fi’l-kamm (q.v.).

dhu

The category of "ownership" or possession as one of the ten Aristotelian categories (al-maqulat al-‘ashr, q.v.); see also milk.

dhu al-jihatain

Dilemma, i.e. the complex syllogism which has for its major premise the two conditional conjunctive propositions (al-sharti al-muttasilah, q.v.) and for the minor premise the conditional disjunctive (al-sharti al-munfasil, q.v.) which together lead to a conclusion either in the categorical or in the conditional disjunctive; see also qiyas dhu al-jihatain.

dhauq

Taste sensation, a power placed in the gustatory nerves. spread out on the skin of the tongue. By this power or faculty tastes are perceived through the mixing of the saliva which is in the mouth with the thing tasted and through its stimulating the gustatory nerves. The two senses of touch and taste are found in all animals for these are of primary importance for the animal life. The rest of the three senses, i.e. smell, sight and hearing, being of secondary importance, are found in some animals only. See also tu‘um.

Dhiyasquridhus

Dioscorides: Greek physician of first century C.E.; his work on Materia Medica was translated into Arabic by Hunain ibn Ishaq (d. 264/877).

Dhayufantus

Diophantus: Greek mathematician of the second half of third century C.E., said to be a great Greek writer on algebra.

Raa

ribatah

Lit. "connection", technically the copula, i.e. the relation between subject and predicate in a proposition.

al-radd ‘ala al-imtina‘

Reductio ad impossibile, the refutation of a proposition by showing that its consequences are impossible or logically absurd. See also muqati‘.

ridf

Lit. "consequent"; a term sometimes used in logic to denote the conclusion in a syllogism, i.e. the inferred propositions or premises. See also qiyas.

al-rasm al-tamm

The complete description of a thing as distinguished from its complete definition (al- hadd al-tamm, q.v.); it generally refers to the proximate genus and the proprium of a thing, e.g. the description of man as a laughing animal.

al-rasm al-naqis

The imperfect description of a thing which refers to one of its properties (propria) or the property along with the remote genus (al-jins al-ba‘id), e.g. the description of man as one who laughs or a "body" that laughs. More often it refers merely to the accidents (a‘rad) of a thing, e.g. when we describe man as one who stands erect, walks on his feet, grasps things with his hands, etc.

raf‘ al-tali

The denial of the consequent in the minor premise of a hypothetical syllogism (al-qiyas al-sharti al-istithna’i, q.v.) leading to the denial of the antecedent in the conclusion; a valid mode of reasoning know as Modus Tollens, i.e. the negative mode of hypothetical syllogism; opposed to wad‘ al-tali (affirmation of the consequent in the minor premise) which is a form of logical fallacy. See also mughalatah wad‘ al-tali.

raf‘ al-muqaddam

The fallacy of the denial of antecedent; see also mughalatah raf‘ al-muqaddam.

Rawaqiyah

Stoicism, so named by the Muslim philosophers because the founder of the school of Stoicism, Zeno (Zainun, q.v. as distinguished from Zainun al-Akbar, q.v.) used to teach in a rawaq, i.e. in Stoa Poecile or a Painted Porch at Athens. According to the Stoics, virtue alone is good while there are no degrees of moral goodness: it is all or nothing. One ought to have a full control of one’s passions and desires by becoming completely indifferent to pain and pleasure; for, thus, alone could one attain to the life of virtue. The Stoics enlarge the area of moral responsibility from the confines of a City-

State to include all human beings. Everyone is a citizen of one and the same state, i.e. the State of Humanity. All men are of one blood, of one family and so each should treat everyone else as "scared beings". In their view of the universe they included a kind of pantheism. The Muslim philosophers welcomed their humanitarianism and cosmopolitanism, and also keenly studied their theory of knowledge and logic.

al-ruh al-jariyah

The travelling spirit or soul which is supposed to leave the body during sleep and give rise to dreams; opposed to (al-ruh al-muhkam, q.v.).

al-ruh al-hayawaniyah

The animal soul, common to the rational and the non-rational animals. It is supposed to be located in the heart from where the animal spirits spread into the arteries and capillaries and thus in all parts of the body; also called (al-ruh al-ghariziyah, q.v.). See also al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-tabi‘iyah

"The natural soul", common to animals and plants. In animals it is supposed to be located in the liver from where it spreads into all the veins of the body. See also al-nafs al-nabatiyah and al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-ghariziyah

The animal spirits emanating from the heart and spreading in all parts of the body. See also al-ruh al-hayawaniyah and al-nafs al-hayawaniyah.

al-ruh al-muhkam

The resident soul which unlike the travelling soul (al-ruh al-jariyah, q.v.) is supposed never to leave the body.

al-ruh al-nabatiyah

The vegetable soul; see al-ruh al-tabi‘iyah and al-nafs al-nabatiyah.

al-ruh al-nafsaniyah

The sensual soul; it is supposed to reside in the brain from where, through the nerves, it spreads itself in all parts of the body.

ru’us al-fada’il

Four cardinal virtues, viz. wisdom (hikmah), courage (shaja‘ah), temperance (‘iffah) and justice (‘adalah); each of them has been further divided by Muslim ethicists into many sub-species of virtues. See also ummahat al-fada’il.

Rituriqa

Rhetorica or the Rhetoric: Aristotle’s seventh book on logic, also entitled as al-Khatabah (q.v.) in Arabic; it deals with the art of persuading through oratorical devices.

Zaa

zuhal

The planet Saturn or its sphere ( falak, q.v.); see also al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

zaman

Time. It is dependent on movement and yet different from it. Whereas movement shows diversity in direction, time proceeds always and only in one direction. Time is known only in relation of before and after like a movement in a straight line and at a uniform rate. It, thus, can be expressed only in a series of continuous quantities (al-kamm al-muttasil, q.v.). Bodies are in time, not in their essence, but because they are in movement and movement is in time. Time belongs to the category of the created beings, but it is nowhere except in itself. So far as this world of ours is concerned it is measured and made known by the movements of the heavenly bodies. See also dahr and sarmad.

zuhrah

The planet Venus or its sphere ( falak, q.v.); see also al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

zauj al-zauj

"Pair of pair": a number, say 64, which is continuously divisible by two till the dividend is one.

Zainun

Zeno of Citium (c. 340-265 B.C.), the founder of Stoicism; distinguished generally in the Muslim works on history of philosophy from Zeno of Elea by calling the latter as Zainun al-Akbar (q.v.); see also Ashab al-Mazallah and Rawaqiyah.

Zainun al-Akbar

Zeno of Elea (c. 490-430 B.C.), disciple of Parmenides (Barminidus, q.v.). He is famous for his paradoxes on motion and plurality, which he advanced to defend the block-reality monism of his master. They, however, raised good deal of controversy and, thus, contributed to increase logical and mathematical rigour throughout the ages.

Seen

al-salibat al-juz’iyah

The particular affirmative proposition; see al-qadiyat al-salibat al-juz’iyah.

al-salibat al-kulliyah

The universal negative proposition; see al-qadiyat al-salibat al-kulliyah.

Sirr al-Asrar

Secreta Secretorum, an apocryphal work ascribed by Muslim scholars to Aristotle (Aristatalis, q.v.). It is a work on folklore, physiognomy and dietetics and is superstitious in its tone rather than scientific; hence its wide popularity in medieval times. It was also well known in the Western Caliphate, for a reference to it is found in al-‘Iqd al-Farid (The Unique Necklace), an anthology by Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih (d. 328/940) of Cordova. The first Arabic translation of the work from Greek original is ascribed to Yahya ibn Batriq (3rd/9th century C.E.).

sarmad

Absolute eternity, i.e. eternity without beginning (azal, q.v.) and also without end (abad, q.v.); sometimes considered time as absolutely fixed and unchanging. Sarmad is distinguished from dahr (q.v.) by maintaining that whereas dahr encompasses zaman (q.v.) sarmad encompasses dahr. Sarmad is used with reference to the relation between the two eternals (as, for example, between the essence of God and His attributes); dahr with reference to the relation between the eternal and the changing (as, for example, between God and the world); and zaman with reference to the relation between the two changing series (as, for example, between the movement of the heavenly spheres and the phenomenal changes on earth). See also zaman.

sufustah

Sophism, i.e. a piece of false reasoning which is employed. with the intention of deceiving somebody.

Suqratis

Socrates (c. 470-399 B.C.): Greek philosopher, the teacher of Plato whose Dialogues represent the essential philosophical teachings of the master. As Socrates did not himself write anything on philosophy, his influence on Muslim philosophical thought was only through Plato.

sam‘

a power placed in the nerves spread out in the cavity of the ear-hole (meatus) by which sounds are perceived. Sound is a vibratory movement of the outer air which is transmitted to the air in the ear-hole through impact. This transmitted vibration in the inner air stimulates the auditory nerves resulting in the sensation of hearing.

Sinibliqus

Simplicus : Greek philosopher, one of the last Neoplatonists. After the closing of Plato’s Academy in 529 C.E. he sought refuge at the court of Chosroës and remained there until about 533. He wrote commentaries on a number of Aristotle’s works, viz. De Coelo, Physica, De Anima and Categoriae.

su’ i‘tibar al-haml

The fallacy of secundum quid; see mughalatah su’ i‘tibar al-haml.

sur

The quantifier of a proposition indicated by the expressions. like "all", "some", "not all", "not some", "one", or "not one" specifying the quantity of a proposition; such a proposition is named al-qadiyat al-mussawarah (q.v.) or al-qadiyat al-mahsurah (q.v.) as opposed to al-qadiyat al-muhmalah (q.v.).

Sufistiqa

Sophistici Elenchi, Aristotle’s sixth book on logic, also entitled as al-Maghalit or al-Hikmat al-Muwwahmah (q.v.) in Arabic; it deals with the fallacies of logical reasoning, intentional or otherwise.