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A Study of Sunni and Shii Traditions Concerning Tahrif [of Holy Quran] Part 3

In this text, a three-part series written by Rasul Ja'fariyan, the author analyzes traditions from Sunni and Shia sources regarding Tahrif (alterations) [of Holy Quran], also from semantic and textual point of view. Evidences for the absence of Tahrif are presented via historical events and traditions.

Authors(s): Rasul Ja'fariyan

Translator(s): Mujahid Husayn

Table of Contents

A Study of Sunni and Shii Traditions Concerning Tahrif Part 3  3

The Shia and Tahrif 3

Shi'i Books and Treatises in Refutal of Tahrif 10

Imam 'Ali’s Mushaf 12

The Mushaf of Fatimah (A) 16

Fasl al-Khitab and Tahrif 17

Conclusion. 21

Bibliography. 23

Endnotes 26

A Study of Sunni and Shii Traditions Concerning Tahrif Part 3

The Shia and Tahrif

Some explicit statements found in the works of major Shiah scholars prove their faith in the Qur'an's remaining safe from every form of alteration and deletion. These statements are a conclusive proof that the Qur'an as it exists today is exactly what has been revealed by God Almighty and that the Imamiyyah do not believe that any addition or deletion has occurred in it. Here we mention the remarks of some leading Shii scholars, along with some books and articles written by them to prove the nonoccurrence of tahrif.

Al-Fadl ibn Shadhan al-Nishaburi is a Shii writer of the 3rd/9th century. Anyone who reads his book al-'Idah will observe that he has accused some Sunni sects of believing in tahrif of the Qur'an, often referring to what they have narrated concerning the Qur'an's incompleteness, with the words,"Among that which you have narrated".... Now it is certainly a mistake to infer, as some have done, from his reference to these traditions that he himself believed in tahrif.

Abu Ja`far Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn al-Husayn ibn Babawayah al-Qummi, known as al-Qummi (d.381/991), says:

It is our belief that the Qur'an revealed by God Almighty to His prophet, Muhammad (S), is that which is present between the two flaps and that which is in the people's hands and there is nothing in addition to it, and anyone who ascribes to us the belief that it includes something more, is a liar.1

Thus al-Sadibi, who is one of the greatest Shii scholars and an authority on hadith and history, refutes the allegation that the Imamiy­yah believe in tahrif

Al-Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 413/1022), who was the teacher of several eminent Shii 'ulama', including al-Sayyid al-Radi and al-Sayyid al-Murtada - may God's mercy be upon all of them - observes, 'Not a single word, verse or surah has been deleted from the Qur'an, and that which was deleted from Amir al-Mu'minin's mushaf was its interpreta­tion (ta'wil) and the exposition (tafsir) of its meanings in accordance with the revelation. Though it was itself an established revelation, it was not part of the word of God which comprises the miraculous Qur'an...." He further adds, "I hold this opinion and seek succor from God (for guidance) to the truth." These words explicitly prove his belief in the absence of tahrif in the Quran.2

Apart from this, al-Shaykh al-Mufid has also rejected that which has been narrated concerning Ibn Masud mushaf, that it contained some additions. He points out that these traditions are Odd and there­fore unworthy of any credence.3

4. Al-Sayyid al-Murtada 'Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Mitsawl al-`Alawi (d. 436/1044) in his set of replies to certain queries called al-Tarabul­usiyat observes:

The knowledge of the authenticity of the Qur'an is like one's knowledge of countries, important events, famous books, and recorded Arabic poetry.

There existed an intensity of care and a plentitude of motives for narrating and preserving it, and they reached a degree not reached in respect of any example mentioned by us.... The Qur'an was collected and compiled during the Prophet's (S) lifetime the way it existed at that time. The Prophet (S) even chose a group of Companions to memorize it, and it used to be presented to and recited before the Prophet (S).

A group of Companions, like `Abd Allah ibn Mas`ud, Ubayy ibn Ka`b and others, completed the recital of the Qur'an a number of times in the presence of the Prophet (S). A little reflec­tion will show that all this proves that the Qur'an was collected in an organized manner and that it was not left in a fragmentary and scattered state.... As to those among the Imamiyyah and the Hashwiyyah who oppose this view, their opposition is of no significance. Their opposition, along with that of a group of Ahl al-Hadith, is based on daif traditions that they narrate and which they imagine to be authentic, and it is not possible to give up on their basis something whose authenticity is known with certainty.4

Ibn Hajar writes concerning al-Shan't' al-Murtada that he considered anyone who believed the Qur'an to have been altered or to have suffered addition or deletion, an apostate. The same is true of two of his con­temporaries, Abu" al-Qasim al-Razi and Abu Yala al-Tusi5

5. Shaykh al-Taifah Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Tusi (d. 461/1068) states: As to the discussion regarding addition to and deletion from the Qur'an, such a thing does not befit it, because the presence of any addition is negated by consensus, and as to deletion from it, that which is evident from the beliefs of various Islamic schools is a negation of it as well, and this position is best entitled to authentication.

This view has been supported by al-Murtada - may God be pleased with him - and the literal import of traditions, although many traditions have been narrrated both by the Shi`ah (al-Khassah) and Sunnis (al-`Ammah) which speak of deletions in many verses and the change of their place from one location to another in the Qur'an.

But all these traditions are ahad and do not bestow certainty, and therefore it is better to ignore them and to refrain from busying oneself with them, considering that they are capable of being interpreted (in a manner which is not critical of the purity of the Quranic text), even if their authenticity be accepted, because the Quran existing between the two flaps is of known authenticity, not having been challenged or rejected by anyone from the Ummah.

Furthermore, our traditions urge its recitation, require adherence to its contents, and command correlation of contradictory traditions relating to precepts with it, so that that which agrees with it is accepted and that which contradicts it is rejected. It has been narrated from the Prophet (S) in a tradition that has not been contested by anyone that he (S) said:

    إني مخلف فيكم الثقليم ما إن تمسكتم بهما لن تضلوا، كتاب الله و عترتي أهل بيتي و إنهما لن يفترقا حتى يردا علي الحوض4-15

I am leaving behind among you two precious things. As long as you adhere to them you will never go astray. (They are) the Book of God and

my kindred, my Ahl al-Bayt. Verily, the two will never separate until they meet me at the Pond.

This indicates that the Qur'an shall be present in all ages, because it is not possible that the Prophet (S) should command us to adhere to a thing which we are incapable of adhering to, considering that among the Ahl al-Bayt (A) he whose word is to be followed is present at all times. Hence, when that which we possess is of accepted authenticity, it is incumbent that we devote ourselves to its exegesis and elucidation and set aside anything apart from it.6

Abu 'Ali al-Tabrasi (6th/12th century), the author of the exegesis Ajma al-bayan, observes:

...As to the issue of additions to and deletions from the Qur'an, addition to it is negated by a consensus refuting it, and as to deletions from it, a group of our companions (Shiis) and a group of the Hashwiyyah from Sunnis have narrated occurrence of alteration in and deletion from the Qur'an. The correct view in accordance with the belief of our companions (Imamiyyah) is the opposite of it, and it is what has been held by al-Murtada - may God sanctify his soul.7

Al-Shaykh `Abd al-Jalil al-Razi al-Faritsi, author of the book al‑aqd written around 560/1164, after mentioning the accusation against the Shi`ah that they have narrated the tradition describing the incident f some domestic animal having eaten up the script of some verses assessed by `A'ishah (mentioned above in the tradition from Ibn rajah), observes: "This tradition is present in the books of the Ahl al‑ Sunnah Then he goes on to refute the view that the Shi`ah believe in tabrit.8

8. Al-Sayyid Ibn Tawils (d.664/1265) writes in his book Sa`d al­ Suud: "The Imarni view is that there has been no tahrif "9 Then criticizing some Sunni scholars, he adds:

I am surprised at those who argue that the Qur'an has been preserved since the Prophet (S) and that it was he who compiled it, and then go on to describe differences between the people of Makkah and Madinah, between the people of Kufah and Basrah, and also hold that the besmalah is not part of the surahs. More surprising is the argument they offer that had it been part of the surahs, something else should have been mentioned before it as an opening. Good Heavens! When the Qur'an is secure against additions and deletions, as demanded by reason and the Shari`ah, why should it have something before it which is not a part of it, and how is such a thing possible at all?10

9. Al Allamah Al-Hilli(648-726/1250-1326), when asked by Ibn Muhanna this question concerning the Qur'an, "Do our scholars affirm the view that something has been either deleted from or added to the Qur'an or that its order has been changed?" replied: "The truth is that no change of order nor any addition or deletion has taken place in it, and I seek God's refuge from anyone believing in such a thing or something like it, because this results in negating the miracle of the Prophet - upon whom be peace - as well as the tawatur with which it has been narrated.11

10. Mulla Muhsin, known as al-Fayd al-Kashani (d. 1091/1680), after mentioning a set of traditions hinting at the occurrence of tahrif, states:

The main objection about these traditions is that if we accept them, there will remain for us no surety concerning anything present in the Quran, because then the possibility of tahrif and alteration will exist in every verse and its being contrary to that which God had revealed. Hence the Qur'an would lose its authority and utility, and the purpose of commanding adherence to it would be lost. God Almighty says:

    ..وَإِنَّهُ لَكِتَابٌ عَزِيزٌ  لَّا يَأْتِيهِ الْبَاطِلُ مِن بَيْنِ يَدَيْهِ وَلَا مِنْ خَلْفِهِ..

And surely it is a Mighty Book. Falsehood does not approach it from before it nor from behind it (41:41-42)

And He says:

     إِنَّا نَحْنُ نَزَّلْنَا الذِّكْرَ وَإِنَّا لَهُ لَحَافِظُونَ

Verily We have sent down the Remembrance, and verily We are its protector.(15:9)

Now how is it possible for tahrif to find its way into it?

The tradition has also been extensively narrated from the Prophet (S) and the Imams (A) that the authenticity of traditions is to be judged by comparing them with the Qur'an so that their authenticity is known from agreement with it and their falsity from their contradiction with it. Hence if the Qur'an we possess be considered altered, what is the use of making such a compari­son? Apart from this, the traditions entailing the occurrence of tahrif contra­dict the Qur'an, and so it is necessary to reject them on the basis of their falsehood, or to interpret them.12

Concerning the meaning of verse 9 of Stirat al-Hijr, al-Fayd ob­serves:

    انا لحافظون من التحريف و التغيير والزيادة و النقصان

[ It means,] 'We will protect it from tahrif, alteration, addition and deletion'. 13

He also refutes the occurrence of tahrif in some other of his works.14 This is al-Fayd's unambiguous view, which he states after citing some traditions about tahrif that he considers contrary to the Qur'an and so invalid. But some persons with dubious motives have imputed to al-Fayd the belief in tahrif solely because of his mentioning some traditions, without mentioning what he says about them, intend­ing thereby to create doubts in the minds of people concerning the imamiyyah.15

Out of ignorance or bias, one writer ascribes the belief in tahrif to other 'ulama' as well, such as al-Shaykh al-Saduq, despite al-Saduq's explicit statement mentioned earlier of his belief in the absence of tahrif.

11. Muhammad Baha' al-Din al-`Amili, known as al-Shaykh al­ Baha'l (d. 1030/1620), observes:

They have differed regarding the occurrence of addition to or deletion from it. The correct view is that the Great Qur'an is safe from it, be it addition or deletion, and the words of God Almighty وَإِنَّا لَهُ لَحَافِظُونَ  prove this.

As to the view popular among the people that the name of Amir al-Mu'minin (A) has been deleted from some places, for example, the verse

يا ايها الرسول بلِّغ ما اُنزل اليك من ربك في علي and other verses, it is not considered credible by the Ulema.16

12. Al-Shaykh Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Hurr Amili(d. 1104/ 1692), the author of Waseil al-Shiah, states in a treatise written by him in Persian negating tahrlf:

Anyone having studied history and tradition knows for certain that the authenticity of the Qur'an has been established through utmost tawatur, being narrated by thousands of Companions, and that it had been collected and compiled during the era of the Prophet (S).17

This is the unequivocal observation of al-Shaykh al-Hurr al-`Amili, one of the greatest of Shii scholars and traditionists. He confirms in this treatise the absence of deletions from the Qur'an. Yet one finds some slanderers imputing to him the belief in occurrence of tahrif.18

13. The eminent scholar Zayn al-Din al-Bayadi, author of al­Sirat al-mustaqim, writes while elucidating the Quranic verse

     إِنَّا نَحْنُ نَزَّلْنَا الذِّكْرَ وَإِنَّا لَهُ لَحَافِظُونَ

"It implies that God will protect it from tahrif, alteration, addition and deletion." 19

14. Al-Qari al-Sayyid Nur Allah al-Tustari states: "That which has been ascribed to the Imami Shiis that they believe in occurrence of alteration in the Qur'an is not something which the majority of the Imamiyyah believe. Of course, a small number of them who have held such a view are those to whom no importance is attached by them."20

15. Al-Muqaddas al-Baghdadi, in his book Sharh al-Wafiyah, narrates the presence of Ijma' among the Imamiyyah on the issue of absence of any deletion from the Quran.21

16. Al-Fadil al-Jawad says, "The Qur'an has been confirmed by tawatur and anything narrated in the form of khabar al-wahid is not Qur'an. We said it is mutawatir because there were plenty of motives for narrating the Qur'an, and anything having this quality is ordinarily bound to be narrated completely by tawatur."22

17. Kashif al-Ghita' negates belief in the occurrence of tahrif and refutes its ascription to the Imamiyyah in his book Kashf al-ghita' 'an mubhamat al-Sharrat al-gharra.

18. Al-Sayyid Muhammad Jawad al-Balaghi refutes in his exegesis Ala' al-Rahman attribution of the belief in presence of tahrif to the Imamiyyah.

19. Al-Sayyid Mandi al-Tabatabai known as Bahr al Ulum in the chapter on the authority of the Qur'an of his book Fawaid Al-Usul denies the occurrence of tahrif.23

20. Ayatullah Kuh-Kamari has also confirmed the nonoccurrence of tahrif, as mentioned by his pupil in Bushra al-Usul 1411.

21. Al-Sayyid Muhsin al-'Amin Al-Amili(d. 1371/1951), in his work Ayan al-Shiah on biographies of Shi`i personalities, declares the absence of tahrif in the Qur'an, and observes about the ascription of this belief to the Shi`ah: "This is a lie and a slander, with which Ibn Hazm has associated himself.., and the greatest of Shi`i scholars and traditionists have expressly affirmed their opposition to it."

He writes at another place, "No Imami scholar, from the earliest times to the present, has said that the Qur'an contains any minor or major additions to it. All of them concur regarding the absence of any addition, and those whose opinions are worthy of being taken into account also con­cur that nothing has been deleted from it.... Anyone who ascribes to them anything contrary to this is a liar and a slanderer guilty of affront to God and His Prophet (S)."24

Other eminent Shi’i scholars who have affirmed the purity of the Quranic text and absence of any tahrif in it are:

22. Mulla Fath Allah al-Kashani,author of the tafsir Manhaj al‑sadaqien.25

23. Mirza Muhammad Hann al-'Ashtiyani (d. 1319/1901), in Bahr al-fawa 'id

24. Al-Shaykh `Abd Allah ibn Muhammad al-Mamaqini (d. 1351/ 1932), in Tanqih al-maqal

25. Al-Shaykh Muhammad al-Nahawandi (d. 129111874), in his tafsir Nafahat al-Rahman.

26. Al-Sayyid Naqi al-Hindi (d. 1408/1988), in the book Tafsir al-Qur'an.

27. Al-Sayyid Muhammad Mahdi Al-Shirazi.

28. Al-Sayyid Shihab al-Din al-Mar`ashi al-Najafi.

29. Al-Sayyid `Abd al-Husayn Sharaf al-Din in his book Ajwibat masa'il Masa Jar Allah. He says:

The Wise Qur'an (has been so preserved in all respects that) falsehood cannot find a way into it, and it is what the people possess between the two flaps, without a letter having been deleted, or added, or replaced by another letter. All its letters are mutawatir, and in every generation its tawatur is definite, reaching up to the era of the Prophet (S) and its revelation.

It existed in a compiled form and in its present form in the earliest period. Gabriel used to present the Quran before the Prophet (S) once every year and presented it twice in the year of his (S) demise. The Companions used to present and recite the Qur'an to him (S) and they completed these recitals several times. All these necessarily known facts have been in front of the researchers among the Imami scholars.26

30. Ayatullah al-Hajj Aga Husayn al-Tabatabai al-Burujerdi has spelled out in some of his lectures on jurisprudence (as narrated by some of his pupils) the falsity of the notion of occurrence of tahrif, and upheld the purity of the Quranic text.

31. Allamah al-Sayyid Hibat al-Din al-Shahristani says:

The predominant view, held by the majority, is that the Qur'an revealed by God to the Prophet (S) is the one which exists between the two flaps, and there is sufficient evidence from history and tradition to substantiate it. Some Hashwiyyah and pious literalists among the tradionalists were misled by weak traditions, a part of which were coined by leaders of heretical sects in the early Islamic era, into imagining the occurrence of deletion in Qur'inic verses. And al-Murtada 'Alam al-Huda and other researchers among our predecessors have unequivocally stated that the Qur'an has been secure from addition and deletion.27

33. Al-Sayyid al-Khumayni, in Kashf al-Asrar.28

There are other explicit statements of Shii 'ulama' in refute of tahrif which we have not mentioned here. Those interested may refer to Kashf al-'irtiyab fi raddi Fas1 al-khitab or their books on jurisprudence and especially the chapters in them on the legal authority of the Book.

The authors mentioned at the end of the above list have writings indicating their belief in the absence of occurrence of tahrif, and the author of Burhan-e roshan, Mirza Mahdi al-Burujerdi, has mentioned them along with the names of other scholars not mentioned here.

Shi'i Books and Treatises in Refutal of Tahrif

A treatise written by al-Shaykh al-Hurr al-'Amili, as cited by the author of Lulu 'at al-bahrayn.29

A treatise by al-Shaykh 'Abd al-`Ali al-Karaki refuting the occurrence of deletion30

A treatise of al-Shaykh Aga Buzurg al-Tehrani entitled al-Naqd al-latif nafy al-tahrif.31

The study by al-Sayyid al-Khifi in his book al-Bayan ft tafsir al-Qur'an.

The study by al-Allamah Muhammad Husayn al-Tabatabal in his great exegesis at-Mizanfi tafsir al-Qur'an, under the verse 15:9.

A treatise by 'Abd al-Husayn al-Rashti Al-Hairi entitled Kashf al-'ishtibah, a refutation of Musa Jar Allah.

Al-Shaykh 'Abd al-Rahim al-Tabezi's book Ala' al-Rahim in refutation of tahrif.

A treatise written by the philosopher Hasan Zadeh Amuli in the published collection of his rasail.

A treatise by the faqih al-Fadil al-Lankarani, in his book Mad khal al-tafsir. -

Al-Sayyid Muhammad Husayn al-Shahristani's book entitled Risdlah fl hifz, al-Kitab al-sharif 'an shubhat al-qawl bi al-tahrif.

A detailed study by al-Sayyid Lutf Allah al-Safi al-Gulpayegani in his book Ma'a al-Khatib fi khututihi al-'aridah, which is a rejoinder to what al-Khatib has written against the Shi`ah.

A comprehensive book entitled Radd Fasl al-khitab, whose manuscript is with al-Shaykh Ricla al-'Ustadi in Qumm.

Al-Tahqiq fi nafy al-tahrif, a series of articles published in the journal Turathuna in refutation of tahrif by al-Sayyed 'All al-Milani.

My teacher, al Allamah al-Sayyid Jafar Murtada al-'Amili's comprehensive study, named al-Qawl al-fasl fi al-tahrif wa al-qira'at, to be published shortly.

Nonetheless, all these facts have posed no hindrance to an unin­formed writer who had the temerity to write: "Nearly all Shii 'ulama', belonging both to the earlier and the latter generations accept the occurrence of tahrif in the Qur'an and that it has suffered alteration and deletion." It is an obvious misrepresentation of the truth to attri­bute the views of some Akhbari writers, occasioned by their uncritical acceptance of certain fabrication of the Ghulat and other heretics, to scholars and ascribe the opinion of a little minority to the Imami Shiis in general.

It is also not possible to ascribe the statements of the Shi'l 'ulama' in refutal of tahrif to taqiyyah, because these statements have been made by them in their books on fiqh, tafsir and doctrine (Itiqadat), an example of which is al-Shaykh al-Saduq's work on Shii creed, mentioned above. Though the Shiah believe in the concept of taqiyyah, they do not consider it valid in respect of the very foundations of the faith, especially the Qur'an. Apart from this, these statements have been made in books that were written for Shiis and hence the question of taqiyyah does not arise.

As a conclusion to these observations of Shii 'ulama', we quote a Sunni scholar on the topic of the Shi'l rejection of the occurrence of tahrif.

Rahmatullah al-Hindi, in Izhar al-haqq hawl al-Shiah wa al- Qur'an, observes: "The Glorious Qur'an is considered secure from alteration and change by a vast majority (jumhur) of Twelver Shi'i scholars, and whoever among them has spoken of deletions in it, his view has been rejected and considered unacceptable by them."32

Imam 'Ali’s Mushaf

It has been reported in books on history and tradition that 'Ali (A) had compiled and memorized the whole Qur'an, and it is an estab­lished fact that he was one of the scribes of the Revelation and the most eminent of them.

Ibn Abi al-Hadid observes, "All have concurred that 'Ali (A) used to memorize the Qur'an during the Prophet's era and at a time when no one else had yet started doing so. Then, he was the first to compile it."33

Sulaym ibn Qays reports that after the death of the Prophet (S) 'Ali (A) confined himself to his home to devote to the task of collect­ing and compiling the Qur'an. He did not leave home until he had compiled it.34

Al-Kalbi reports, "On the death of the Prophet (5) 'Ali (A) sat at home and compiled the Quran.”35

Al-Kattani reports," 'Ali (A) compiled the Qur'an in the order of its revelation after the death of the Prophet (S)."36

Ibn al-Munadi reports from al-Hasan ibn al-'Abbas, from 'Abd al­Rahman ibn Abi Hammad, from al-Hakam ibn Zahir al-Sadusi, from 'Abd Khayr that "when 'Ali (A) saw ominous signs among the people on the demise of the Prophet (S), he vowed not to wear his rida until he had compiled the Qur'an. He then sat at home for three days compiling the Qur'an.

It was the first mushaf in which the Qur'an had been compiled from his memory. "37 Considering `Ali's closeness to the Proph­et (S) and his constantly keeping his company, it was natural that his compilation should have been done in the best manner. 'Ali (A) himself says:

    ولقد كنت اتَّبِعه اتِّباع الفصيل اثر أُمهِ، يرفع لي في كل يوم من اخلاقه علماً، و يأمرني بالاقتداء به. و لقد كان يجاور في كل سنة بحراء فأراه، ولا يراه غيري. ولم يجمع بيت واحد يومئذ في الاسلام غير رسول الله- صلَّى الله عليه و آله- وخديجة و أنا ثالثهما. أرى نور الوحي و الرسالة، و أشم ريح النبوة. و لقد سمعت رنة الشيطان حين نزل الوحي عليه- صلى الله عليه و آله- فقلت: يا رسول الله ما هذه الرنَّة؟ فقال: هذا الشيطان قد أيس من عبادته. إنك تسمع ما أسمع، وترى ما أرى، إلا إنك لست بنبي، و لكنك لوزير و إنك لعلى خير.

.. I used to follow him like a young camel following in the footprints of its mother. Every day he would raise for me the banner of his morality and command me to follow it. Every year he would go into seclusion to the mountain of Hira', where no one else saw him except me. In those days, Islam did not exist in any house except that of the Messenger of Allah - peace and blessing of Allah be upon him and his Descendants - and Khadijah, while I was the third after these two. I used to see and watch the effulgence of divine revelation and message, and breathed the scent of prophet hood.

When the revelation descended on the Messenger of Allah - peace and blessing of Allah be upon him and his Descendants - I heard the scream of Satan. I said, "O Messenger of Allah, what is this scream?" And he replied,

"This is Satan who has lost all hope of being worshipped. O 'Ali, you see all that I see and you hear all that I hear, except that you are not a prophet, but you are a vicegerent and you are surely on (the path of) virtue."38

It has also been narrated from Sulayman al-'A`mash that 'Ali (A) said:

    ما نزلت آية إلا عَلِمتُ فيما أُنزلت و أين نزلت وعلى من نزلت، إن ربي وهب لي قلباً عقولاً و لساناً طلقاً

No verse has been revealed without my knowing about its subject, place of revelation, and against whom it has been revealed. Certainly, God has granted me a perceptive heart and a fluent tongue.39

He has been reported to have said:

    سلوني عن كتاب الله فإنه ليس من آية إلا و قد عرفت بليل نزلت أم بنهار، في سهل أم في جبل

Question me regarding the Book of God, for surely there is no verse except that I know whether it was revealed at night or during daytime, in a plain or on hilly ground.40

Sulayman ibn Qays reports 'Ali (A) to have said:

    ما نزلت على رسول الله صلى الله عليه و آله آية من القرآن إلا أقرأنيها "ع" و أملاها علي، فكتبتها بخطي، و علمني تأويلها و تفسيرها، و ناسخها و منسوخها، و محكمها و متشابهما، و خاصها و عامها، و دعا الله أن يعطيني فهمها و حفظها، فما نسيت آية من كتاب الله، و لا علما أملاه علي و كتبته

Not a verse of the Qur'an was revealed to the Messenger of God (S) without his reciting and dictating it to me, and without my writing it in my own hand. He taught me its (the Qur'an's) interpretation and exposition, its nasikh and manasukeh, and its muhkam and mutashabih. He prayed to God Almighty to teach me to comprehend and memorize it. Hence I neither forgot a verse from the Book of God Almighty nor any knowledge that he dictated to me and which I wrote.41

Now when the Imam (A) had a complete knowledge of all the verses and the contexts of their revelation (sha'n al-nuzul)as per the fore­going tradition, he must have written his mushaf in accordance with the revelation and what the Prophet (S) had ordered him (A). He also wrote in his mushaf the interpretation of verses as taught to him by the Prophet (S). Therefore, his mushaf was the most complete among the masahif in respect of exposition and shan al-nuzul of the verses. Similarly, his compilation of the mushaf was in the order of the revelation at different times.

Muhammad ibn Sirin reports from `Ikrimah that at the beginning of Abu Bakr's caliphate 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (A) stayed home to compile the Qur'an. Ibn Sirin says that he asked `Ikrimah whether anyone else had compiled the Qur'an in the order of its revelation. He replied: "Had all men and jinn joined hands to compile it in this manner, they would not have been able to do so.”42

Al-Mufid observes regarding `Ali's (A) mushaf, "He mentioned the Makki verses before the Madani, and the mansukh before the nasikh, and placed every part of it in its rightful place.”43 He also says: "That regarding which there is no difference of opinion among Muslim exe­getes is that deletion of the parts of Amir mushaf con­sisted of interpretations (tawai1) and the exposition of its meanings in accordance with the intent of the revelation.”44

This observation clearly shows that the claim that the Imam's mushaf contained certain texts that established his right to the khilafah pertains to ta'wai1 of the revealed text of the Qur'an.

Ibn Jazzi al-Kalbi is reported to have said, "Had `All's (A) mushaf been accessible, it would have been a source of much knowledge.'45

Regarding the difference present among the initial compilers con­cerning the order of the surahs, al-Suyuti says, "Among them was 'Ali's mushaf, which arranged the surahs in the order of their revelation. It began with Iqra', followed by al-Muddaththir, Nun, al-Muzzammil, al-Takwir, and so on till the end of the Makki and Madani (surahs)."46

Also, Ibn Shin, on the basis of Ibn Ashtah's report, said: "Ali (A) had recorded in his mushaf the nasikh and the mansakh (verses)." Ibn Shin is also reported to have said, "I sought that book and wrote to Madinah concerning it, but was unable to find it."47 He is also reported to have said, "Had I been able to find that book, it would have been a source of knowledge."48

Now, did Ibn Sirin believe that `Ali's mushaf contained some verses which were not present in other masahif? It wasn't so; rather, those additional material consisted of interpretations and facts revealed to the Prophet (S) concerning the verses. This is exactly what the Imam (A) has himself expressly affirmed:

    ولقد جئتهم بالكتاب مشتملاً على التنزيل و التأويل

I surely brought them the Book comprising the revelation and the inter­pretation.49

This explanation is affirmed by the traditions50 which explicitly mention the presence of names of some hypocrites of Quraysh in the Imam's mushaf, that these were part of the ta'wilat and sha'n al-nuzul of the verses.

As this kind of compilation of the Qur'an was not done by anyone except 'Ali (A), al-Imam Jafar al-Sadiq (A) remarked:

    ما ادَّعى احد من الناس أنه جمع القرآن كُله كما أُنزل إلا كذّاب، وما جمعه و حفظه كما أُنزل إلا علي بن أبي طالب و الائمة بعده

No one among the people, except a liar, can claim having compiled the whole Qur'an as it was revealed and no one except 'Ali (A) and the Imams succeed­ing him have compiled and preserved it as it was revealed?"51

As to the intepretation that `Ali's compilation of the Qur'an meant his compilation of it in his memory,52 it is contrary to what the traditions clearly mention concerning its compilation in a codex (mushaf). Hence it is clear that in the traditions there is nothing about 'Ali's (A) mushaf that hints at the

presence in it of some verses not present in other masahif; rather it only contained the interpretations and sha'n al-nuzil of some verses.

The Mushaf of Fatimah (A)

Some may imagine that Fatimah's (A) `mushaf' was something like the masahif of `A'ishah, Hafsah and other Sahabah, or that it contained verses not mentioned in the Qur'an handed down by tawatur. Here we may point out that a large number of traditions have been narrated regarding Fatimah's mushaf and some of them explicitly mention that this mushaf contained prophecies of future events and that it did not contain anything about halal and haram. Other traditions say that it contained Fatimah al-Zahra's testament (wasiyyah). Accordingly it is possible that it contained some teachings which she had learnt from her father. Some other traditions are explicit that Fatimah's mushaf did not contain the Qur'an and was not a Quranic codex."53

We do not intend here an investigation of the contexts of Fatimah's mushaf; all that we wish to point out is that her mushaf was not a mus­haf of the Qur'an and therefore what some persons have imagined is out of question.

Table of Contents

A History of Muslim Philosophy Volume 2, Book 4: Later Centuries (From the Fall of Baghdad [656/1258] TO 1111/1700)19

Part 1. The Fall of Baghdad 20

Chapter 40: Fall of The ‘Abbasid Caliphate21

Bibliography 25

Notes26

Part 2. Theologico-Philosophical Thought28

Chapter 41: Ibn Taimiyyah 29

A. Life and Works29

B. Attitude towards Theology and the Theologians31

Ibn Taimiyyah’s Anthropomorphism 33

Al-Qur’an Kalam Allah Ghair Makhluq 34

C. Attitude towards Philosophy 35

Theory of the Atom 42

Theory of the Body 42

Theory of the Similarities of Bodies42

Theory of Motion 43

Theories of Harakat al-Falak, Namus, and Mumkin 44

Notes48

Part 3: The Sufis51

Chapter 42: Jalal al-Din Rumi52

A. Life52

B. Beliefs and Philosophy 57

C. The Nature of Existence and Evolution 58

D. Love62

Bibliography 70

Notes70

Chapter 43: Mahmud Shabistari, Al-Jili, and Jami71

A. Mahmud Shabistari71

B. Al-Jili74

Essence, Attributes, and Names74

1. Life78

2. Knowledge79

3. Will80

4. Power80

5. Speech (Kalam)81

6. Hearing is Divine Epiphany 82

7. Sight82

8. Beauty 82

9. Majesty is Beauty in its Intense Form 82

10. Perfection is the name of Divine Essence which is perfectly unknowable82

Self-revelations of the One82

Ascent of the Soul84

1. Illumination of Action 84

2. Illumination of Names84

3. Illumination of Attributes85

4. Illumination of the Essence87

Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man 87

Saint ship and Prophethood 89

Psychology - Qalb 90

Reason 91

Judgment (Wahm)91

Reflection (Fikr)92

The Self (Nafs)92

Religion 93

C. Jami96

Bibliography 98

Notes99

Chapter 44: Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi103

A. Life and Studies103

B. The Shari‘ah 104

1. Heresy and the Mujaddid’s Opposition to It105

2. Reforms in Sufism and the Nature of Sufistic Perfection 105

3. Significance of the Shari‘ah 106

C. Existential or Experiential Unity 107

D. Revelation and Intuition 108

E. The Religious Law 109

Bibliography 110

Notes111

Part 4: The “Philosophers”112

Chapter 45: Jalal al-Din Dawwani113

A. Life and Works113

B. Ethics113

C. Politics115

D. Metaphysics116

Bibliography 117

Notes117

Chapter 46: Ibn Khaldun 118

A 118

B 119

C 120

D 122

E 125

1. Association is Necessary for Man 126

2. Distribution of Culture on Earth 126

3. Temperate and Intemperate Zones and the Influence of the Atmosphere upon the Colour of Human Beings and many of their States127

4. Influence of the Atmosphere upon the Habits of Character (akhlaq) of Human Beings127

5. Effects of the Abundance and Scarcity of Food upon the Bodies and Habits of Character of Human Beings127

6. Classes of those who perceive the “Unseen” (ghaib) among Human Beings by Natural Disposition or by Exercise128

F 129

Bibliography 130

Notes130

Chapter 47: The School of Ispahan 133

A. Introduction 133

B. Hikmat134

C. Major Figures of the School of Ispahan 135

Sheikh Baha’ al-Din ‘Amili136

Mir Damad 139

Mir Abu al-Qasim Findiriski145

The form below, if by the ladder of gnosis146

The intellect form which is endless and immortal146

Mulla Muhsin Faid-i Kashi148

Mulla Mohammad Baqir Majlisi151

D. Conclusion 152

Bibliography 152

Notes153

Chapter 48: Sadr al-Din Shirazi159

A. Life and Works159

B. Sources of Mulla Sadra’s Doctrines162

C. Mulla Sadra’s Method and the Characteristics of His School163

D. Division of the Sciences163

E. Principles of Mulla Sadra’s Doctrines165

1. Unity and Polarization of Being 165

2. Substantial Motion 169

3. Divine and Human Knowledge171

4. Soul, Its Origin, Becoming and Entelechy 173

F. Significance of Mulla Sadra and His Influence176

Bibliography 178

Notes179

Part 5: Political Thought186

Chapter 49: Ibn Khaldun 187

A 187

B 188

C 189

D 192

E 195

F 202

Bibliography 206

Notes206

A History of Muslim Philosophy Volume 2, Book 5: Other Disciplines (Covering Both The Early And The Later Centuries)216

Part 1: Language and Literature217

Chapter 50: Arabic Literature, Poetic and Prose Forms218

A. Poetry 218

The Nasib 220

The Madih 221

The Khatimah 222

Islam and Poetry 223

Development of the Ghazal225

Vilifying Ghazal226

The ‘Abbasid Era229

Further Development of the Ghazal229

Bohemianism 230

New Features of the Ghazal231

Moral, Philosophical and Mystic Poetry 231

Formal Panegyric232

Personal and Occasional Verse233

Descriptive Poetry 234

Adaptation of Metre and Diction 235

Strophic Verse236

B. Prose236

1. Proverbs236

2. Oracular sayings236

3. Orations and 237

Influence of the Qur’an and the Hadith 237

Popular Anecdote239

Story Cycles239

High-class Fiction 240

Literary Epistle (Risalah) and Rhetorical Maqamah 241

Development of the Story for Literary Theme242

Story for the Philosophical Theme243

Historical Writing 243

Influence on the West244

Bibliography 245

Notes245

Chapter 51: Arabic Literature, Poetic and Prose Forms247

A. Grammar247

B. Lexicography 253

Bibliography 259

Notes260

Chapter 52: Arabic Literature: Theories of Literary Criticism 262

Bibliography 272

Chapter 53: Persian Literature274

A. Persian Literature of Early Times274

B. The Beginning of Modern Persian Literature277

C. Different Epochs of Persian Poetry 278

D. Persian Prose283

E. Persian Grammar and Lexicography 285

F. Influence on Persian Literature286

Bibliography 287

Chapter 54: Turkish Literature288

A. Development of Turkish Prose and Poetry 288

Seventh/13th Century 291

Eighth/14th Century 291

Ninth/15th Century 292

Tenth/16th Century 293

11th/17th Century 295

12th/18th Century 296

13th/19th Century 297

B. Development of Turkish Grammar and Lexicography 297

Bibliography: Turkish Grammar and Lexicography 299

Notes300

Part 2: Language and Literature305

Chapter 55: Architecture306

A. The First Three Centuries of Muslim Architecture306

The Great Mosque of Damascus307

B. Muslim Architecture in Later Centuries312

1. Muslim Architecture in North Africa312

The Fatimids312

The Mamluks312

Qairawin 313

2. Muslim Architecture in Spain 314

3. Muslim Architecture in Iran 316

4. Muslim Architecture in Central Asia321

5. Muslim Architecture in Turkey 322

6. Muslim Architecture in Pakistan and India325

Bengal329

Jaunpur330

The Deccan 332

Malwah 333

Bibliography 337

Notes337

Chapter 56: Painting 339

A. Introduction 339

B. Characteristics of Muslim Painting 339

C. Historical Background 344

D. Book Illustrations344

E. The Mongo School345

F. The Timurid School346

G. The Great Behzad 347

H. The Safawid School348

I. The Bukhara School348

J. The Turkish Painting 349

K. The Mughul Painting 349

Bibliography 350

Notes351

Chapter 57: Music352

Alf Lailah wa Lailah 352

A. The Music in Itself352

Syrian Proverb 355

B. The Music Lovers355

Notes367

Chapter 58: Music (continued)371

C. The Music Theorists371

D. Influence379

An Arabic Proverb 379

Bibliography 396

Notes397

Chapter 59: Minor Arts404

A 404

B 405

1. Calligraphy and Illumination 405

2. Book-binding 408

3. Pottery 409

4. Textiles and Rugs411

5. Wood-carving, and Ivory and Bone-carving 415

6. Metal-work, Glass and Crystal417

Bibliography 418

Notes420

Part 3: Social Studies421

Chapter 60: Historiography 422

Bibliography 441

Notes442

Chapter 61: Jurisprudence445

A - The Law 445

B -Law And Ethics448

C- Sanctions449

D - Law And Religious Affairs450

E - The Chief Sources451

F-Other Sources453

G - Particular Sections Of The Law 455

1. `Ibadat455

2. Mu`amalat456

(a) Polity 456

(b) Fiscality 457

(c) Contracts458

(d) Family Law 459

(e) Commercial Contracts460

(f) Administration of Justice461

3. Penal Laws462

(a) Apostasy 462

(b) Homicide and Corporal Damages462

(c) & (d) Sexual Transgression and False Accusations Affecting the Honor of Women463

(e) Alcoholic Drinks463

(f) Robbery and Theft463

(g) War463

(h) Infliction of Injuries (Mazalim)464

H - Muslim Contribution To Law 464

I - Interactions465

J - Further Possibilities466

Bibliography 466

Notes466

Part 4: The Sciences468

Chapter 62: Geography 469

A - General And Regional Geography 473

1. The Route Books474

2. Books of Countries and Dictionaries475

3. Diaries and Travel Accounts476

B - General Treatises And Scientific Geography 481

C - Mathematical Geography 485

1. Instruments and Their Use487

2. Determination of Latitudes and Longitudes487

3. The Earth's Shape, Size, and Movements488

D-Cartography And Map-Making 489

E - Influence Of Muslim Geography 492

Bibliography 495

Some Texts and Translations495

General496

Notes497

Chapter 63: Mathematics and Astronomy 500

A - Introduction 500

B - Arithmetic501

C - Algebra502

D -Geometry 503

E - Trigonometry 504

F - Astronomy 505

Bibliography 512

Notes512

Chapter 64: Physics and Mineralogy 514

Bibliography 517

Notes517

Chapter 65: Chemistry 518

Bibliography 534

Notes535

Chapter 66: Natural History 537

A 537

B 539

C 543

Bibliography 547

Notes548

Chapter 67: Medicine552

A - Introductory 552

B - Collection And Translation Of Books554

C - Hospitals556

D - Physicians And Surgeons558

E - Influence564

Bibliography 564

Notes565

A History of Muslim Philosophy Volume 2, Book 6: Influence of Muslim Thought572

Chapter 68: Influence of Muslim Thought on the West573

Western Thinkers On Islam In General573

Muslim philosophy influenced Western thought in several ways. It573

Theological Influence582

Philosophical Influence Before Descartes588

Philosophical Influence From Descartes To Kant601

Philosophical Influence in the Post Kantian Period 606

Bibliography 608

Notes609

Chapter 69: Influence of Muslim thought on the East613

Introduction 613

Persia613

China, Turkey and Afghanistan 616

India617

Cultural Contacts618

From the First/Seventh Century to Sarikara620

Indonesia627

Bibliography 635

General635

Persia, Turkey, Afghanistan, and China636

India636

Indonesia636

Notes637

A History of Muslim Philosophy Volume 2, Book 7: The Dark Age (1111/1700-1266/1850)647

Chapter 70: Decline In The Muslim World 648

A. Political Causes of the Catastrophic Decline648

1. Turkey 648

2. Persia651

3. India652

4. Indonesia654

B. Non-Political Causes657

Bibliography 663

Turkey 663

Persia663

India663

Indonesia664

Notes664

Chapter 71: The Silver Lining, Development Of The Urdu Language, Grammar, And Literature665

A 665

B 667

C 667

D 669

E 671

F 673

G 673

Bibliography 674

Notes674

A History of Muslim Philosophy Volume 2, Book 8: Modern Renaissance (Covering both the Early and the Later Centuries)683

Part 1. Renaissance in the Near and Middle East684

Chapter 72: Renaissance in Arabia, Yemen, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon 685

Muhammad Bin Abd Al-Wahhab and His Movement685

A 685

B 685

C 689

Role of the Arab Academy of Damascus in Syria689

American University of Beirut689

Role of the Arab League in Unifying the Arab World 691

D 692

Bibliography 694

Notes695

Chapter 73: Renaissance in North Africa: The Sanusiyyah Movement696

A: Rise of the Sanusiyyah Order696

B: Teachings and Philosophy of the Sanussiyyah Order704

C: Achievements: An Evaluation 706

D: Decline and Recovery 712

Bibliography 717

Notes718

Chapter 74: Jamal Al-Din Al-Afghani721

A: Introduction 721

B: Life722

C: Philosophy 724

D: Political Thought725

E: Conclusion 727

Bibliography 727

A: Works of al-Afghani727

B: Works on al-Afghani727

Chapter 75: Renaissance in Egypt: Muhammad Abduh and His School729

A: Life729

For greatness we have made a resting-place734

B: His Philosophy 734

C: The School of Muhammad Abduh in Egypt745

Bibliography 750

Chapter 76: Renaissance in Turkey: Zia Gokalp and His School752

Bibliographical Note760

Chapter 77: Renaissance in Iran: General763

Bibliography 779

Notes780

Chapter 78: Renasissance in Iran: Haji Mulla Hadi Sabziwari782

A: Life and Works782

B: Sources of Haji’s Doctrines and the Characteristics of His Approach 783

C: Teachings784

D: Post-Sabziwarian Hikmat791

Bibliography 792

Notes793

Part 2. Renaissance in South and South-East Asia796

Chapter 79: Renaissance in Indo-Pakistan: Shah Wali Allah Dihlawi797

A: Introduction 797

B: Life and Works797

C: Sources of Shah Wali Allah’s Thought798

D: Socio-Economic and Political Thought799

E: Philosophy of History 802

F: Metaphysics807

Doctrines of Wahdat al-Wujud and Wahdat al-Shuhud 807

The Spiritual World and the Material World 810

Space and Time811

Freedom and Fatalism 811

G: Jurisprudence812

H: Conclusion 814

Bibliography 815

Notes817

Chapter 80: Renaissance in Indo-Pakistan (Continued): Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan as a Politician, Historian, and Reformist819

A: Introductory 819

B: The Sayyid as a Historian 820

C: The Sayyid as a Reformer827

D: The Sayyid as a Politician 831

Bibliography 835

Notes836

Chapter 81: Renaissance in Indo-Pakistan (Continued): Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan as a Religio-Philosophical Thinker837

Bibliography 852

Notes852

Chapter 82: Renaissance in Indo-Pakistan (Continued): Iqbal854

Summing Up 868

Reason and Heart: A Dialogue870

The Odyssey of Man 871

The Nature of Life871

The Birth of Man 872

Bibliography 872

Notes873

Chapter 83: Renaissance in Indonesia874

A: Introductory 874

B: National Movement in Indonesia876

C: Effect of the First World War on Indonesia877

D: Factors Promoting National Sentiments878

Nationalist Party of Indonesia880

Sarekat Islam 882

Indonesian Youth Movement883

Indonesian Women Movement883

Cooperation and Non-Cooperation Movements883

F: The Japanese Occupation 884

Effects of the Japanese Occupation 886

Bibliography 892

Notes894

Conclusion 896