Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

The Mystery of Life

A Secret Inside Secrets, Selections from the books written by Allamah Muhammad Taqi Ja’fari

This book deals with a myriad of subjects related to human life: philosophy, mysticism, anthropology, cultures, arts, history and much more.

Author(s): Allamah Muhammad Taqi Ja'fari

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments 8

Preface 9

Recognition in the Domain of Thoughts 11

The Possibility of Recognition. 11

The Devices and Tools for Discovery and Gaining Knowledge 12

The Importance of Adjusting and Refining the Senses 13

The Factors that Influence Recognition and Identification. 13

The Process of Recognition. 14

Different Forms of Knowledge and Recognition. 15

Supreme Forms of Knowledge 19

The Various Forms of Practical Relationship between the Mind and the Phenomenon to be discovered  21

The Activities of the Mind. 22

Various Relationships between the Mind and the Subject 24

The Relationship between the Mind and the Observable Facts in Discovery. 27

The Relationship between the “Self” and “Other than the “Self” in Cognition  27

Pillar 1: The “Self” and the Factors that Influence the Process of Gaining Knowledge 27

Pillar 2: Other than the Self, or the Realities about the Universe 30

A Criticism of Idealism. 31

Responding to a Point of Criticism. 31

From Science to Philosophy: A Look Inside 33

The Definition of Science 33

The Levels of Science 33

Factors that Make Man Seek Science 34

Scientific Laws 34

The Definitions of Philosophy. 38

The Principles of Philosophical Systems 39

The Criterion for a Subject Being Scientific or Philosophical 40

A Scholar's Philosophical Rise 41

The Essence of Supernatural Knowledge 41

The Analytical Method or the Combination Method? 43

The Differences between Science and Philosophy. 45

The Classification of Philosophy. 46

The Advantages of the Collaboration between Science and Philosophy. 48

The Humanities 50

The Philosophy of Science and the Humanities 53

Philosophical Doubt 54

Science and Philosophy in Intelligible Life 56

Anthropology: A New Scope 58

Theories on Human Nature 58

The Human Nature in the Qur’an. 58

Human Characteristics 59

Human Nature 60

Man's Internal Potentials 62

Interpreting Opposite Potentials 63

The Identity of the “Self” (the “ Ego” ) 64

Self-assessment 66

Taking Oneself Seriously. 66

Good Intentions for the Self 67

Self-alienation. 67

1. Negative Self-alienation. 67

2. Positive Self-alienation. 69

The Qualities of Existence Dependent upon the Self 70

Finding the Roots of Man's Weaknesses 71

Conscience 73

The Definition of Conscience 73

A Scientific and Philosophical Study of Conscience 73

The Criticism on the Originality of the Conscience 73

The Importance of Conscience 75

The Characteristics and Consequences of Conscience 75

The Relationship between Recognizing Oneself and Recognizing God. 76

Man's Four Relationships 78

Spiritual Moderation. 80

The Relativity of Spiritual Moderation. 80

Spiritual Expansion and Contraction. 82

The Relativity of Spiritual Expansion. 82

The Basic Origin of Spiritual Expansion and Contraction. 83

Conscious and Unconscious Expansions and Contractions 83

The Expansion and Contraction of the Divine Conscience 83

The Consequences of Expansions and Contractions 84

The Reasons Why Anthropology Has Failed. 84

The Problems with Contemporary Psychology. 85

Life: The Hows and Whys 87

Asking about the Philosophy of Life 87

Motives for Asking about the Aim of Life 87

The Necessity of Recognizing the Ultimate Aim of Life 88

Various Viewpoints on the Aim of Life 89

The Aim of Life as Seen in the Holy Qur’an. 90

The Characteristics of an Objective Life 91

The Six Kinds of Life: 92

Education: The Basics 94

The four principles of education are: 94

Principle 1: The Fundamentals of Education. 94

The goals of education are: 94

The Basics of Education. 94

Principle 2: The Teacher and the Trainer 96

Principle 3: The Student and the Trainee 98

Factors Resisting Education. 100

Principle 4: The Contents of Education. 101

How Do Cultures Evolve?. 102

The Four Principles of Culture 102

Two Different Forms of Culture 102

Two Aspects of Culture 104

Diversity of Cultures 104

Acquiring Cultures 105

Factors that Can Preserve Cultures 105

Why Cultural Elements Lose Their Harmony. 106

Can Culture Undergo Evolution? 106

The Fundamentals of Western Culture 107

Man and the Universe: What Should Man Do?  109

Knowledge of the Universe by means of the Seven Factors 111

Perceiving the Universe by means of the Seven Aspects 112

Changing by means of the Seven Aspects 114

Changing Others by means of the Seven Aspects 115

The “What There Should Be” and “What There Is” System   117

The Relationship between Values and Scientific Research. 117

The Relationship between “What There Should Be” and “What There Is” 119

An Analysis of the Relationship between “What There Should Be” and “What There Is” 119

The Relationship between “What There Should Be” and “What There Is” in the Qur’an  120

The Relationship between Ideology and World-view. 121

What Is Ideology? 121

What Is World-view? 121

Life, Rising Up. 123

The Factors that Can Elevate Man's Evolutionary Life 125

Intelligible Life, the Fundamental Domain. 130

The Definition of Intelligible Life 131

The Role of Wisdom in an intelligible Life 132

The Feasibility of an intelligible Life 132

A Closer Look at the Aspects of Intelligible Life 133

Man and Freedoms 138

The Right to Freedom and the Right to Free Will 138

The Classifications of Freedom. 139

In the Society: From Economics to Politics 144

Work. 144

The Definition of Work. 144

The Value of Work. 144

The Domains of the Value of Work. 145

Various Kinds and Aspects of Human Work. 146

The Relationship between Work and Human Life 148

Values 148

Ownership. 149

The Natural Roots of Ownership. 149

The Limitation of Personal Ownership. 151

Unity among People 151

The Various Forms of Unity. 152

Differences among People 154

The Various Forms of Unity. 157

Social Order and Cooperation. 157

The Principles of Social Order and Cooperation. 158

Power and Right 158

Power in the hands of selfish man. 160

Power in developed man. 161

A Study of History. 163

What Is the Philosophy of History? 164

Causality in History. 164

Is History Motivated Internally or Externally? 164

Is There a Single Motivating Reason for History? 165

The Necessity of Distinguishing the Necessary Factors from the Determining Factors in History  166

Various Viewpoints on the Factors Motivating History. 167

Does History Advance on an Evolutionary Path? 169

Civilizations: The Principles and the Presumptions 172

The Difference between Civilization and Culture 172

What Elevates a Civilization. 173

The Basic Reasons Why Civilizations Fall 174

The Unconditional Philosophical Principles of Civilizations 174

Principle One: The Self-love of Life 174

Principle Two: The Economy. 175

Principle Three: Free Will and Freedom. 175

Principle Four: Stagnant Civilizations Gradually Deteriorate 176

Principle Five: The Law of Causality. 176

Conditional Philosophical Principles in Civilizations 177

The Relationships between Civilizations 178

Men and Women: A Serious Study. 180

The Identity of Men and Women. 180

Theoretical Wisdom in Men and Women. 181

Men and Women in the Family. 182

Three Issues Concerning the Differences between Men and Women. 184

Inequality of Men and Woman Testifying. 186

God: From Seeking God to Faith in God  187

The History of Belief in God. 187

Void of Reasons for Defying God. 187

Classifying People based on Their Belief in God. 188

Factors Inhibiting Obvious Recognition of God. 189

Essentiality Reasoning. 191

Faith. 193

The Necessity of Faith. 193

Man's Mental States during Worship. 195

Is Religion a Personal Matter? 196

The Origins of Defying Divine Commandments 196

Devotion. 197

The Characteristics of Valuable Devotion: 197

Having God in Mind. 198

The Conditions for Calling and Remembering God. 199

Divine Justice 200

The Rule of Kind Favors 203

The Consequences of the Rule of Kind Favors 204

The Relationship between God and His Creatures 204

The Relationship between God and His Creatures in the Qur’an. 205

Fatalism and Free Will: Which Is the Truth?  207

The Characteristics of Will 207

The Difference between Tendency and Will 208

The Difference between Will and Determination. 209

The Quanta of Will 209

Is the Will Free? 210

The Levels of Free Will 210

The Three Fundamental Principles in Proving Free Will 211

The Steps toward Making Free Will-based Actions Come True 211

Two Kinds of Will, Decision and Supervision in Actions based on Free Will 212

A Look at Human Rights 215

Seven reasons have been presented for the compilation of the Human Rights. We will now comment on some of them: 215

The Reasons and Motives for Setting Human Rights in Islam. 217

The Ad Valorem Theorems in the Human Rights Declaration. 217

The Points in Common between the Western and Islamic Views on the Human Rights 221

A Brief Study of the Qur’an. 225

What is the Qur’an? 225

The Qur’an: A Miracle 230

How God's Divine Beauty Can Be Recognized. 232

The Divinity of the Qur’an. 238

1. The Sense of Absolute Dominance and Control 238

2. The Void of Contradiction in Qur’anic Verses 238

Thought and Reasoning in the Qur’an. 240

How the Qur’an Sees the Universe: Carefully Calculated. 241

The Stories in the Qur’an. 241

The Rise and Fall of Cultures and Civilizations 245

Fear of God as Seen in the Qur’an. 246

Forget Judgment Day, and There Will Be No Good or Bad. 248

The Universe on Judgment Day. 248

The Necessity of Knowing the Qur’an. 249

The Qur’an and Creation. 250

The Book of Justice and Fairness 250

The Book of No Contradictions 251

The Qur’an, the Book that Confirms and Verifies Prophets 251

The Qur’an, the Panacea for Mankind's Pains 251

The Qur’an, The Book for Mankind. 251

Positive Mysticism. 253

The Characteristics of Positive Mysticism. 253

The Characteristics of Negative Mysticism. 256

The Ecstatic 257

The Conditions and Obstacles on the Path of Mystic Endeavor 258

Mysticism and the Four Relationships 259

Mystics and the Order and Harmony of Life 260

Mysticism, Work and Effort 260

Mysticism and Power 260

Mysticism and Politics 260

Mysticism and the Society. 261

Mysticism, Wisdom and Science 261

Mysticism and Jihad. 262

Criticizing Nonsense 262

Religion, Rule of Life, and the Truth. 263

Mystic Change 264

Arts and Aesthetics 265

Four Various Viewpoints on Art 265

The Philosophical Viewpoint on Art 265

Pursuant Art, Pioneer Art 267

Modernism in Art 267

Artists 268

Various Types of Beauty. 269

The Truth about Beauties 269

The Virtually Internal Pole of Beauties 271

The Virtually External Pole of Beauties 271

The Differences between Observable Beauty and Intelligible Beauty. 272

The Definition of Beauty. 272

What Does Whitehead Tell Us? A Critique of a Book  274

The History of Ideas 274

Philosophy and the Truth. 275

The Laws of Nature 277

God. 277

Religion. 278

Defying the Ultimate Reason. 279

Man. 280

Moral Ethics 281

Freedom. 282

Art 283

Human Civilizations 283

Islam. 285

Acknowledgments

This is our first step into the world of great human beings who have understood the harmonious rhythm of the universe - and even become part of it. We feel obliged to thank the Mr. Abdullah Nasri, Mr. Shahram Ansari and Mr. Karim Feizi for helping to compile this book. We would also like to thank and Ms. Ruqayya Alizadeh for editing and proofreading the book and Ms. Roya Azizi Mousavi for setting its computer layout, and Mr. M. Hemmathi for designing the cover of this book.

The contents of this book have been compiled and selected from the following books written by Allamah Ja’fari:

• from a Scientific and Qur’anic Point of View, 1982

• A Study of the Philosophy of Science, 1992

• A Study and Critique of David Hume's Thoughts on Four Philosophical Issues, 1992

• A Study and critique of The Adventures of Ideas, 1991

• The Relationship between Man and the Universe, 1953

• A Study and Critique of the Russell-Wyatt Dialogs, 1964

• The Message of Wisdom, 1998

• An Interpretation and Critique of Rumi's Mathnavi (15 vol.), 1969- 1973

• A Translation and Interpretation of the Nahj-ul-balaghah (27 vol.), 1979-1998

• Conscience, 1966

• Fatalism and Free Will, 1967

• The Philosophy of Life, 1968

• Man in an Elevating, Evolutionary Life, 1984

• Intelligible Life, 1985

• Universal Human Rights, 1992

• The Philosophy of Islam's Political Principles, 1987

• Positive Mysticism, 1992

• Pioneer Culture to the Rescue of Mankind, 1993

• The Qur’an, A Symbol of Intelligible Life, 1995

We would like to end this book by adding that we would highly appreciate any suggestions readers of this book may wish to provide us with.

Preface

In the 1923, a child was born in northwestern Iran who would a few decades later become, for his scientific efforts and profound writings, one of the greatest thinkers of his time. His name was Muhammad Taqi Ja’fari.

Though born in a family who were by no means rich - which created many problems inhibiting his progress in education and academic endeavors - he persisted, and it was his tireless persistence and stamina that turned him into one of the richest men of the East in knowledge and mysticism. He soon accumulated a huge treasure of knowledge full of original, basic, innovative thoughts.

Muhammad Taqi Ja’fari never studied at any university; yet, his ingenious, delicate mental endeavors lead to the creation of invaluable amounts of knowledge, particularly in fields such as philosophy, anthropology, ideology and analyzing modern truths.

Ja’fari began his formal education at theological schools and seminaries, but his academic career mostly involves comprehensive viewpoints with the context of solving major ideological and philosophical dilemmas.

Searching for topics and posing fundamental questions was the most prominent aspect of Allamah Ja’fari's mentality; thus, he was constantly searching, excavating into new worlds few had stepped into - at least, the way he stepped into them.

His childhood was spent with his silent, boyish thoughts; his youth, however, involved studies mainly focusing on humanity and the universe. As time passed, these two issues became more and more important to him, though his peers did not think so.

His first book, The Relationship between Man and the Universe (The Change of Physical Mass in Man's Understanding from the Earliest Times up to the Twentieth Century), written in three volumes, showed how distinctive his way of thinking was; even though he was just a young man, he had begun a journey that he spent the rest of his life on - studying humanity, the universe and the facts that sacrifice the universe for man and man for himself.

By considering things from a novel point of view, Muhammad Taqi Ja’fari tended to use historical issues with a new definition and for a new purpose. This made him be much more than a pure philosopher; other scholars paid attention to his thoughts on the basics of recognition and discovery and insights into science and philosophy.

Still, he never stopped at that, and tried open up a new road by using the latest findings in the humanities and also experimental sciences like physics and mathematics. In fact, his questions about the mystery of life and his stops at stations like how evolutions arises in culture, the secrets about education helped him swiftly pass through the narrow road of “what there is” and “what there should be,” and see life as an elevation.

That was when he reached a crucially fundamental domain called “intelligible life,” and then devoted all his capabilities into extracting a constructive truth out of obvious realities like culture, economics, science, history, philosophy, civilizations and technology that could save the world

from falling into oblivion for the stormy hands of those who lack balanced thinking.

Since Ja’fari put a great deal of care into his work, and experienced and analyzed both Western and Eastern unsolved issues with incredible vigor and passion, and also probably due to his pioneer discoveries regarding issues where others failed, the second half of his lifetime had him change into an internationally renowned thinker.

Many Western scholars and thinkers from prominent universities all over the world visited him and held talks and discussions with him - over 100 major interviews, some of which have been published. Allamah Ja’fari and Bertrand Russell had correspondence with each other. Professor Rosenthal, Dr. Kenneth Alan Luther, Dr. Allal Al-fasi, Professor Gankowski, Professor Van Ess, Professor Koroda, Professor Muhammad Abdul-Salam, and many others were among those who came to Tehran to hold discussions with Allamah Ja’fari.

This book contains selections of but parts of the late Allamah's thoughts on some fundamental issues. It can be considered a way of thinking attempting to view truths from a new scope. Allamah Ja’fari's thoughts clearly show that he never confined himself to geographical boundaries; his main concern was mankind and the future - a future we cannot afford to neglect.

Those who knew him admit that he excelled at avoiding prejudiced or limited thoughts, and this book should also verify this fact - it is the cry of a thoughtful bird who sees the world as a garden to develop, fly and fly higher and higher in. He heeds us not to forget flying higher. Through his hundreds of comprehensive studies and analyses, he has told us that it is impossible to solve the mystery of life without making it face eternity.

Lesson 2: The Ways of Knowing God

Before embarking on the discussion about the proofs of the existence of God and an examination of the Divine Attributes, it is necessary to answer this important and key question: can the human being know God or not? And in case he can, what is the way of doing so? This is because if the answer to this question is negative, any sort of discussion and discourse about theology is vain and useless.

Here, two general outlooks have been put forth, i.e. those of the affirmatives and the negatives. The rationalists and intuitionists regard God as knowable and the way of knowing Him as open to mankind. The sensationalists and literalists give a negative reply, however, to the above question and consider mankind incapable of knowing God. Now, we shall examine and elucidate these outlooks.

The Rationalists

The rationalists refer to the group of thinkers who have accepted the authority and credibility of reason or intellect (‘aql ) in knowledge [or the process of knowing], regarding the rational principles and fundamentals as the foundations of knowledge. They are of the opinion that without formally acknowledging the intellect and rational principles, no knowledge can be attained about the human being and even sensory and external pieces of knowledge are based on rational foundations, let alone empirical scientific pieces of knowledge and those pieces of information which are substantiated by the text and outward meanings of the revelation (wahy ).

Aristotle1 and his followers in Ancient Greece, Descartes2 and his followers in the West, Fārābī,3 Ibn Sīnā,4 and all Imāmiyyah and Mu‘tazilite theologians (mutakallimīn ) have been proponents of this outlook. Reason also occupies a high position in Māturīdiyyah theology. For the Ash‘arites,5 however, reason (‘aql ) is theoretically valid to some extent but not so in practice.6

At any rate, the philosophers and theologians in the Muslim world believe that God can be known through rational thinking, although there is a difference of opinions on the limit of the intellect’s capability. For example, the proofs presented to prove the existence of God and the methods adopted to discuss the Attributes of God are not the same.

The proponents of this viewpoint have emphasized that adopting the rational way of attaining knowledge about God and understanding metaphysical truths is not an easy job and it requires special skill, talent and ability; otherwise, the desirable result will not be obtained and in many instances, it may even lead to deviation.

In this regard,Shahīd Muṭahharī7 has said:

“The limitedness of the meanings of words and expressions, on one hand, and the minds’ familiarity with tangible and physical concepts, on the other hand, make it difficult to think and reflect on metahphysical issues. In order to be prepared for metaphysical reflections, the mind gradually undergoes certain processes… No doubt, when the meanings and concepts of the Divine wisdom want to manifest in the realm of philosophical intellects, it requires a particular mental acumen and intellectual capacity which is totally

different from literary, technological, natural or mathematical acumen. The mind must develop in a particular dimension or aspect so as to acquire acumen for such ideas.”8

The Holy Qur’an and traditions (aḥādīth ) endorse this method, and the proofs and pieces of evidence in criticizing the viewpoint of the literalists will be stated. Here, we suffice ourselves with quoting the following verse which regards reflection (tafakkur ) on the system of creation as one of the characteristics of those who possess intellects (ūli’l-albāb ) for which they are praised:

﴿ إِنَّ فِي خَلْقِ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأَرْضِ وَاخْتِلاَفِ اللَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِ لآيَاتٍ لِّأُوْلِي الألْبَابِ ٭ الَّذِينَ يَذْكُرُونَ اللّهَ قِيَامًا وَقُعُودًا وَعَلَىَ جُنُوبِهِمْ وَيَتَفَكَّرُونَ فِي خَلْقِ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأَرْضِ رَبَّنَا مَا خَلَقْتَ هَذا بَاطِلاً سُبْحَانَكَ فَقِنَا عَذَابَ النَّارِ ﴾

“Indeed in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of night and day, there are signs for those who possess intellects. Those who remember Allah standing, sitting, and lying on their sides, and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth [and say] ‘Our Lord, You have not created this in vain! Immaculate are You. Save us from the punishment of the Fire.” 9

The Intuitionists

The intuitionists are of the opinion that the existence of God and metaphysical realities are knowable by the human being, but not through the agency of reason and the method of reflection (tafakkur ) and intellection (ta‘aqqul ); rather, through the agency of the heart and the method of illumination (ishrāq ) and inner intuition or witnessing (shuhūd-e durūnī ).

Some intuitionists have regarded reason as totally incapable of knowing God, but other intuitionists do not consider it sufficient although they have stressed its being essential and they have also acknowledged its ability to some extent. Muslim and non-Muslim mystics advocate the method of mystical intuition (shuhūd-e ‘irfānī ) in knowing God. Some modern Western philosophers and religious psychologists and psychoanalysts have also opted for this method.

Assessment

Although it is acceptable in knowing God and has an important function, this method still needs the rational method. Firstly, in intuitive perceptions, there is always the possibility of satanic tricks and insinuations, and to detect them would require rational principles and rules. Secondly, intuitive method is personal in nature and incapable of being proved to others, except through rational method and philosophical principles.

For this reason, great mystics and philosophers have highlighted the mystical method’s need for rational and philosophical method which has a higher and more perfect state. Regarding mysticism’s need for intellection (ta‘aqqul) and reasoning (istidlāl ), Ḥakīm Lāhījī has said:

“The human being has two ways to [know] God, the Exalted. One is the outward way and the other is inward. The outward way is the path of reasoning (istidlāl) while the inward way is the path of spiritual wayfaring

(sulūk). The path of reasoning takes precedence over the path of spiritual wayfaring, for as long as one does not know what spiritual station (manzil ) is, he will not be able to seek the way leading to the spiritual station.” 10

Elsewhere, he has also said, “Prior to the stabilization of theosophy (ḥikmah) and scholastic theology (‘ilm al-kalām ), Sufi claims are [nothing but] demagoguery and fraud.” 11

The Sensualists

The sensualists are those who regard the way of knowing realities as limited to sensory observation and experiment. Sensualism has a long precedence in the history of human thought. The Skeptics of Ancient Greece upheld the primacy of experience and opposed rational philosophy. The new form of empiricism can be traced to the 17th century.

Scholars and philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes,12 Pierre Gassendi13 and David Hume14 were among the prominent proponents of sensualism. The notion that sensory perception is the fountainhead and criterion for knowledge has been the ultimate product of their intellectual activity.15

Since perception and sensory experience are only through the five senses, the existence and Attributes of God cannot be proved or disproved on the basis of the foundations of sensualism. As such, they oppose both the theists and materialists, because according to them, there is no way of proving or disproving for mankind the metaphysical world.

Assessment

Sensory empiricism (primacy of the sensory perception) is unacceptable because there is a set of epistemological concepts and principles which cannot be understood by sensory perception and at the same time, they cannot be denied; that is, without them, sensory perceptions are also impossible. Of the concepts used in scientific and non-scientific discourses, the concepts of necessity or essential (ḍarūrah), refusal or abstention (imtinā‘ ) and probable (iḥtimāl ) play a vital role, and none of them can be perceived by the senses.

The law of causation (causality) is another principle which the sensualists have regarded as definite. This is so while the cause-and-effect relationship - as Hume has also acknowledged - is not something tangible or sensible. Causation means an existent’s dependence on another existent, and not succession (tawālī) or symmetry (taqārun ) of phenomena.

The principle of non-contradiction16 is one of the most fundamental intellectual principles of man, and no idea or opinion, no matter how likely it may be, cannot be formulated without this principle. The said principle can never be perceived by the senses. Felicien Robert Challaye,17 who is himself a prominent empiricist, has regarded two principles as the basis of inducement of empirical sciences:

1. Nature has order and law, and accident or chance does not happen in them (law of causation), and

2. Every cause always brings about the same effect given a unified set of conditions (the principle of harmony in nature or harmony between the cause and the effect).18

Moreover, it is true that every experiment depends on the observation of particular steps, which is discussed by the likes of Francis Bacon19 and Stuart Mill20 in a bid to know the real cause of every happening, but the element of experiment has not guaranteed the correctness or validity of those steps (methods). They thus have no option but to establish the correctness or validity of those steps through a sort of rational proof which they deny.21

The Literalists

A group of Muslim traditionists (muḥaddithūn) does not regard reason and rational thinking as authoritative and permissible bases in knowing the religion, and they are of the opinion that the only means of knowing religious facts - whether pertaining to the roots or branches of religion - are the scriptural texts.

The Ḥanbalīs andAhl al-Ḥadīth from among the Sunnīs and theAkhbarī s from among the Shī‘ah have subscribed to this idea, vehemently opposing rational (philosophical and theological) discussions of the issues on beliefs.

There is a well known story that someone asked Mālik ibn Anas (93-179 AH) about the meaning of “Allah’s settlement on the Throne” as mentioned in this verse:

﴿ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنُ عَلَى ٱلْعَرْشِ ٱسْتَوَىٰ ﴾

“The All-beneficent, settled on the Throne.” 22

In reply, Ibn Anas said:

اَلْاِسْتِواءُ مَعْلومٌ وَالْكِيْفِيَّةُ مَجْهولَةٌ وَالْايمانُ بِهِ واجِبٌ وَالسُّؤالُ عَنْهُ بِدْعَةٌ.

“The settlement is known; how God settles on the Throne is unknown; to believe in it is obligatory and to ask about it isbid‘ah (innovation in religion).” 23

Sufyān ibn ‘Uyaynah24 (died 198 AH) is reported to have said that the Attributes of God mentioned in the Qur’an must not be interpreted and a study about their meanings must not be done. Instead, they must be recited and one must keep silent about their meanings.

A group of the Akhbārīs from among the Shī‘ah who lived during the 10th and 11th centuries AH were also of the same belief. In his introduction toAl-Asfār al-Arba‘ah, Ṣadr al-Muta’allihīn (Mullā Ṣadrā) 25 expressed extreme regret for the way of thinking of these people, saying:

“Indeed we are afflicted by a group whose viewpoint fails to perceive the lights and secrets of wisdom. They have regarded as heresy to reflect on celestial matters, divine knowledge and the glorious verses [of the Qur’an]. They treat as deviation any opposition to common beliefs. It is as if they were traditionalist Ḥanbalīs for whom the questions of obligatory (wājib ) and possible (mumkin), eternal (qadīm ) and contingent (ḥādith ) are dubious. Their thinking does not go beyond what is tangible.” 26

After stating the beliefs of theAhl al-Ḥadīth and Ḥanbalīs, Professor Muṭahharī has said:

“The view of Ḥanbalī and the Ahl al-Ḥadīth has still gained following, and some Shī‘ahḥadīth scholars in the latter periods have explicitly stated that even the question of the Oneness of God is totally a heavenly

(devotional) issue and intellectually, there is no sufficient proof for it, and it is only through obedience to the dictate of religion that we are bound to believe that God is One.”27

Assessment

Firstly, even assuming that heavenly truths must be known through “heavenly means and power”, this principle has no contradiction with knowing these truths by means of reason because it (reason) is also a “heavenly element”. As mentioned in traditions (aḥādīth ), reason or intellect (‘aql ) is inward proof (ḥujjat-e bāṭinī ) of God for mankind while the prophets are His outward proofs (ḥujaj-e ẓāhirī ).28

It is true that reason cannot discern all religious truths, but it is not totally incapable of knowing religious truths. In this regard, Imām ‘Alī (‘a ) says:

لَمْ يُطْلِعِ الْعُقُولَ عَلَى تَحْدِيدِ صِفَتِهِ، ولَمْ يَحْجُبْهَا عَنْ وَاجِبِ مَعْرِفَتِهِ.

“He has not informed (human) wit about the limits of His qualities. Nevertheless, He has not prevented it from securing essential knowledge of Him.” 29

Secondly, by denying rational knowledge and its validity, there is no way of proving the [reality of]sharī‘ah . In such a case, there is no room for the Qur’an and Sunnah through which we could know the principles and branches of religion.

Thirdly, rational thinking has been encouraged and emphasized in the Holy Qur’an. The Qur’an has described those who do not use their minds as the worst of beasts:

﴿ إِنَّ شَرَّ الدَّوَابِّ عِندَ اللّهِ الصُّمُّ الْبُكْمُ الَّذِينَ لاَ يَعْقِلُونَ ﴾

“Indeed the worst of beasts in Allah’s sight are the deaf and the dumb who do not apply reason.” 30

﴿ وَيَجْعَلُ الرِّجْسَ عَلَى الَّذِينَ لا يَعْقِلُونَ ﴾

“And He lays defilement on those who do not apply reason.” 31

In many instances, the Holy Qur’an has made use of rational thinking, engaging in intellectual discussion and argumentation. For example, by means of two rational arguments, it has proved the Oneness of God, saying:

﴿ لَوْ كَانَ فِيهِمَا آلِهَةٌ إِلا اللَّهُ لَفَسَدَتَا ﴾

“Had there been gods in them other than Allah, they would surely have fallen apart.” 32

﴿ وَمَا كَانَ مَعَهُ مِنْ إِلَهٍ إِذًا لَذَهَبَ كُلُّ إِلَهٍ بِمَا خَلَقَ وَلَعَلا بَعْضُهُمْ عَلَى بَعْضٍ ﴾

“Neither is there any god besides Him, for then each god would take away what he created, and some of them would surely rise up against others.” 33

In refuting the notion of those who think that God has a son, it is thus stated:

﴿ وَقَالُوا اتَّخَذَ اللَّهُ وَلَدًا سُبْحَانَهُ بَلْ لَهُ مَا فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأرْضِ كُلٌّ لَهُ قَانِتُونَ ٭ بَدِيعُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأرْضِ وَإِذَا قَضَى أَمْرًا فَإِنَّمَا يَقُولُ لَهُ كُنْ فَيَكُونُ ﴾

“And they say, ‘Allah has taken a son.’ Immaculate is He! Rather to Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and the earth. All are obedient to Him, the Originator of the heavens and the earth; and when He decides on a matter, He just says to it, ‘Be!’ and it is.” 34

These two verses speak about two rational proofs in refuting the belief in God having an offspring. One is based on the essence oftawḥīd and God’s immunity from any similitude or partner, and the other is based on God’s immunity from change (taghyīr ) and quantization (tadrīj ).35

Fourthly, in theSunnah of the Holy Prophet (ṣ ) and the sayings and conduct of theAhl al-Bayt (‘a ), the credibility and authority of reason has been emphasized and actually utilized by them. By taking a glance atNahj al-Balaghah ,36 Usul al-Kafi ,37 Al-Ṭawḥid by Shaykh al-Ṣadūq,38 Al-Iḥtijāj by Ṭabarsī,39 and other Shī‘ah sources, one will clearly find out this fact. As we have said earlier, in the school of theAhl al-Bayt (‘a ) reason has been recognized as the inward proof of God. Imām al-Ṣādiq (‘a ) has regarded reason as the human being’s guide in knowing God as well as in knowing the principles of what is good and what is evil:

فَبِالْعَقلِ عَرَفَ الْعِبادُ خالِقَهُم وَأَنَّهُمْ مَخْلوقونَ، وَأَنَّهُ المُدَبِّرُ لَهُمْ وَأَنَّهُمْ المُدَبَّرونَ... وَعَرَفوا بِهِ الْحَسَنَ مِنَ القَبيحِ...

“By means of reason, the servants recognize their Creator and that they are creatures and that He is their Governor and that they are governed… and they distinguished the good from the evil…” 40

According to Imām ‘Alī (‘a ), one of the goals of the mission of the prophets is “to unveil before them (people) the hidden virtues of wisdom”:41

لِيُثيروا لَهُمْ دَفائِنَ العُقولِ

Fifthly, the Holy Qur’an and traditions (aḥādīth ) have a set of sublime knowledge which is beyond sensory perception and common understanding and comprehension. For example, God is the Dominant One (al-Ghālib ). He is the First and the Last (al-Awwal wa ’l-Ākhir ). He is the Inward and the Outward (al-Baṭin wa ’ẓ-Ẓāhir ).

He encompasses everything (al-Muḥīṭ ). His Unity is not numerical oneness. He is with everything without being parallel with it in time and space. He is outside everything but not in the sense of detachment and separation (infiṣāl ). Everything comes from Him and shall return to Him. His Word is identical with His Action, and so on and so forth.

Now, this question is raised: what is the reason behind mentioning these facts in the Book (Qur’an) and theSunnah ? Is it to lay down a set of lessons for reflection, intellection, understanding, and inspiration and to guide the minds while swimming in the boundless ocean of divine knowledge? Or, is it to present issues and problems without solution and beyond comprehension so as to persuade the minds to submission, silence and blind following?!

These pieces of knowledge are not instructions, commands or orders. There is no point in reasoning out, therefore, that “Our duty is to obey what is commanded and nothing else!” They are a set of theoretical issues. If they

are beyond comprehension and understanding, what is the benefit in mentioning them? It is a like a Grade One teacher who teaches a college level subject [such as calculus or statistics] to his pupils and tells them to accept whatever she tells them although they could not comprehend it!

God could be known, therefore, and at the same time, man can know Him through reason and reflection on the signs in the horizon and in himself, although

(1) his knowledge of the Divine Essence and Attributes is limited and his understanding of the Divine Essence and Attributes (as they are) is beyond the power of the human mind or intellect - “He has not informed (human) wit about the limits of His qualities”42 - and

(2) to follow this path is not that easy and simple as it needs special intellectual agility and efforts.

This is not to suggest, however, that it is possible for everybody to understand all levels of rational and philosophical discussions about all issues related to theology. Definitely, this is not so. And there are many limitations, prerequisites and impediments along the way. The point is that this way is open for the human being, and there have always been people who have been able to examine metaphysical issues pertaining to theology through the correct use of reason and rational thinking.

In conclusion, let us state once again that the point is not to limit the way of knowing God to the rational means and method, because one can also know God through mystical intuition (shuhūd ). And after proving [the genuineness of] revelation (waḥyi ), one can also know issues pertaining to the Unseen through revelation. But even these two are based on rational knowledge, and denial of reason and rational knowledge is tantamount to the denial of both intuition and revelation.

Review Questions

1. Who are the rationalists? Write their viewpoint about knowing God.

2. Write the statement of Professor Muṭahharī about knowing God through the intellect.

3. As far as knowing God through the intellect is concerned, state the pieces of evidence about this from the Holy Qur’an.

4. Write the view of the intuitionists about knowing God and the objection to it.

5. Write the view of the sensualists about knowing God and the objection to it.

6. Write the summary of the sensualists’ view about knowing God and the objection to it.

References

1. Aristotle (384-322 BCE): a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato’s teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. [Trans.]

2. René Descartes (1596-1650): French mathematician and the founding father of modern philosophy. His theory of knowledge starts with the quest for certainty, for an indubitable starting-point or foundation on the basis alone of which progress is possible. This is eventually found in his celebrated ‘Cogito ergo sum’ which means “I think therefore I am.” His main writings are Discourse on Method, The Meditations, Principles of Philosophy, The Passions of the Soul and Ruler for the Direction of the Mind. [Trans.]

3. Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī (known in the West as Alpharabius) (c. 872-950/951 CE): a Muslim polymath (in the fields of cosmology, logic, music, psychology, and sociology) and one of the greatest scientists and philosophers of the world during his time. [Trans.]

4. Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sīnā Balkhī, known as Abū ‘Alī Sīnā Balkhī or Ibn Sīnā and commonly known in English by his Latinized name “Avicenna” (c. 980-1037) was a Persian polymath and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time. He was also an astronomer, chemist, geologist, logician, paleontologist, mathematician, physicist, poet, psychologist, scientist, and teacher. His important works include Al-Shifā’ (an encyclopedic work covering, among other things, logic, physics and metaphysics), Al-Najāt (a summary of Al-Shifā’), and Al-Ishārāt or in full, Al-Ishārāt wa ’t-Tanbīhāt (a latter work consisting of four parts, viz. logic, physics, metaphysics, and mysticism). [Trans.]

5. Ash‘arites (‘ashā‘irah): followers of Abū ’-Ḥasan al-Ash‘arī (died 330 AH).

6. For further information in this regard, see the book Darāmadī bar ‘Ilm-e Kalām (An Introduction to Scholastic Theology) by the author.

7. Murtada Mutahhari (1920-79) was a leading theoretician of the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran. As an accomplished scholar of Islamic sciences, he played a pivotal role in forming the modern Islamic discourse which served as the foundation of the revolution. With close to ninety works on different subjects to his credit, he is considered one of the leading thinkers of the global Islamic movement in the twentieth century.

8. Uṣūl-e Falsafeh wa Rawish-e Realism, vol. 5, pp. 33-34 (Introduction).

9. Sūrat Āl ‘Imrān 3:190-191.

10. Ḥakīm Lahījī, Gawhar-e Murād, p. 34.

11. Ibid., p. 38. In this regard, see Āyatullāh Jawādī ‘Āmulī, Shinākht dar Qur’ān (Knowledge in the Qur’an), pp. 379-380.

12. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): English philosopher, mathematician and linguist who was one of the main philosophers that founded materialism. [Trans.]

13. Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655): French Catholic priest, philosopher and astronomer. [Trans.]

14. David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish historian and philosopher, who influenced the development of skepticism and empiricism, is considered one of the greatest skeptics in the history of philosophy. Hume thought that one’s subjective perceptions never provide true knowledge of reality and one can know nothing outside of experience. Accordingly, even the law of cause and effect was an unjustified belief. [Trans.]

15. Paul Foulkes, Falsafeh-ye ‘Umūmī (General Philosophy), trans. Yaḥyā Mahdawī, pp. 130-131; Hans Reichenbach, Pidāyesh-ye Falsafeh-ye ‘Ilmī (The Rise of Scientific Philosophy), trans. Mūsā Akramī, pp. 106-107.

16. Principle or law of non-contradiction: the law of logic that it is not the case that p and not-p. Contradiction is the final logical stopping point in that if a contradiction can be derived from a set of premises, then at least one of them is false. [Trans.]

17. Felicien Robert Challaye (1875-1967): an anti-colonialist French philosopher and journalist. [Trans.]

18. Felicien Robert Challaye, Shinākht-e Rawishhā-ye ‘Ulūm (Knowledge of the Scientific Methods), trans. Yaḥyā Mahdawī, p. 116.

19. Francis Bacon (1561-1626): an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, and author who established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method or simply, the scientific method. [Trans.]

20. John Stuart Mill (1806-73): a British philosopher, civil servant and an influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy. [Trans.]

21. Murtaḍā Muṭahharī, Uṣūl-e Falsafeh wa Rawish-e Realism (The Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism), vol. 2, p. 97.

22. Sūrat Ṭā Hā 20:5.

23. Shahristānī, Al-Milal wa n-Nihal, vol. 1, p. 93.

24. Abū Muḥammad Sufyān ibn ‘Uyaynah ibn Maymūn al-Hilālī al-Kūfī (725-815 CE): a prominent Sunnī religious scholar in Makkah from the third generation of Muslims referred to as the Tābi‘u al-Tābi‘īn (the Followers of the Followers). [Trans.]

25. SadrṢadr al-Dīn Shīrāzī (1572-1641), better known as Mullā Ṣadrā or S al-Muta’allihīn: the foremost representative of the Illuminationist (ishrāqī) School of Islamic philosophy whose magnum opus is Al-Asfār al-Arba‘ah (The Four Journeys). [Trans.]

26. Ṣadr al-Muta’allihīn, Al-Asfār al-Arba‘ah, vol. 1, introduction.

27. Murtaḍā Muṭahharī, Uṣūl-e Falsafeh wa Rawish-e Realism, vol. 5, p. 11.

28. Uṣūl al-Kāfī, vol. 1, “Kitāb al-‘Aql wa ’l-Jahl,” ḥadīth 12.

29. Nahj al-Balāghah, Sermon 49.

30. Sūrat al-Anfāl 8:22.

31. Sūrat Yūnus 10:100.

32. Sūrat al-Anbiyā’ 21:22.

33. Sūrat al-Mu’minūn 23:91.

34. Sūrat al-Baqarah 2:116-117.

35. See Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn al-Ṭabāṭabā’ī, Al-Mīzān fī Tafsīr al-Qur’ān, vol. 11, p. 361.

36. Nahj al-Balāghah (The Peak of Eloquence) is a collection of speeches, sayings and letters of the Commander of the Faithful, Imām ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (‘a) compiled by Sharīf al-Raḍī Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥusayn (d. 406 AH/1016). Its contents concern the three essential topics of God, man and the universe, and include comments on scientific, literary, social, ethical, and political issues. [Trans.]

37. Al-Kāfi: more fully, Al-Kāfi fī ’l-Hadīth, one of the most important Shī‘ah collections of hadīth, compiled by Shaykh Abū Ja‘far Muḥammad ibn Ya‘qūb al-Kulaynī (d. 329 AH/941 CE) and divided into three sections: ah al-Kāfī consisting of 34 books, ūl al-Kāfī, Furū‘ al-Kāfī and Rawd Us 326 sections, and over 16,000 ahādīth that can be traced back to the Prophet and his family by an unbroken chain of transmission. [Trans.]

38. Shaykh aṣ-Ṣadūq: also known as Ibn Babūyah, one of the most important of the early Shī‘ah scholars who died in 381 AH/991 CE. For his short biography and works, see the introduction of Shaykh aṣ-Ṣadūq, I’tiqādātu ’l-Imāmiyyah: A Shī‘ite Creed, 3rd Ed., trans. Asaf A. A. Fyzee (Tehran: World Organization for Islamic Services, 1999), pp. 6-23. [Trans.]

39. Aḥmad ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib al-Ṭabarsī (d. circa 620 AH): a great Shī‘ah scholar, jurisprudent, traditionist (muḥaddith), and historian of the sixth and early seventh century AH. Among his works are Al-Iḥtijāj, Al-Kāfī fī ’l-Fiqh, Tārīkh al-A’immah and Kitāb al-Ṣalāh. [Trans.]

40. Uṣūl al-Kāfī, vol. 1, “Kitāb al-‘Aql wa ’l-Jahl,” ḥadīth 35.

41. Nahj al-Balāghah, Sermon 1.

42. Nahj al-Balāghah, Sermon 49. [Trans.]