Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Sha

sha'n

Mode (Fazlur Rahman, Mulla Sadra, 108, line 27).  (AnAc)

shakhs

A term used in logic to denote an individual, i.e. one member of the class. According to the Ikhwan al-Safa’ (q.v.), shakhs is also one of the predicables, the sixth besides the traditional five predicables (al-alfaz al-khamsah).

al-shartiyat al-muttasilah

The conditional proposition consisting of two clauses or propositions called antecedent (muqaddam, q.v.) and consequent (tali, q.v.) related to each other conditionally like the statement: "If the sun shines, it is day"; corresponds to what is named as hypothetical propositions in modern logic. See also al-qadiyat al-shartiyah.

al-shartiyat al-munfasilah

The conditional disjunctive proposition consisting of two clauses or propositions related to each other as two alternatives or disjunctives which mutually exclude each other like the statement: "Either this number is even, or it is odd"; corresponds to disjunctive proposition in modern logic. See also al-qadiyat al-shartiyah.

al-Shi‘r

The Arabic title given to Aristotle's Poetica; generally considered, in the Arab logical tradition, to be the last part of his logical Organon (al-Arghanun, q.v.) dealing with the fine art of stirring the imagination and soul of the audience through the magic of words. See also Buyutiqa. (online text)

shakl (pl. ashkal)

"Figure" of a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.), i.e. the form of a syllogism as determined by the position of the middle term (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.) in the major and minor premises. Muslim philosophers following Aristotle recognized mostly only three figures; see below.

al-shakl al-awwal

The first figure of syllogism (qiyas, q.v.), i.e. the form of syllogism in which the middle term occurs as a subject in the first, i.e. the major premise and as a predicate in the second, i.e. the minor premise; this is considered the perfect type of syllogism and Aristotle even included the moods (durub, q.v.) of the fourth figure in this form of syllogism. See also al-qiyas al-kamil.

al-shakl al-thalith

The third figure of syllogism, i.e. the form of syllogism in which the middle term occurs as subject in both of the premises.

al-shakl al-thani

The second figure of syllogism, i.e. the form of syllogism in which the middle term occurs as predicate in both of the premises.

shamm

Smell sensation, a power placed in the two protruding lumps of the front brain which are like the two small nipple-like bodies. The odour of a smelling object gets mixed with the air around it, which thus assumes the quality of that odour. This air naturally inhaled by us reaches, through the nasal passages the above-mentioned two protruding lumps of the front brain, which, stimulated by this air, give us the smell sensation. This power is stronger in animals than in men.

al-shauq al-tabi‘i

An inherent tendency in the natural object to attain to its: perfect natural form, whereby that which was merely potential in it becomes actual.

al-Shaikh al-akbar

"The Grand Master", the title given by his followers to Muhyi al-Din ibn ‘Arabi (560-638/1165-1240), the greatest speculative genius in Islamic mysticism. Search Google. Also Ibn 'Arabi society.

al-Shaikh al-Ra’is

"The Chief Master" of the learned, a title of honour given to the illustrious Ibn Sina (370-428/980-1037), the philosopher, physiologist, physician, mathematician, astronomer, etc. -the greatest philosopher and scientist of Islam and, indeed, one of the greatest of all races, places and times. See our Website.

al-Shaikh al-Yunani

"The Greek Master", a title given by the Muslim historians of philosophy and religion (particularly by al-Shahrastani) to Plotinus or Plotin (c. 203-270 C.E.), the greatest expositor of the system of Neoplatonism, a philosophy which is a remarkable synthesis of Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism, etc. The influence of Plotinus on Muslim philosophy in general and mysticism and "philosophy of illuminationism" (al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah, q.v.) in Islam in particular is immense. It may be noted that the work the "theology of Aristotle" ascribed by the Muslim philosophers to Aristotle as one of his genuine works was in reality paraphrase of the philosophy of Plotinus. According to Plotinus, all reality consists of a series of emanations from the One, the First Principle (al-mabda’ al-awwal) and the Necessary Being (wajib al-wujud, q.v.). The first emanation is that of Nous (al-‘aql al-awwal, q.v.); the second that of Psyche (ruh). At the end of the series of emanations is found matter. Man is partly in the realm of spirit and partly in the sphere of matter. All this and more was incorporated by the Muslim philosophers in one way or the other in the development of their own philosophical systems. See Uthulujiya Aristatalis and al-Aflatuniyat al-Muhathah. Search Google.

Sad

Sadr al-Muta’allihin

"The foremost amongst the theosophs", an honorific title given by his followers to the celebrated Sadr al-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Shirazi, generally known as Mulla Sadra (979-1050/1571-1640), the greatest philosopher in modern times in Iran.

Sughra

The minor premise in a syllogism (qiyas, q.v.); see al-muqaddamat al-sughra.

al-Suwar la-Aflatuniyah

The Platonic forms or ideas; see al-muthul al-Aflatuniyah and al-a‘yan al-thabitah.

Suwar al-buruj

The signs of the Zodiac. These are twelve, viz. (1) hamal (ram); (2) thaur (bull); (3) jauza’ (twins); (4) sartan (crab); (5) asad (lion); (6) sunbulah (virgin, lit. "ear of corn."); (7) mizan (balance); (8) ‘aqrab (Scorpion); (9) qaus (archer); (10) Jadi (goat); (11) dalw (bucket); and (12) hut (fish). See also mintaqat al-buruj.

Surah

The essence of. a thing which in union with prime matter (hayula q.v.) constitutes a particular thing; it is, in fact, the principle that determines the prime matter to be actually such and such a body; without either matter or form, however, there would be no concrete thing at all.

Da

iddan

Two contraries like black and white or like sweet and bitter; the two contrary states or qualities cannot be true of one and the same thing or individual at the same time and in the same respect. To be distinguished from two contradictories (naqidan, q.v.): while the two contradictories are mutually exclusive (mani‘at al-jam‘, q.v.) as well as totally exhaustive (mani‘at al-khuluww, q.v.), two contraries are only mutually exclusive.

darb

Mood of a syllogism (qiyas q.v.), i.e. the form of a syllogism determined by the quality and quantity of the propositions used as major (al-muqaddamat al-kubra, q.v.) and minor (al-muqaddamat al-sughra, q.v.) premises.

al-durub al-tahani

The subaltern moods, i.e. the moods of syllogism in which a particular conclusion is drawn when a universal conclusion is really justified by the premises; these (in modern logic) are five in number: Barbari, Celaront, Cesaro, Camestros and Camenos.

al-durub al-taqwiyah

The moods of strengthened syllogism, i.e. those forms of syllogism in which one of the premises is unnecessarily stronger than what is required to prove the conclusion. Among them may be included Darapti, Felapton, Bramantip and Fesapo; in each case one of the premises is universal which even if it had been particular the conclusion would have remained the same.

al-durub al-‘aqim

Invalid moods of syllogism. Opposed to al-durub al-muntaj; see below.

al-durub al-muntaj

The valid moods of a syllogism which, considering the syllogism to be categorical (al-qiyas al-iqtirani, q.v.), are four in the first figure (al-shakl al-awwal, q.v.): Barbara, Celarent, Darii and Ferii; four in the second figure (al-shakl al-thani, q.v.): Cesare, Camestres, Festino and Baroco; and five in the third figure (al-shakl al-thalith, q.v.): Darapti, Disamis, Datisi, Felapton, Bocardo and Ferison; opposed to al-‘durub al-‘aqim (q.v.).

Tah

tarafain (sing. tarf)

Lit. "two extremes" or "two sides"; technically it denotes major term (al-hadd al-akbar, q.v.) and minor term (al-hadd al-asghar, q.v.) as opposed to middle term (al-hadd al-ausat, q.v.).

tu‘um

Tastes, i.e. gustatory sensations. Muslim philosophers mention nine species of tastes; sweetness (halawah), saltishness (malahah), acidity or sourness (humudah), bitterness (mararah), pungency or sharpness (harafah), astringency (‘ufusah), puckeriness (qabd), greasiness (dusumah) and insipidity (tafahah).

Tafrah

Jerk, jump (F. Rahman, Mulla Sadra, 97, line 40); leap. (AnAc)

Tubiqa

Topica or the Topics, Aristotle’s fifth book on logic, also entitled as al-Jadal or al-Mawadi‘ al-Jadaliyah in Arabic; it deals with the truth and falsity of the statements of the two opponents involved in a disputation (al-jadal).

Taima’us

Timaeus, (´µa) one of Plato’s Dialogues: the most influential of his works during the Middle Ages. It deals with Plato's cosmogony and cosmology and particularly with his theory of creation. The work is permeated with many mythical elements and such as to contradict Plato’s other teachings; but he claims for them nothing more than probability. Though clothed in mythical garb, Plato’s cosmology as given in this work on the whole is a teleological world-view. It is an attempt to explain reality as a purposeful, well-ordered cosmos-the world, being governed by an intelligence, is guided by reason and directed towards an ethical goal. (Online text and also in English translation (B. Jowett) of the text is available online)

Ain

‘alam al-mufariqat

The world of the souls and intelligences of the celestial spheres; see al-‘uqul al-‘asharah.

al-‘Ibarah

De Interpretatione: the Arabic title of Aristotle’s second book on logic. See also Bari Irminiyas.

al-‘adad al-fard

Prime number, i.e. a number having no integral factors except itself and unity -for example, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, etc.

‘adl

Obversion, i.e. deriving a propsition by way of an immediate inference from a given propsition without transposing its subject and predicate (as is done in ‘aks, q.v.) and without changing its quantity but merely by changing its quality which is done by negativising the original predicate, e.g. propositon "No men are non-mortal"; the former proposition is called ma‘adul minhu (q.v.) and the latter ma‘dul (q.v.).

‘adm al-luzum bi’l-tab‘

The fallacy of non-sequitur, i.e. the one in which there is complete lak of logical connection between the premises advanced and the conclusion drawn. See also mughalatah ‘adm al-luzum bi’l-tab‘.

‘ard (pl. a‘rad)

Accident. As one of the predicables (al-alfaz al-khamasa) ‘ard is that quality which adhere to a subject (maudu, q.v.), but-opposed to property -it neither constitutes its essense, nor does it necessarily flow form it, e.g. the color of man. According to the Peripatetics (al-Mashsha’un, q.v.), accidents may change, disappear, or be added, while substances (jauhar, q.v.) remains the same. Accident, thus, has no independent existence, but exists only in another being, a substance or another accident. According to the Mutakallimun, more particularly the Ash‘arites, however, an accident cannot exist in another accident but only in a substance. But no substance can ever exist apart form its qualities or accidents. Hence, the substance being inseparable from its accidents, like the latter, is also merely transitory, i.e. has only a momentary existence. Everything that exists, thus, consists of mere transitory units (atoms) having only a moment’s duration and needs must, therefore, be perpetually re-created by the will of God. See also al-fasl al-khass and al-fasl al-‘amm.

‘asabiyah

A term made current by the great Muslim philosopher and sociologist, Ibn Khaldun (732/808/1332-1406), for the sense of common honor and loyalty which binds together the members of a family, clan, or tribe and thus is the cause of the solidarity of such institutions.

‘Utarid

The planet Mercury or its sphere (falak); see also al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

al-‘aql al-awwal

The first intelligence, i.e. the first effusion or emanation from God, the Necessary Being (al-wajib al-wujud) or the First Principle (al-mabda’ al-awwal). The existence of the first intelligence is possible in itself as well as necessary through the First Principle; further it knows its own essence as well as the essence of the First Principle. From its twofold existence and twofold knowledge springs, according to the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers like al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, the whole series of emanations, i.e. the nine celestial spheres with their nine intelligences as well as their nine souls. See also al-‘uqul al-‘asharah.

al-‘aql bi’l-fi‘l

Intellect in action or the actualised intellect which, through the illumination that it receives from the agent intellect al-‘aql al-fa‘‘al (q.v.), is activated into thinking upon the universal forms of objects as well as ultimate concepts.

al-‘aql bi’l-malakah

Habitual intellect; see al-‘aql al-mustafad.

al-‘aql al-‘amali

Practical reason or intellect which enables us to adopt the right course of action to attain what is useful and good.

al-‘aql al-fa‘‘al

The active intellect or the agent intellect, the lowest of the intelligences of the celestial spheres which gives "form" (surah, q.v.) to individual things, and so is called wahib al-suwar (q.v.), i.e. the giver of forms or dator formarum. Active intellect is continually in action and it rouses the material or potential intellect (al-‘aql al-hayulani, q.v. al-‘aql bi’lfi‘l, q.v.) from its state of latency by activating in it the thought of the universal forms and eternal truths. This transforms the material or potential intellect in to intellect in action (al-‘aql bi’l-fi‘l) which being more and more actualised through the illumination of al-‘aql al-fa‘‘al becomes similar to it and thus attains the status of the acquired intellect, i.e. of al-‘aql al-mustafad (q.v.).

The problem of intellects so keenly discussed by all the Muslim Peripatetics is much more complicated and subtle than can be described here. It, however, originated from somewhat obscure and ambiguous statement of Aristotle  in the last book of his treatise on the soul (De Anima), in which he makes the distinction between the creative or active intellect and the passive intellect. Active intellect, he states, is the third besides the object and the passive intellect, as light is the third besides the eye and the object. Thus, active intellect is said to create the truths that we know, just as light may be said to make colors which we perceive by its aid. We see here at work Aristotle’s general principle that "what is potentially comes to be actually by the agency of something that already is actually" (Metaphysica, 1049b 24). Aristotle  in this entire discussion leaves unexplained the unity and individuality of human personality. Hence the

uslim philosophers reformulated the whole theory and brought to it many refinements and elaborations not to be found in Aristotle or his commentators.

al-‘aql al-mustafad

Accquired intellect, i.e. the intellect possessed with the comprehension of the universal forms, ultimate concepts and verities of knowledge by which possession it partakes more and more of the agent intellect (al-‘aql al-fa‘‘al, q.v.); also sometimes called al-‘aql bi’l-malakah.

al-‘aql al-mufariq

The seperated intellect, i.e. the intellect or intelligence of a heavenly sphere which is the cause of its motion; see also al-‘uqul al-‘asharah.

al-‘aql al-nazari

Theoretical reason or intellect which enables us to form universal concepts, comprehend meanings and interconnections of things, enter into argumentative discussion and have abstract thinking in general. See also al-quwwat al-‘aqliyah.

al-‘aql al-hayulani

The material intellect, also called al-‘aql bi’l-quwwah, i.e. potential intellect. It is the human intellect in its dormant form, merely a latent capacity to apprehend the universals and eternal truths subsistent in the active or agent intellect (al-‘aql al-fa‘‘al, q.v.).

al-‘uqul al-‘asharah

The ten intelligences, i.e. the first intelligence (al-‘aql l-awwal, q.v.) in combination with the nine intelligences one for each of the following nine celestial spheres in a decending order: (1) the second intelligence of the sphere of the primum mobile; (2) the third intelligence of the sphere of the fixed stars (al-kawakib al-thabitah, q.v.); (3) the fourth intelligence of the sphere of Saturn (Zhhal); (4)the fifth intelligence of the sphere of Jupiter (Mushtari); (5) the sixth intelligence of the sphere of Mars (Marikh); (6)the seventh intelligence of the sphere of the Sun (Shams); (7)the eighth intelligence of the sphere of Venus (Zuhrah); (8)the ninth intelligence of the sphere of Mercury (‘Utarid); (9) the tenth intelligence of the sphere of the Moon (Qamar). This last is named as (al-‘aql al-fa‘‘al, q.v.) which is a kind of creative and regulating power governing this world of ours. It is noteworthy that the belief that each celestial sphere has a separate intelligence of it own, originated from Aristotle who even held that there were not ten intelligences but fifty or more.

‘aqim

An invalid mode of reasoning which does not warrant any logical conclusion, e.g. the denial of antecedent (raf‘ al-muqaddam, q.v.) or the affirmation of consequent (wad’ al-tali) in a hypothetical syllogism; opposed to muntij (q.v.). See also mughalatah wad‘ al-tali.

‘aks

Conversion, i.e. deriving a proposition by way of an immediate inference from a given propositon by transposing its subject and predicate but without changing its quality and without distributing a term in the inferred proposition (ma‘kus, q.v.) which is not already distributed in the given proposition (ma‘kus minhu, q.v.); sometimes called al-‘aks al-mustawi to distinguish it from al-‘aks al-naqid (q.v.) see also mun‘akis.

al-‘aks al-mustawi

Conversion; see ‘aks.

al-‘aks al-naqid

Contrapositon, i.e. an immediate inference in which from a given proposition we infer another proposition, having for its subject the contradictory of the given predicat, e.g. from the propostion of the form "All S is P" we have through al-‘aks al-naqid "No not-P is S"; it thus involves first obversion (‘adl, q.v.) of the given proposition then conversion (‘aks, q.v.) of the obverse (ma‘dul, q.v.).

al-‘illat al-tammah

The sufficient cause of a thing, i.e. the cause which is adequate to produce an effect, e.g. a certain quantity of medicine to bring about the desired cure; more usually it consists of a number of positive casual conditions; opposed to al-‘illat al-naqisah (q.v.).

al-‘illat al-suriyah

The formal cause of a thing, i.e. the form or shape (surah, q.v.) given to a thing while producing it; with Aristotle it is also the inner idea or essence of a thing.

al-‘illat al-gha’iyah

The final cause of a thing, i.e. the purpose, aim or final end for which a thing is produced; with Aristotle it is primarily the realisation of the inner idea or essence of a thing in actuality; sometimes also called al-‘illat al-lima’iyah (q.v.).

al-‘illat al-fa‘iliyah

The efficient cause of a thing, i.e. the efficiency or labor of an active agent that produces a thing, e.g. the efficiency or labor of a carpenter in producing a table.

al-‘illat al-lima’iyah

The final cause of a thing, the purpose or final end for which a thing is produced; also called al-‘illat al-gha’iyah (q.v.).

al-‘illat al-maddiyah

The material cause of a thing; see al-‘illat al-hayullaniyah.

al-‘illat al-naqisah

The insufficient cause of a thing, i.e. the cause which by itself is inadequate to produce an effect, e.g. medicine alone may not be adequate to bring about the desired cure without careful nursing, proper dieting,

complete rest and other hygienic conditions; opposed to al-‘illat al-tammah (q.v.).

al-‘illat al-hayullaniyah

The material cause of a thing, i.e. the stuff or substance of which a thing is made; with Aristotle it does not have to be necessarily a physical substance but anything: physical, mental, or, spiritual, e.g. the human passions, interests and conflicts are the material cause of a novel or a drama.

al-‘ilal al-arba‘ah

The four causes, viz. the material cause (al-‘illat al-hayullaniyah, q.v.), the formal cause (al-‘illat al-suriyah, q.v.), efficient cause (al-‘illat al-fa‘iliyah, q.v.) and the final cause (al-‘illat al-gha’iyah, q.v.). These four causes may all appear together in the defination of a thing, for example, a knife may be defined as an iron implement (material cause) of such shape (formal cause) made by the ironsmith (efficient cause) for cutting things (final cause).

al-‘ilm al-ladunni

"Inspired knowledge", or "knowledge derived from the presence of God", i.e. mystical comprehension-inspired by an encounter with God-of things spiritual.

‘anasir

Element. Theory of elements current with Muslim philosophers was that of four elements: fire, air, water and earth, which originated with Empedocles (Anbadqulis, q.v.) though they sometimes added to them ether as the fifth element specific to the body of celestial spheres; the terms used cognate with ‘anasir were ustuqussat (q.v.) and arkan (see al-arkan al-arb‘ah)

al-‘anasir al-‘uqud

Modes of being, viz. necessity (wujub), possibility (imkan) and impossibility (imtina‘); the term is also used to denote the corresponding modalities of propositions (see jihah).

al-‘anasir al-a‘zam

The supreme element, an expression used to denote the first intelligence; see al-‘aql al-awwal.

al-‘anasir al-thaqil

The heavy element, the atoms of which always move downward like the atoms of earth which are said to be absolutely heavy or like those of water which are relatively so.

al-‘anasir al-khafif

The light element, the atoms of which always move upward like the atoms of fire which are said to be absolutely light or like those of air which are relatively so.

‘ain (pl. a‘yan)

Lit. "eye". With the philosophers it denotes a particular concrete thing perceived in the outside world as distinguished from the concept of that thing in the mind; in this sense it is synonymous with the term shaks (q.v.). It is also sometimes used in the sense of substance (jauhar, q.v.). The Sufis, on the other hand, use the term ‘ain for the inner essence of a ting and more specifically for the universal idea of a thing eternally existing in the mind of God. Hence the term al-a‘yan al-thabitha (q.v.) (where thabitha means stable or eternal) for the eternal ideas existing in the mind of God which are said to be really real, of which this world is a mere shadow or dream according to the Platonic tradition.

‘ain al-tali

Affirmation of the consequent, an involved mode of reasoning which does not warrant any logical conclusion; opposed to naqid al-tali (q.v.). See also mughalatah wad‘ al-tali.

‘ain al-muqaddam

The affirmation of the antecedent in the minor premise of a mixed hypothetical syllogism (al-qiyas al-sharti al-muttasil, q.v.) leading to the affirmation of the consequent (tali, q.v.) in the conclusion, a valid mode of reasoning called the positive mode (Modus Ponens) of hypothetical syllogism; opposed to naqid al-muqaddam (denial of the antecedent) which is a form of logical fallacy. See also mughalatah raf‘ al-muqaddam.

Fah

Firfuriyus

Porphyry (233-c. 304 C.E.), Neoplatonic philosopher, disciple, biographer and editor of Plotinus (Fulutin, q.v., also called al-Shaikh al-Yunani, q.v.). Brought up in Tyre, he studied at Athens and from 263 under Plotinus at Rome. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle and Plotinus which seem to have reached the Muslim philosophers. Around a score of his numerous works survive in whole or part, including Against the Christians (fragments), Lives of Pythagoras and Plotinus, commentaries on Homer, Plato's Timaeus (fragments), Aristotle's Categories, and Ptolemy's Harmonica. His chief source of fame, however, comes from Eisagage (Isaghuji, q.v.) which has been preserved in Arabic in its complete form -that quickly became and long remained a standard textbook-  and used for centuries both in the East and in the West as the clearest and most practical manual of Aristotelian logic. The so-called Tree of Porphyry traces a species (commonly man) from its summum genus (substance) through differentiae (e.g. corporeal) that yield successive subgenera (e.g. body). The Muslim tradition ascribes to him a commentary on Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, but the work seems to have been lost now. He wrote a history of philosophy in four books which was known to the Muslim philosophers, but of which only Life of Pythagoras is extant. It is interesting to note that according to Ibn Rushd’s estimation of him, Porphyry cannot be counted among the most subtle of the philosophers.

farq

Lit. "difference" or "separation"; technically the difference or separation between the corporeal and the incorporeal, for example between body and soul or between the physical world and the world of pure intelligences (‘alam al-mufariqat, q.v.); to be distinguished from fasl (q.v.) which is difference in respect of the different attributes possessed by the corporeal or bodily objects.

fasl

Differentia; i.e. one of the five predicables (al-alfaz al-khamsah). In logic fasl signifies the attribute or attributes by which a thing is essentially distinguished from other things. Fasl is to be distinguished from farq (q.v.) which also signifies difference between things: whereas the former denotes the essential differentia between the bodily or corporeal things, the latter refers to complete separation between the corporeal and the incorporeal, e.g. between body and soul or between the physical world and the world of intelligences; hence the expression al-‘uqul al-mufariqah for separated intelligences (see al-‘uqul al-‘asharah).

al-fasl al-khass

Lit. "particular difference"; technically it is the difference necessarily associated with the inseparable accident of a class, e.g. blackness of crows.

fasl khass al-khass

Lit. "difference which is particular of the particular" ; technically differentia proper, i.e. the attribute or attributes which a species (nau‘, q.v.) possesses in addition to the attributes of its genus (jins, q.v.), e.g. the rationality of man in addition to his animality.

al-fasl al-‘amm

Lit. "common difference"; technically the separable accident which allows some members of a class to differ from other members of that class, e.g. the or fat dogs from the black or lean dogs; it equally allows a thing to differ from itself at different times and as such is true of everything which grows and decays.

fitrah

Nature. (AnAc) See the Qur'anic ayah Fitrat Allah al-Lati Fatrah an-Nasi alyaha.(...Nature of Allah on which He created humanity...)(30:30)

fitri

Innate. (AnAc)

fi‘l

Lit. "action"; in logic, sometimes also termed as yaf‘al (to act), it is one of the ten Aristotelian categories (al-maqulat al-‘ashr, q.v.) as opposed to infi‘al (q.v.) or yanfa‘il (q.v.) which is the category of passion. "Action" in this particular sense means affecting a thing that receives an effect, e.g. heating something while "passion" would be being heated, or cutting something while "passion" would be being cut.

In metaphysics fi‘l is act or actuality and as such is not opposed to infi‘al but to quwwah, i.e. to potentiality.

Fi‘l-a‘yan

In the external world. See a‘yan. (AnAc)

Flatinus

Plotin or Plotinus (c. 203-170 C.E.)-a variant of Fulutin (q.v.)-the founder and greatest expositor of Neoplatonism. See also al-Shaikh al-Yunani and al-Aflatuniyat al-Muhdathah.

al-falsafat al-ula

"First philosophy", a name used by Aristotle and, following him, by Muslim Peripatetics for metaphysics, i.e. for the study of "Being as such" or the first principles and essential attributes of Being. See also Matatafusiqi.

falsafah-i Yamani

“The Yamani philosophy”, an expression used more particularly by Mir Baqir Damad (d. 1041/1631), one of the exponents of al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah (q.v.). The “Yamani philosophy” signifies, in contrast to the rationalistic philosophy of the Greeks (falsafah-i Yunani), the wisdom revealed by God to man through the prophets and through illumination. It may be noted that the Yaman (Yemen) symbolises the right or the oriental side of the valley in which Moses is reported to have received the message and light (tajalli) of God. The source of falsafah-i Yamani is, therefore, the divine illumination and it stands for light in contrast to the falsafah-i Yunani which being based merely on ratiocination and cogitation symbolises darkness. See also al-hikmat al-ishraqiyah and al-hikmat al-dhauqiyah.

falak (pl. aflak)

The celestial sphere surrounding the world and revolving around the earth as its centre. According to the cosmogony current with the Muslim philosophers, there are in: all nine such spheres. surrounding each other like the peels of an onion so that the concave side of the shell of the surrounding sphere touches the convex surface of the one surrounded by it. All these spheres being transparent, one can see through them from the lowest to the highest. The nine spheres in the descending order of their remoteness from the earth are: (1) the sphere of the primum mobile (al-falak al-aqsa or falak al-aflak); (2) the sphere of the fixed stars (al-kawakib al-thabitah); (3) the sphere of Saturn (Zuhal); (4) the sphere of Jupiter (Mushtari); (6) the sphere of Mars (Marikh); (6) the sphere of the Sun (Shams); (7) the sphere of Venus (Zuhrah); (8) the sphere of Mercury (‘Utarid); and (9) the sphere of the Moon (Qamar). See also al-kawakib al-sayyarah.

falak al-aflak

The first celestial sphere or the primum mobile, also called al-falak al-aqsa, "the remotest sphere"; see falak.

al-falak al-awwal

"The first heaven", i.e. the outermost celestial sphere in the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic cosmology, i.e. the sphere of the fixed stars (al-kawakib al-thabitah, q.v.).

falak al-tadwir

A smaller sphere revolving on the circumference of a larger sphere, i.e. one making an epicycle.

Fulutarkhis

Plutarch (c. 50-c. 125 C.E.): Greek biographer, moralist and one of the enthusiastic champions of Platonism. A valuable account of him is to be found in al-Shahrastani's Kitab al-Milal wa'l-Nihal written in 625/1127-8.

Fulutin

Plotin or Plotinus (c. 203-270 C.E.), the greatest expositor and founder of Neoplatonism; see also al-Shaikh al-Yunani and al-Aflatuniyat al-Muhdathah.

fantasiya

"Phantasia", a term used by Aristotle for a faculty of mind, which has a variety of functions but it was identified by the. Muslim philosophers with the sensus communis or common sense. See also al-hiss al-mushtarik.

Futhaghuras

Pythagoras of Samos (c. 572-497 B.C.); see Fithaghuras.

Furun

Pyrrhon of Elis (c. 365-c. 270 B.C.): Greek philosopher, the founder of the school of scepticism often called after him Pyrrhonism. According to him, our senses tell us only how things appear to us, not what they are in themselves. If sensation is the source of all our knowledge, how can we know whether objects agree with sensations or not, for we never, get outside our sensations? Further, our thoughts and sensations sometimes conflict, as in illusions in which case we have no criterion to judge which are true and which are false. Knowledge in matters moral is also uncertain and we can save ourselves from much unhappiness by suspending our judgment and by giving up our efforts for the realisation of ideals. The wise man, thus, seeks to attain undisturbed happiness by abstaining from all intellectual curiosity and moral passion. The influence of Furun and his baneful doctrine on Muslim philosophers was very slight for he did not write anything himself.

Fulitus

The title of the Arabic translation first made by Hunain ibn Ishaq (d. 264/877) of Plato's Dialogue the Politicus. Plato's other Dialogues on political philosophy, viz. the Republic and the Laws were also well known to the Muslim philosophers through their Arabic translation.

Fithaghuras

Pythagoras of Samos (c. 672-497 B.C.), the founder of Pythagoreanism, a philosophical, mathematical, moral and religious school. One of the basic principles of Pythagoras was that the substance of things is "number" and that all phenomena can be understood in mathematical ratios. The study of Pythagoras by Muslim philosophers, thus, led both to number mysticism and to the quantitative method in science. A valuable exposition of Pythagorean cosmology has been preserved by al-Shahrastani (469-548/ 1070-1-1153) in his Kitab al-Milal wa'l-Nihal; and by Abu Bakr al-Razi (250-c. 312/854-c. 920) who, wrote a treatise in defence of Pythagoreanism. Two works: al-Risalat al-Dhahabiyah -(The Treatise on Golden Words) and kitab al-Qur‘ah (a work on divination) ascribed by Muslim philosophers to Pythagoras are now considered to be apocryphal. It is indeed difficult to distinguish between the works and theories of Pythagoras and those of his. followers.