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DEFORESTATION AND THE ISLAMIC STEWARDSHIP ETHIC

DEFORESTATION AND THE ISLAMIC STEWARDSHIP ETHIC

Author:
Publisher: www.scholarworks.rit.edu
English

This book is corrected and edited by Al-Hassanain (p) Institue for Islamic Heritage and Thought

DEFORESTATION AND THE ISLAMIC STEWARDSHIP ETHIC

By Misbah Alghamdi

June 2, 2014

Table of Contents

Abstract 3

1. Introduction. 4

1.1. The Logjam of Deforestation. 4

2. Causes of Forest Loss 6

2.1. Demand for Wood. 6

2.2. Conversion to Agriculture 6

2.3. Conflict Over Land Tenure 7

2.4. Illegal Logging and Corruption. 8

2.5. Industrialization, Urbanization, and Infrastructure 8

2.6. Economic Poverty; No Alternative Livelihoods 9

2.7. Lack of Political Will, Poor Central Planning, and Inadequate Capacity  10

3. Analysis 12

3.1. Environmental Ethics 12

3.2. Examples of Forest Management 12

3.2.1. Brazil 12

3.2.2. Nepal and New Zealand. 14

3.2.3. USA and other English-speaking countries 15

3.2.4. Countries with significant Muslim influence 17

3.2.4.1. The Philippines 17

3.2.4.2. Indonesia 18

3.3. Environmental Stewardship Philosophies 18

3.4. Environmental Ethical Philosophies (moving beyond anthropocentrism toward ecocentrism and theo-centrism) 20

3.5. The Islamic Ethic of Stewardship. 22

3.5.1. Muslim Stewardship. 22

3.5.2. Resources management decisions and Islamic ethics 23

3.5.3. Significance of trees in Islam. 25

4. Conclusion. 26

References 27

Notes 30

Abstract

Forests throughout the world continue to be in danger as a result of human activity. Although the average rate of deforestation has recently slowed, in some countries the rate of forest degradation remains high. Currently, numerous management efforts are underway to address this environmental crisis. In some cases the achievement of forest preservation has been related to ethical choices. One moral posture, anthropocentrism, which views human beings as central and the most significant species on the planet, is believed to be a primary cause of environmental degradation includes deforestation.

This paper aims to address deforestation with the reconfiguration of an ethic of environmental stewardship. Environmental stewardship is outlined as the sustainable and accountable consumption of natural resources that takes a full and balanced account of the interests of society, future generations, and other species. A religious interpretation would require the phrase “and ultimately to God” to be added. Environmental stewardship is, as a rule, based on an ecocentric model of morality (with the environment as the focal point); however it can also be based upon a theocentric model (God is at the center). Theo-centric ethics include the idea of accountability to God and are driven by religious faith, where God the creator and sustainer of the Earth.

As indicated by the teachings of Islam, the individual has a critical role in the protection of natural resources and the assets of the environment, which can also be described as fulfilling the role of God’s vice-regent, trustee or steward on Earth. Such perspective can provide a functional guide to the preservation of natural resources, wildlife and forests. The idea that the concept of stewardship can be found in diverse philosophies and religions does not diminish its significance or its critical importance to all like on the planet. In fact, it can encourage Muslims and non-Muslims alike to safeguard the natural world that has been entrusted to everyone. This is a universal notion of protecting t the ecosystem with which almost everyone can concur.

Key words: Deforestation, forest degradation, environment, environmentalism, nature, ethic, moral, philosophy, stewardship, anthropocentrism, eco-centrism, theo-centrism, God, Islam, Islamic, khlifa, caliph.

1. Introduction

1.1. The Logjam of Deforestation

Forests cover around 31% of the Earth’s land.1 Each year, forest loss reaches 13 million hectares, according to an estimate by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).2 Forty percent of the remaining forests are in danger because of human action. Forests are also being damaged by natural disasters like volcanic eruptions or intense mud slides.

In many cases, these forests cannot be naturally regenerated.3 While this paper will not discuss the natural loss of forests, it will explore the man-made activities that lead to reduction of forest cover, as well as the actual ethical efforts that can be taken to combat deforestation.

It is important to understand that forests are the home of many species of plants and animals, and they provide a home to around 1.6 billion people, who are relying on forest’s benefits to live. Forests are providing food, clothing, fresh water, medicine, and shelter, and are they are a natural source of oxygen for livings in general. In fact, many species are in danger due to deforestation.4 In order to control deforestation, it is important to know the main causes of the cutting down of forests and to follow successful examples of forest management.

The rate of deforestation has been elevated in many places around the world because of people’s activities, especially in European lands that have been cleared over the last 8,000 years, in order to accommodate for farming and building.5 Even though across the globe, the average speed of deforestation has been slowing down recently, in some countries, like Brazil and  Indonesia, the rate of forest loss is still high.6 Many management models are seen nowadays to manage this kind of environmental crisis. In some cases, the real accomplishment of preserving forests can be attributed to ethical choices.7 Going deep to the root causes of deforestation, then understanding how to solve the causes ethically can be the key to combat the issue of excessively cutting down trees.8

Some people believe that the separation between the earthly living world and religion can be a reason for many environmental crises. They also believe religion is the key root of the existence of earth and its resources come from God. Religions help us to shape our attitude toward the environment. They also help us to understand how, through our control over the earth’s resources, we ought to treat other humans, and in what way we should communicate with the nature.9

In this way, religions modify the views and beliefs of the world, which motivate basic approaches and values of diverse cultures and societies. Religious morals and ethical values form activities toward others, along with our relationship with all the surrounding living creatures like plant and animal life.10 According to Abedi-Sarvestani and Shahvali:

Since environmental ethics is [are] essentially based on intrinsic value and beliefs, religions have been getting more recognized to define proper environmental ethics mainly because they try to illuminate what possessed

intrinsic value and also what is the criterion for evaluating a behavior toward nature as [a] moral one. 11

Religion has received considerable attention with respect to environmental protection due to the critical examination of science and technology by Sarvestani and Shahvali.12 As with Christianity and Judaism, in Islam, taking care of the environment is an important matter of concern.13 But few believe that these religions are mainly anthropocentric and consider nature as a secondarily important thing.14 Supporters of these religions could say that the specific attributes of humans do certainly place them on a separate plane from other creatures; however, the Islamic religion requires humans to have a special concern toward the natural environment through accountability to God. Such accountability will not overlook probable consequences to other living organisms when making decisions for the wellbeing of the environment. Before exploring the Muslim ethics that are possibly related to the problem of forest loss, it is essential to first identify the main causes that bring people to cut down trees.15

2. Causes of Forest Loss

It is possible to develop approaches to deal with the difficult task of deforestation and forest degradation and to promote forest conservation and restoration by examining and understanding the real elementarily causes of forest loss. These include the demand for wood and the conversion to agricultural land. The weakness of supporting cultural values, indigenous rights of responsibility to land, and community-conserved areas also contribute to the cause of forest loss.16 Deforestation is not the blame of a single country, but is an issue shared by many countries. At the beginning of the 21st Century, the top 10 countries with the highest rate of deforestation are shown in Figure 1. According to the figure, forest loss is happening quickly in Brazil, double the rate of forest loss in Indonesia, the second-place country with the highest rate of forestation.17

Figure 1. Top 10 Countries with Forest Loss.18

2.1. Demand for Wood

The high need for wood is the main cause of deforestation. This occurs by the consumers of forests; such as, industrialized countries, as well by the domestic community who use forests as an easily accessed resource of fuel.19 It is believed that around one half of illegal timber logging is due to fuel wood demand. Wood is used for cooking and heating all over the world.20 Also, wood is used for house building, paper manufacturing, and furniture construction. Burning wood to make charcoal, which can be used as fuel, is another reason for wood consumption in various countries. These countries, have almost a daily electricity outage, especially the poor countries, such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Nepal, and Georgia, where people store wood and buy it as an emergency fuel supply. In other countries, like Cameroon, the need for cutting down forests is for processing outfits that require the regular request of raw materials in the form of wood.21

2.2. Conversion to Agriculture

Because of the ongoing growth of the human population, there is clearly a need for nutrition. The need of nutrition stimulates the conversion of forests to farm and pasture land.22 It can be seen that in many countries, such as Bangladesh, Cameroon, Colombia, El Salvador, Ecuador, Indonesia, Kenya, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, and the Philippines, the main drivers of deforestation are industrial tree plantations, industrial agriculture, cattle ranching, and planting of oil palm.23 For instance, cattle ranching is the major driver of 73% of Amazon forest loss in Brazil.24 In some countries, the planting of exotic species or the converting of forest to agricultural land in order to generate personal wealth or for export to industrialized countries can cause forest degradation, and this negatively affects the livelihood of forest dwellers.25 Sadly, the moment that a forest is lost to agriculture, the land mass typically is accompanied by of the loss of the flora and animals that once lived there.26

2.3. Conflict Over Land Tenure

A major factor that causes deforestation and conflict in Ghana, Cameroon, Bangladesh, Tajikistan, and the Philippines is a constant uncertainty over land rights. Indeterminate land tenancy and rights of the original forest inhabitants is the most important issue. The indigenous people have taken care of the forests for centuries. Despite this, the same people who protected the forests are not given any consideration by the governments, and they are sometimes displaced violently.27

As the forests have increased in value, with investors having vested interests, this has led to the setting up of protected areas of the forests. The use of protected areas as a conservation measure of forests was highly condemned in Colombia. They claimed that this has never worked for the last two decades. On the other hand, in Philippines, it has been claimed that the issue of protected areas was just a pretense in the name of forest conservation, whereas it went against the rights and privileges of the indigenous people to occupy and move freely in the forest.

Consequently, these forest restrictions have led to a reduction in the traditional learning of how to protect forests.28

Some countries have arising issues in the laws concerning ownership and the right to live in forests as what has been constitutionalized. For example, in Ethiopia, the terra nullius principle considers unoccupied lands not to be owned and can be given to anyone.

“Unoccupied,” in this case, is undefined and can, as well, mean community forests, and the case is the same in the Philippines where indigenous forests are regarded as government property or public land under Presidential Declaration 705.29

In this case, indigenous people are deprived of their traditional duty to develop, protect, and foster forests and this can also lead to land grabbing by the government. This results in a loss of cultural practices among young people, as they move to urban areas where the character of their traditional agricultural life is eroded by urban life. In Columbia, issues of mining exploitation and hydrocarbon extraction have been discussed as other ways that have displaced indigenous people from their traditional boundaries.

This is regarded as an excessive violation of these people’s rights and privileges.30

The laxity seen from the indigenous people and also from local authorities to come up with strategies and bodies of protecting and conserving forests is somehow not surprising. This has been a common problem, even after the development of the reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) pilot project, which was thought to be of benefit to indigenous people.31

The REDD in developing countries is a climate change (CC) alleviation technique that manages the present crisis of the environment via promoting the forests’ value. By all means, forests are the home of millions of indigenous peoples who overwhelmingly believe, themselves, in a non-commended status. International and national laws and rules have been put into place to ensure that the indigenous people’s rights are provided for to assure a good relationship between these people and the natural environment.32

2.4. Illegal Logging and Corruption

Corruption is a vice that causes a lot of evil both in developing and developed economies.

Illegal logging and corruption is noted to be one of the factors that has caused deforestation. The lack of alternative livelihoods, economic and fuel poverty, together with corruption, has led to the clearance of forests for purposes of economic interests. Bribery of officials, as a form of corruption, is very prevalent in many parts of the world, and it is a major obstacle in the realization of forest conservation through various measures.33

Laws have been formulated in Bulgaria, El Salvador, Ghana, Kenya, Panama, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea but, due to lack of financial resources and lack of political commitment, their implementation has been a challenge.34 There are national legislations worldwide for controlling the timber production and trade process from the harvesting to the processing to the sales of wood. At any moment, these legislations can be violated. It is possible to harvest more wood than is permitted or to remove trees from protected areas.35 Corruption has been widespread as licenses to cut down trees have been improperly issued in defiance of both national and international laws that aim to protect ecosystems and certain species. Local leaders are also bribed to accept this move.36

2.5. Industrialization, Urbanization, and Infrastructure

There are other factors that have been noted to cause global deforestation. These include: industrialization, urbanization, and the development of modern infrastructure. Economic development is seen as a good move across the globe, but these developments do not seem to shift toward care for the environment—despite alerts raised by communities and the civil society.37

In some countries, economic developments are seen as some of the reasons that obstruct community initiatives aimed at protecting forests. Take for example a country like India, whereby the initiatives by the local communities to protect forests is hampered by the government, which

allows the private and public sector to set up roads, mines, and other  development projects in any location. The government has not put into consideration the benefits that the community derives from the forests; rather, it has worked to promote these organizations in setting up development projects. The Indian government has even relaxed its look out for the violations of environmental laws and guidelines by these companies.38

Mining, oil, and gas exploration in Colombia, Cameroon, India, Bangladesh, and the Philippines were some of the notable industrial processes causing threats to forests. Oil exploration in the Sylhet region in Bangladesh was one of the examples cited. Forests are being cleared to pave the way for industrial projects like the building of roads, dams, houses, dams, and other large construction projects. The Karnaphuli hydro-electric project and Kaptai dam are some examples of these development projects in the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh that cause hill deforestation. Bangladesh has also noted the issue of clearance of forests for purposes of military use, while urbanization was identified to cause deforestation in countries such as Kenya, Bulgaria, and El Salvador. There is a notable population increase in most parts of the world and, therefore, there is a higher demand for farm land, construction of houses, and the building of roads, and this has led to the clearance of forests. High demand for timber in Cameroon, Kenya, Nepal, Ethiopia, and Panama was also noted to cause deforestation in these countries.39

In Colombia, Panama, and the Philippines, it was noted that ecotourism has also led to deforestation, but this was a contentious factor because the type of tourism within the ecotourism subsector should be indicated. This was because ecotourism was thought to promote reforestation.40

The enforcement of laws that govern deforestation, logging, and charcoal trade should be achievable if there is a good road network within the forest. This was one of the main obstacles identified in Kenya. The road network that borders Maasai-Mau in Narok South is impassable during the rainy seasons and this gives an avenue to loggers, who donkeys, to ferry logs to locations where they can easily sell them to customers.41

2.6. Economic Poverty; No Alternative Livelihoods

Poverty is one of the major issues that has created problems at both national and international levels. People need money to support their families and bring up their children but without economic alternatives, they resort to the forests. This is the case in the Amazonian area of Ecuador. Timber is sold at low prices to get money to provide for families because there is no other source of employment. Globally, jobless youth prefer to look for money from forests through the selling of timber or through farming practices. Illiteracy has played another significant role in deforestation. This is because illiterate people have less opportunity to find alternative livelihoods so as to reduce their reliance on forest resources.42

Deforestation has also been triggered by economic crisis, especially in the third-world countries. Take for example, Cameroon, where many workers were laid off by agro-industrial companies hence resulting in

unlawful exploitation of the forests to meet their economic and financial needs.43

The population of Georgia has been on the rise, and this has led to increased dependence on the forests. Forest resources have been exploited due to the population increase with no notable change in the economic status of the country. Many poor people living near the forest have benefited from forest products, which are in high demand. This notwithstanding, facts have shown that these poor communities living near the forests have lost their control to other influential interests, such as companies involved in logging and migrant workers who benefit more from the forests.44

2.7. Lack of Political Will, Poor Central Planning, and Inadequate Capacity

The major challenges facing forest conservation include: absence of upright governance and effective central organization. Problems related to inadequate capacity and the lack of governmental concerns are among the major factors contributing to the high rise in forest degradation and deforestation. These factors were a little dissimilar in various countries. In the case of Georgia, a small number of government leaders had basic knowledge in sustainable forest management. There was a weak administration dealing with forest management organization, and the state had taken control of all the forest assets and the organization. The sector was not given enough money to maintain the forest and to ensure sustainability. In addition, Georgia had an insufficient and weak lawful background.45

The Panamanian workshop pointed fingers at the government for its failure to set clear policies regarding various issues that affect forest conservation. These issues include: tactical development in societies and areas, economic evolution of the Kuna regions, watching of events that take place in forests, and preservation of ancestral home-grown territories.46

A workshop in India highlighted issues to deal with weak control mechanisms, lack of proper planning from the government, and limited financial allocations. These issues resulted in the lack of capacity to deal with forest destructions, forest mafia, and industrialization processes, showing some laxities from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, and State Forest Departments.47

There are no municipal regulations that govern forest activities in El Salvador. The state policy and the legislation for environmental care still allow for the construction of projects that result in deforestation. There is another concern in Panama on the policymaking organizations.

The private and the public sector have both failed in their duty to restore forests.48

The political class also can be to blame for global deforestation. This could be due to several factors, which include inadequate equipment, poor management of forests, and use of out-of-date husbandry.49

Some governments are not ready or do not have the capacity to enforce some of the regulations governing forests and other national laws that deal with environmental protection.

This is more so true when big national projects are in question or when there is a competition between the palm oil and forestry sectors, as in a case in Ecuador, the society wanted to take care of the forests while the Environment Ministry still allowed exploitation—even in areas that had been protected.50

This negligence, together with corruption, may result in a lack of trust of authorities by the local communities, thus, making the management of forests and other related discussions very hard to undertake. Since the local communities are not consulted, they do not have relevant information about the management of forests and the policies that govern the same. Therefore, if the global forests have to be reinstated, some of these impediments have to be overcome.51

The scope of stewardship is especially pertinent in connection with international environmental law. This happens due to the gradual emergence of a new ethical approach toward environmental regulations, and it can be recognized in some trends in international and national legislation. Actually, most of the analysts see the ethic of stewardship as a useful way to solve various challenges facing the environment.52

This study examines the development of a societal attitude toward stewardship to potentially address and combat the problem of deforestation. This study examines the application of the Islamic ethic for stewardship in both Muslim and non-Muslim regions.

Deforestation occurs due to many factors, including conversion to agriculture, conflict over land tenure, illegal logging, and corruption. Industrialization, urbanization and infrastructure, economic poverty, no alternative livelihoods, and the lack of political will also contribute to the overharvesting of trees. Poor central planning and inadequate capacity make this an even greater issue, which needs an ethical response.

Prophet Muhammad Ibn 'Abdillah (S)

The biography of our Holy Prophet Muhammad (S) ibn Abdillah is clearer than those of all prophets preceding him, because as a result of the lapse of time and historical changes, their books, shari'ahs, and even their personalities have been distorted and their biographies have become ambiguous.

In fact, there are no clear documents other than those imparted to us through the divine book of Islam, viz, Qur'an and the speeches and statements of Prophet Muhammad (S) and the Ahl al-Bayt (as). But there is a clear history on the life of Prophet Muhammad (S) which describes the characteristics of his life adequately.

The Holy Prophet (S) of Islam is the last prophet appointed by the Almighty Allah to lead the people of the world.

Fourteen centuries ago, mankind lived in such a condition that nothing was left of Tawhid except nominally and when people had completely deviated from Tawhid and theism. Human manners and justice had died away in their society. Holy Ka'bah had turned into an idol-temple and the religion of Ibrahim (as) had converted into idolatry.

Arabs led a tribal life and even a few of their cities in Hijaz and Yemen and elsewhere were governed in the same tribal manner. The Arabs lived in the meanest and most backward conditions. Instead of culture and civilization, they indulged in unchastity, sensuality, alcoholism, and gambling. They buried their daughters alive. Most people subsisted by Way of theft, banditry, murder, and plundering each other's belongings, livestock, and cattle. Cruelty and bloodshed were regarded as the greatest honors.

In such an environment, the compassionate Allah appointed Prophet Muhammad (S) to reform andlead the people of the world. Allah revealed the Holy Qur'an to him, consisting of divine education, theism, the ways of implementation of justice, and beneficial advice. Allah commissioned him to invite people toward humanity and adherence to the truth using that divine authentic Book, Qur'an.

Prophet Muhammad (S) was born in the city of Makkah in 570 AD (53 years before Hijrah) in the noblest and most honourable Arab family.

Muhammad's (S) father died before he was born. He lost h is mother when he was six years old. After two years, his grandfather (Abdul Muttalib), who was his guardian, died. Then the Prophet (S) was put under the guardianship of his kind uncle, Abu Talib (the father of the Leader of the Faithful, 'Ali [as]).

Abu Talib held him den just like one of his own children. Until a few months before Hijrah, he always did his best for the protection and support of Muhammad (S) and he was never negligent.

The Arabs of Makkah, like other Arabs, indulged in breeding sheep and camels. They sometimes used to trade with neighboring countries, especially with Syria. They were illiterate people who made no effort to educate their children.

Like all his people, the Prophet (S), too, had not learnt to read and write, but from the beginning of his life, he was privileged by having a series of praiseworthy attributes. He never worshipped idols, lied, and committed theft and treachery. He guarded against evil, disrespectful, and indecent actions and was wise and efficient. Therefore, he gained considerable popularity among the people within a short period and became known as "Muhammad al-Amin" meaning "Muhammad the trustworthy".

The Arabs often entrusted him with their belongings and talked about his honesty and efficiency. When he was about twenty years old, a wealthy lady of Makkah, Khadijah al-Kubra, designated him as her representative in commercial trade. As a result of his truthfulness, honesty, wisdom, and efficiency, she earned a great deal of profit. She was naturally attracted by the personality and magnanimity of the Holy Prophet (S) more than ever and finally proposed to him for marriage. Afterwards also for years, she continued commercial works with her husband.

Being considered as one of the people, the Holy Prophet (S) had an ordinary association with people until the age of forty. Of course, he differed from them in that he had a praiseworthy and decent behavior and guarded against indecent deeds and conducts which had spoiled others. He did not possess cruelty, hard-heartedness, and status consciousness, thus had earned the respect and confidence of people.

It was such that when the Arabs were reconstructing the House of Ka'bah, a quarrel and dispute arose among the tribes on the erection of Al-Hajar al-Aswad (the Black Stone). The people unanimously chose the Holy Prophet (S) as an arbitrator. He then ordered the people to spread a cloak to place Al-Hajar al-Aswadwithin. The nobles of the tribes lifted the sides of the cloak and the Holy Prophet (S) installed the Al-Hajar al-Aswad in its place, thus bringing the conflict of the people to an end without any massacre and bloodshed.

Before his Al-Bi'that al-Nabawiyyah (appointment for prophethood), although the Holy Prophet (S) worshipped Allah and refrained from idol-worshipping, the people did not bother about him because he did not explicitly struggle against the superstitious beliefs of idolatry. The same applied to those belonging to other religions such as Jews and Christians, who lived respectfully among the Arabs without being bothered by them.

The Incident of Monk Buhayra

While the Holy Prophet (S) lived with his uncle, Abu Talib, and while he had not yet reached adolescence, Abu Talib set out for Damascus on business and also took the Holy Prophet (S) along.

It was a massive caravan and a great number of people travelled along with a huge quantity of merchandise until they arrived in Syria and entered the city of Busra. In the vicinity of a monastery, they pitched a tent and took rest. A monk, whose title was "Buhayra", came out of the monastery and invited them to a feast. Everybody accepted Buhayra's invitation and entered the monastery. Leaving his nephew, Muhammad (S) with his belongings, Abu Talib also attended the feast along with others.

Buhayra asked: "Is everybody present?" Abu Talib replied, "Everybody is here except a youth who is the youngest of all." Buhayra said: "Bring him along as well!" Abu Talib called on the Holy Prophet (S) who was standing under an olive tree and came to the monk.

Buhayra cast a deep glance at the Holy Prophet (S) and said: "come a little bit closer, I have something to tell you." Then, he took the Holy Prophet (S) aside. Abu Talib also went near them.

Buhayra told the Holy Prophet: "I am going to ask you a question and, by swearing on Lat and 'Uzza, would you answer me" (Lat and 'uzza were the names of two idols worshipped by the people of Makkah).

The Holy Prophet (S) stated: "These two idols are the most hated ones to me".

Buhayra said: "By swearing on Allah, would you tell the truth". The Holy Prophet said: "I always speak the truth and I have never told a lie; you ask your question".

Buhayra asked: "What do you like the most"?

The Holy Prophet (S) answered: "Loneliness".

Buhayra asked: "What do you look the most at and what do you like to look at"?

The Holy Prophet said: "The sky and the stars within it".

Buhayra asked: "What do you think of"?

The Holy Prophet (S) remained silent, but Buhayra carefully glanced at his forehead.

Buhayra asked: "When do you sleep and with what thoughts"?

The Holy Prophet stated: "When I fix my eyes upon the sky, I see the stars and I find them in my lap and myself above them".

Buhayra asked: "Do you see dream also"?

He stated: "Whatever I see in dream, the same I see while I am awake."

Buhayra asked: "What do you dream of, as an example"?

The Holy Prophet (S) kept quiet, Buhayra also kept quiet.

After a while, Buhayra asked: "May I take a look at the centre of your shoulders"?

The Holy Prophet (S), while standing still, stated: "Come and see."

Buhayra stood up, came closer, and pulled the dress of the Holy Prophet (S) off his shoulders. A mole appeared. Buhayra took a look and said in a murmuring voice: "He is the very person".

Abu Talib asked: "Which one? What do you mean"?

Buhayra said: "Tell me, what is your relationship with this youth"?

Since Abu Talib loved the Holy Prophet (S) as one of his own children, he said: "He is my son".

Buhayra said: "No, the father of this youth must have died".

"How do you know"?said Abu Talib; "That is true, this youth is my nephew".

Buhayra told Abu Talib "Listen, this youth will have a very bright and astonishing future. If others see what I have seen and recognize him, they will kill him. Hide and protect him from the enemies".

Abu Talib said: "Tell me, who is he"?

Buhayra replied: "His eyes bear the signs of the eyes of a prominent prophet and a clear mark of prophethood is on his back".

The Story of Monk Nestorius

After a few years, the Holy Prophet, acting as a representative, set out for Damascus once again along with the merchandise belonging to Khadijah al-Kubra. Khadijah sent her servant, Masirah, along with the Holy Prophet (S) and advised him to fully obey his orders. In this trip, too, when they arrived in Syria, they landed under a tree in the vicinity of the city of Busra. There was a monastery belonging to a monk called "Nestorius" who was acquainted with Masirah.

Nestorius asked Masirah: "Who is the man resting underneath that tree"?

Masirah replied: "He is a person from the family of Quraysh".

The monk said: "under this tree, no one but a prophet from among the prophets of Allah has lodged or can lodge".

He added: "Is there redness in his eyes".

Masirah said: "Yes, his eyes are always like this".

The monk said: "That's it. He is the last prophet of the prophets of Allah. I wish I could find out the day when he will invite the people."

Good Tidings Given ByThe Jews Of Madinah

Many Jewish tribes, having read about the attributes and location of the Holy Prophet (S) in their books, had left their homeland for Hijaz and taken abode in Madinah and its suburbs, waiting for the advent of the Holy Prophet (S), the Ummi (unschooled). As they were a group of wealthy and rich people, the Arabs used to disturb them from time to time and robbed them of their belongings.

Complaining against the injustice of the Arabs, the Jews told them that they would tolerate their cruelty and robbery until the migration of the Ummi prophet from Makkah to Madinah. They said that on that day, they would have their faith in him and would take vengeance on them. One of the main factors that led to the rapid belief of the people of Madinah in the Holy Prophet (S) was the memory they had aboutthese news. Finally, they acknowledged their faith, but the Jews refrained from believing in him due to their strong communalism and prejudice.

Qur'an's Reference to Prophetic Tidings

In His words the Almighty Allah refers to these good tidings in many instances. Regarding the faith of a group of people endowed with a book, the Qur'an states:

"Those who follow the Apostle-Prophet, the Ummi, whom they find written down with them in the Tawrat and the Injl, (who) enjoins them good and forbids them evil, and makes lawful to them the good things and makes unlawful to them impure things, and removes from them their burden and the shackles which were upon them...(7:157)."

Again, He states:

"And when there came to them a Book from Allah verifying that which they already had, and aforetime they were seeking victory against those who disbelieved - yet when there came to them that (Book) which they had recognized, they disbelieved in it...(2:89)."

From Al-Bi'that Al-Nabawiyyah toThe Hijrah

In the gloomy atmosphere of the Arabian Peninsula that can literally be called "the swamp of misery" and the centre of corruption and in a world full of cruelty and injustice, the Almighty Allah appointed His Prophet (S) as a blessing for the people of the world and ordered him to invite the people to Tawhid and worshipping the One Allah.

He also ordered him to call people to justice, righteousness, and strengthening their social relations. Allah also ordered him to rise in observance of truth and follow the path of the followers of righteousness and to lay the foundation of man's prosperity on the basis of faith, piety, cooperation, and self-sacrifice.

Initially, the Holy Prophet (S) was charged with the responsibility of inviting the people. Since the environment was full of obstinacy, ruthlessness, and injustice, the Prophet (S) talked his mission over only with people who were more or less susceptible to conversion. Thus a limited number of people believed in him and (according to narrations) the first man was 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (as), the son of his uncle and educated by the Prophet (S) himself, and the first woman was his wife Khadijah al-Kubra (as).

Then, Muhammad (S) was commissioned to invite his close relatives and companions (who were about forty people) to his house and described his divine mission. Then, by the order of Allah, the Holy Prophet (S) proceeded to an overt and public invitation, thus bringing forward the luminous torch of divine guidance from within the house to the arena of the world.

The reaction of the Arabs, especially the people of Makkah, was very severe against this invitation specifically after it was publicized. Unbelievers and polytheists responded negatively, savagely, and in a cruel way to this immaculate and pure invitation without using any proper logic whatsoever.

Sometimes, they called the Holy Prophet (S) a soothsayer and magician, while at times they called him lunatic and poet and used to make fun of him. Whenever he wanted to invite the people to the newly-grown religion of Islam or wanted to worship Allah, the people used to make noise and disrupt his actions.

They threw garbage and thorns on his head and used to beat and abuse him. Sometimes, they stoned him, while at times they tried to allure him by giving enticing and sweet promises such as of wealth and leadership, so that through these means they could shake up his resolution and determination. But the Holy Prophet (S) displayed no weakness and withdrawal. Sometimes, he regretted and became sad because of the ignorance and stubbornness of his people.

In this regard, Qur'anic verses were frequently revealed by which the Almighty Allah expressed His consolation to him and ordered him to be patient and forbearing. Sometimes, verses were revealed to prohibit the Holy Prophet (S) from showing the least willingness to the remarks of the people or from displaying any weakness and leniency.

Those who believed in the Holy Prophet (S) were severely tortured and punished by the kafirin. In many instances, they died under torture. Sometimes, the matter became so serious that they were tortured to the extreme and then they sought the permission of the Holy Prophet (S) to start a bloody movement and finalize their destinies. The Holy Prophet (S) said: "I do not have an order from the Almighty Allah in this respect. You must wait". A group of people took their belongings with them and left their homeland due to the heavy pressure on them.

After a while, things became much harder on the Muslims due to the extreme torture. The Holy Prophet (S) allowed his disciples to migrate to Ethiopia to be relieved of the torture and harassment of their people for a while. This group of people, led by Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, the brother of 'Ali (as) (Ja'far was one of the most trusted friends of the Holy Prophet [SA]), migrated to Ethiopia along with their families.

After being informed of the Hijrah of the Muslims, the Kafirin of Makkah sent two of their experienced men, along with a large number of gifts and souvenirs, to the king of Ethiopia, requesting the extradition of the immigrants of Makkah. Bu t with a speech delivered in the presence of the king of Ethiopia, Ja'far ibn Abi Talib explained the entirely illuminating personality of the Holy Prophet (S) and the sublime principles of Islam for the king, the Christian priests, and top authorities present at the time. He also cited several Qur'anic verses of Surah (Chapter) Maryam.

The immaculate statements of Ja'far ibn Abi Talib were so attractive that the king and the audience started shedding tears. Thus the king rejected the request of the people of Makkah and declined all gifts and souvenirs sent to him. The king issued instructions to provide all means of convenience, peace, and comfort for the immigrant Muslims in every respect.

After this event, the Kafirin of Makkah decided to break their relations with Banu Hashim (family of Hashim) who were the relatives of the Holy Prophet (S) and his followers. They also decided to totally stop all relations, discourse, and transactions with them. In this respect, they wrote a special agreement, got it signed by everyone, and left it in Ka'bah.

Banu Hashim, accompanied by the Holy Prophet (S), had to inevitably leave Makkah and take refuge in a valley known as "Shi'b Abi Talib" and lived there almost in utmost hardship and hunger. In this period, no one dared to come out of the Shi'b. During the days, they had to endure the burning heat and in the nights, they were faced with the wailing of women and children.

After three years, as a result of the obliteration of the agreement and because of the denouncement by the tribes settled around, the unbelievers dispensed with their agreement and Banu Hashim came out of their refuge.

But at that time, Abu Talib, who was the lone supporter of the Holy Prophet (S), and also Khadijah al-Kubra, the kind wife of the Holy Prophet (S), died. As a result, things became much harder for the Holy Prophet (S) and he was unable to appear in public or reveal his identity to anyone, or stay in a specific place. Altogether, he had no life-security.

A Trip to Ta'if

The year in which the Holy Prophet (S) and Banu Hashim came out of the Shi'b Abi Talib, was l3th year after al-Bi'that al-Nabawiyyah. The Holy Prophet (S) made a short trip to Ta'if (a city about 100 kilometers from Makkah) at that time and invited the people of Ta'if to embrace Islam. But the ignorant people of Ta'if attacked him from every place, abused and stoned him, and at last drove him out of the city.

The Holy Prophet (S) returned to Makkah from Ta'if and remained there for a while. But since he had no security of his life, he did not appear among the people. Since the circumstances were favorable to exterminate the Holy Prophet (S), the elders of Makkah assembled in Darun-Nadwah, which was like a consultative assembly and hatched up the final plot in a secret session to exterminate him once and for all.

The plot was designed to select one man from each Arab tribe. The selected men were then to rush into the house of the Holy Prophet (S) collectively and kill him. The purpose of selecting one representative from each tribe was to prevent the relatives of the Holy Prophet (S) from rising in revenge and from fighting with all those tribes who would direct the murder. Also the participation of one person from Banu Hashim would also keep the mouths of Banu Hashim shut regarding this matter.

This decision was finalized. About forty people from various tribes were nominated to kill the Holy Prophet (S). They surrounded his house at night, so as to enter it at dawn in order to carry out their plot, but the divine will was above the determination of these people and thwarted their plans. The Almighty Allah sent His revelation to the Holy Prophet (S), informed him of their intention, and ordered him to come out of Makkah at night itself and set out for Madinah.

The Holy Prophet (S) informed 'Ali (as) of the current situation, ordered him to sleep in his place, and gave him his last wills. He left the house at night and seeing Abu Bakr along the way, he took him also along and set out for Madinah.

Some of the dignitaries of Madinah had already met the Holy Prophet (S) in Makkah and had expressed their faith prior to his Hijrah. They had also made an agreement to support and vindicate the Holy Prophet (S), if he came to Madinah, just as they would defend their own life and honor.

The Hijrah of the Holy Prophet (S) To Madinah

The Holy Prophet (S) reached a cave in Mount Thawr near Makkah and hid there for three days. After three days, he left the cave and continued his journey until he reached Madinah where he was welcomed by the people of Madinah.

On the other side, the infidels of Makkah who had surrounded the house of the Holy Prophet (S) at night, dashed inside at dawn, and went to his bed with their swords pulled out. They unexpectedly found 'Ali (as) sleeping in the bed of the Holy Prophet (S). As soon as they found out that the Holy Prophet (S) had left Makkah, they began searching for him around Makkah, but after a thorough search they returned with a great disappointment.

The Holy Prophet (S) stayed in Madinah where the people most willingly converted to Islam and wholeheartedly supported him. The city of Madinah turned into an Islamic city. Until then, this city was called "Yathrib", but after this occurrence, it assumed the name of "Madinat al-Rasul" (the City of Prophet) and became the first Islamic city.Of course, although munafiqin (hypocrites), the Arab minorities of Madinah who formed about one-third of the city's population, being scared of the majority, pretended to be Muslims.

The sun of Islam began shining in the clear sky of Madinah and began shedding its light. In the first place, the state of conflict which had existed for many years between the two main tribes of Aws and Khazraj turned into peace and compromise. The believers of Madinah encircled like butterflies around the candle of prophetic mission. Gradually, the tribes in the territory of Madinah embraced Islam and the divine precepts descended one after the other and were implemented.

Everyday one of the roots of corruption and indecent behavior was eradicated and replaced by piety and justice. Gradually, the followers of Islam, who had remained in Makkah after the Holy Prophet's (S) Hijrah and were under the harassment and severe torture by the unbelievers, left their homes and fled to Madinah where they were received with warm hospitality by their religious brethren.

Muslims who had remained in Makkah gradually migrated and gathered in Madinah. These people were called muhajirin (immigrants) and the believers in the city of Madinah were called "Ansar"(helpers).

There were many tribes of Jews in Madinah, its suburbs, Khaybar, and Fadak whose information and scholars constantly notified the Arabs of Madinah of the good tidings of the Holy Prophet's (S) mission. But when these tribes were invited to Islam after the Hijrah, they did not accept this invitation and turned away from Islam. Finally, a non-aggression treaty was signed between the Jews and Muslims with specific terms.

The rapid advancement of Islam seriously annoyed the unbelievers of Makkah and increased their wrath and animosity towards the Holy Prophet (S) and the followers of Islam. They were after a pretext to disrupt the unity of the followers of Islam. On the other hand, the followers of Islam, too, especially the Muhajirin of Makkah who were quite unhappy with the unbelievers, expected a divine permission to punish the cruel unbelievers for their evil deeds and to liberate their women, innocent children, and helpless old people living under persecution and torture in Makkah.

The Battle of Badr

The first battle between the Muslims and the unbelievers of Makkah took place at Badr (a valley between Makkah and Madinah) in the second year of the Hijrah. In this battle, the number of fully equipped unbelievers was about one thousand. The Muslims were about one-third of them and lacked all necessary war equipment, but divine dispensation afforded the Muslims a bright victory and defeated the unbelievers in the worst possible way.

Suffering heavy casualties and many captives and losing their entire stock of equipment in this battle, the mushrikin (polytheists) ran away to Makkah. It is said that in this battle, seventy unbelievers were killed, out of which almost half of them were killed by the sword of 'Ali (as). Also seventy people from the unbelievers were taken as captives.

The Battle of Uhud

In the third year of Hijrah, the unbelievers of Makkah, led by Abu Sufyan again rushed towards Madinah with three thousand men (and according to one narration with five thousand men). They confronted the Muslims at Uhud outside Madinah. In this battle, the Holy Prophet (S) arrayed seven hundred Muslims to face the enemy. In the beginning of the battle, the Muslims had the upper hand again, but after a few hours due to the mistake of some Muslims, the army of Islam was defeated. At this time, the unbelievers attacked from all sides and the Muslims suddenly found themselves surrounded on all sides by the swords of unbelievers.

In this battle, the Muslims sustained heavy losses. Hamzah, the uncle of the Holy Prophet (S), along with seventy other disciples of the Holy Prophet (S) who were mostly Ansarwere martyred. The forehead of the Holy Prophet (S) was wounded and one of his front teeth broke.

One of the unbelievers who inflicted a blow on the Holy Prophet's (S) shoulder shouted: "I killed Muhammad". Hearing this, the army of Islam dispersed.Only 'Ali (as), along with a few men, remained steadfastly near the Holy Prophet (S). All these were killed but 'Ali (as) resisted the enemy until the end of the battle and defended the Holy Prophet (S).

On the last day, those who had fled away from the army of Islam gathered around the Holy Prophet (S) once more and prepared for battle. But the army of Abu Sufyan, however, considered only that much success as enough, stopped fighting, and set out for Madinah.

After travelling a few kilometers, the army of the unbelievers seriously regretted why they had not pursued the battle to final victory and why they had not taken Muslims' women and children as captives, and plundered their properties.

They even got busy with consultation to attack Madinah once again, but received the information that the information that the army of Islam was following them to continue the battle. Having received this information, the unbelievers became intimidated, gave up the idea of returning to Madinah, and hastily set out for Makkah.

Surely what they had heard was true, because the Holy Prophet (S), by the order of Allah, had mobilized an army from the injured who were led by 'Ali (as) to follow the enemy.

Although the Muslims sustained heavy casualties in this battle, in fact, it finished to the advantage of Islam and Muslims. The Muslims drew a more important conclusion out of this battle and experienced the inauspicious consequence of violating the order of the Holy Prophet (S). Having given up the battle, both the confronting sides promised to fight another battle in Badr next year at the same time. The Holy Prophet (S), with a group of his disciples, went to Badr on time, but the unbelievers refrained from coming.

After this battle, the Muslims became very well prepared and made advancement on all sides in the peninsula except in the region of Makkah and Ta'if.

The Battle of Khandaq

This was the third battle declared by the Arab unbelievers against the Holy Prophet (S). It was also the last battle under the leadership of the people of Makkah. It was a very severe battle in which the unbelievers had fully equipped themselves with their forces and powers. In the history, this battle is known as the "Battle of Ahzab" and "Khandaq".

After the battle of Uhud, the leaders of Makkah, led by Abu Sufyan, decided to inflict the final blow upon the Holy Prophet (S) to put off the light of Islam for good. To this end, they instigated the Arab tribes and asked for their cooperation and assistance.

In spite of the non-aggression treaty signed by the Jews and Muslims, the Jewish people also had secretly involved themselves with the plot and violated the treaty and signed a cooperation agreement with the unbelievers.

Thus, in the fifth year of Hijrah, a fully mobilized army comprising of Quraysh, various Arab tribes, and Jewish people rushed to Madinah totally equipped.

Having come to know of the intention of the enemy beforehand, the Holy Prophet (S) consulted his disciples over the matter. After a long discussion, they dug a trench all around the city of Madinah according to the proposal of Salman al-Farisi who was an intimate Companion of the Holy Prophet (S). They then got fortified within the city. After reaching Madinah, the army of the enemy found no way to enter the city. They inevitably besieged the city and started the battle in that position. The siege and battle continued for sometime.

It was in this battle only that ' Amr ibn 'Abdwudd, a most renowned equestrian and a most famous brave man of Arabia, was killed by the powerful hands of 'Ali (as). Finally, as a result of wind, cold, the fatigue of the Arab idolaters from the extended duration of the siege, and the difference and separation between the Jews and Arabs, the siege got broken without any result; thus the army of the unbelievers dispersed from around Madinah.

Battle withThe Jews, The Battle Of Khaybar

After the Battle of Khandaq, originally provoked by the Jews who cooperated with the Arab unbelievers and who had openly breached their treaty with Muslims, the Holy Prophet (S) proceeded to punish the Jewish tribes in Madinah by the order of Allah. He fought several battles, all of which ended in the victory and triumph of Muslims. The most important of these battles was the Battle of Khaybar. The Jews of Khaybar had several fortifications in hand and a considerable number of belligerents with adequate equipment at their disposal.

In this battle, 'Ali (as) killed Marhab of Khaybar, the well-known hero of the Jews, and dispersed the Jewish army. Afterwards, he rushed to the Fort of Khaybar, unhinged its door, and entered the fort along with the army of Islam. He then hoisted the banner of victory on its top. With these very battles which ended in the fifth year of Hijrah, the problem of the Jews of Hijaz came to an end.

InvitingThe Rulers And Kings To Islam

The Holy Prophet (S) settled in Madinah.Gradually, a great number of the Muslims of Makkah, who were under the torture by the unbelievers, relinquished their homes and belongings and migrated to Madinah. Ansar also kept their promise and received them wholeheartedly.

The Holy Prophet (S) constructed Masjid al-Nabi at Madinah. Other mosques were also built. Missionaries of Islam were sent to the outskirts and treaties were signed with Jewish tribes of Madinah and its suburbs and also with some Arab tribes. Thus Islam began to flourish with its enormous luminosity.

In the 6th year of the Hijrah, the Holy Prophet (S) sent letters to the rulers and kings such as the King of Iran, Qaysar (Caesar) of Rome, Khedive of Egypt, and Al-Najashi (Negus) of Ethiopia and invited them to embrace Islam.

After some time, the unbelievers of Makkah breached the treaty and, as a result of this, the Holy Prophet (S) decided to conquer Makkah. In the 8th year of the Hijrah, the Holy Prophet (S) rushed to Makkah with ten thousand soldiers and conquered Makkah without any fighting and bloodshed. He also toppled and broke many idols placed in Ka'bah.

People of Makkah accepted Islam. The Holy Prophet (S) summoned all the leaders of Makkah, who had in the last 20 years shown their animosity and behaved inhumanely with him and his followers, and pardoned them all with utmost magnanimity and without showing the slightest harshness and moroseness.

The Battle of Hunayn

After the conquest of Makkah, the Holy Prophet (S) proceeded to clear out the suburbs of the city and fought numerous battles with the Arab idol-worshippers, one of which was the Battle of Hunayn.

The Battle of Hunayn was one of the most important battles of the Holy Prophet (S). It took place in the valley of Hunayn against the tribe of Hawazin. The army of Islam, with twelve thousand soldiers, arrayed in front of the army of Hawazin which was equipped with a few thousand men. A heavy battle took place between them.

In the beginning of the battle, Hawazin severely defeated the Muslims, so much so that everybody ran away, except Ali (as) who was carrying the banner of Islam and a few others, who fought in front of the Holy Prophet (S). But after a few hours, initially the Ansar and then other Muslims returned to their bases and defeated the enemy after a very heavy fighting. In this battle, five thousand enemies were taken as captives by the Muslims, but all of them were released by the Muslims at the request of the Holy Prophet (S). The Holy Prophet (S) bought the share of thedissatisfied Muslims by paying them money and releasing their captives.

The Battle of Tabuk

In the 9th year of Hijrah, the Holy Prophet (S) dispatched an army to Tabuk (located at the borders of Hijaz and Damascus) to fight a battle with Rome, because the rumors had spread that the Qaysar of Rome was preparing an army comprised of Romans and Arabs in that area. The Battle of Mu'tah was previously fought there with Rome, leading to the martyrdom of the commanders of the army of Islam such as Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, Zayd ibn Harithah, and 'Abdullah ibn Rawahah.

The Holy Prophet (S), with an army of thirty thousand soldiers, proceeded towards Tabuk, but the people gathering there had dispersed before the arrival of the army of Islam. The Holy Prophet (S) stayed in Tabuk for three days, cleared out that territory, and then returned to Madinah.

Other Battles

Within ten years of his stay in Madinah, the Holy Prophet (S) fought almost eighty major and minor battles other than those previously mentioned. The Holy Prophet (S) personally participated in almost one-fourth of the number of these battles.

In the battles in which he participated, unlike other commanders who remained in shelters and only issued the orders for attacks and killing, the Holy Prophet (S) himself took part in the battlefield along with other soldiers, but no occasion arose for him to embark upon killing anyone.

Ghadir Khumm and the Issue of Succession

Makkah was the last city whose conquest led to the absolute domination of Islam over the Arabian Peninsula. It has the Haram (Sacred premises) of Allah and the site of Ka'bah. This city fell in the hands of the army of Islam in the 8th year of Hijrah. Shortly afterwards, the city of Ta'if was also conquered.

In the 10th year of Hijrah, the Holy Prophet (S) set out for Makkah to perform the Hijjatul Wada' (last Hajj). After performing the Hajj manasik (rituals) and giving necessary instructions to the people, the Holy Prophet (S) headed for Madinah. In the course of his journey, he ordered to stop the caravan at a place called "Ghadir (Pond) Khumm."

Among one hundred and twenty thousand Hujjaj (pilgrims) who had gathered for Hajj from all parts of the Arabian Peninsula, the Holy Prophet (S) took 'Ali's hand in his own, lifted him up, and announced his Imamah (succession of Prophet Muhammad [SA]).

By this action, the matter of succession, which controls the affairs of the Muslims, guards the Book and ahadih, and protects the divine instructions and laws, was resolved. Thus the order given by Allah in the following Ayah was executed:

"O Messenger!deliver what has been revealed to you from your Lord; and if you do it not, then you have not delivered His message;...(5:67)"

Shortly, after returning to Madinah, the Holy Prophet (S) passed away.

The Settlement ofThe Holy Prophet (S) In Madinah And The Advancement Of Islam

The invitation of the Holy Prophet (S) to Islam was widely extended in Madinah and it had embraced every home, association, district, and quarter. The people embraced Islam in groups and multitudes in such a way that the people in Makkah, Madinah, and all the tribes in the surrounding areas submitted to Islam. During the ten years of the Holy Prophet's (S) stay in Madinah, absolute domination of Islam established in the entire Arabian Peninsula.

In these ten years, the Holy Prophet (S) was preoccupied with carrying out his mission and never took rest.

He received wahy and taught the people the sublime teachings of Islam concerning education, ethics, and laws revealed to him by the Almighty Allah. The Holy Prophet (S) gave people the necessary advice, answered their questions, discussed and debated with the opponents and scholars of various nations especially those of the Jews, and managed the affairs of the country, thus enabling the people to administer lives.

In spite of all these preoccupations, the Holy Prophet (S) devoted a considerable part of his time for worshipping Allah. He observed Sawm on many days of the year, that is to say, he observed Sawm almost continuously during the three consecutive months of Rajab, Sha'ban, and Ramadhan and also observed Sawm for about a month on different occasions during the year.

Sometimes, the Holy Prophet (S) observed the Sawmul Wisal (continuous fasting) which was one of his special characteristics, i.e., he did not take anything for several consecutive days and nights. He used to spend some of his time in the management of household affairs and necessities of life. Also, at times, he spent his time to earn his subsistence.

The Almighty Allah has briefly mentioned the events of these ten years in His words:

"They desire to put out the light of Allah with their mouths, but Allah will perfect His light, though the unbelievers may beaverse (61:8)"

Allah is the One who has sent His messenger with divine guidance and true religion to the people to make His religion dominant over all other religions and faiths, even if this is unpleasant for the polytheists.

As it is evident, this divine promise had been well realized during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet (S) and after his passing away to the present day when more than one billion Muslims live all over the world.

He also states:

"You are the best of the ummahs (peoples) raised up for (the benefit of) men; you enjoin what is right and forbid the wrong and believe in Allah (3:100)"

Prophet Muhammad Ibn 'Abdillah (S)

The biography of our Holy Prophet Muhammad (S) ibn Abdillah is clearer than those of all prophets preceding him, because as a result of the lapse of time and historical changes, their books, shari'ahs, and even their personalities have been distorted and their biographies have become ambiguous.

In fact, there are no clear documents other than those imparted to us through the divine book of Islam, viz, Qur'an and the speeches and statements of Prophet Muhammad (S) and the Ahl al-Bayt (as). But there is a clear history on the life of Prophet Muhammad (S) which describes the characteristics of his life adequately.

The Holy Prophet (S) of Islam is the last prophet appointed by the Almighty Allah to lead the people of the world.

Fourteen centuries ago, mankind lived in such a condition that nothing was left of Tawhid except nominally and when people had completely deviated from Tawhid and theism. Human manners and justice had died away in their society. Holy Ka'bah had turned into an idol-temple and the religion of Ibrahim (as) had converted into idolatry.

Arabs led a tribal life and even a few of their cities in Hijaz and Yemen and elsewhere were governed in the same tribal manner. The Arabs lived in the meanest and most backward conditions. Instead of culture and civilization, they indulged in unchastity, sensuality, alcoholism, and gambling. They buried their daughters alive. Most people subsisted by Way of theft, banditry, murder, and plundering each other's belongings, livestock, and cattle. Cruelty and bloodshed were regarded as the greatest honors.

In such an environment, the compassionate Allah appointed Prophet Muhammad (S) to reform andlead the people of the world. Allah revealed the Holy Qur'an to him, consisting of divine education, theism, the ways of implementation of justice, and beneficial advice. Allah commissioned him to invite people toward humanity and adherence to the truth using that divine authentic Book, Qur'an.

Prophet Muhammad (S) was born in the city of Makkah in 570 AD (53 years before Hijrah) in the noblest and most honourable Arab family.

Muhammad's (S) father died before he was born. He lost h is mother when he was six years old. After two years, his grandfather (Abdul Muttalib), who was his guardian, died. Then the Prophet (S) was put under the guardianship of his kind uncle, Abu Talib (the father of the Leader of the Faithful, 'Ali [as]).

Abu Talib held him den just like one of his own children. Until a few months before Hijrah, he always did his best for the protection and support of Muhammad (S) and he was never negligent.

The Arabs of Makkah, like other Arabs, indulged in breeding sheep and camels. They sometimes used to trade with neighboring countries, especially with Syria. They were illiterate people who made no effort to educate their children.

Like all his people, the Prophet (S), too, had not learnt to read and write, but from the beginning of his life, he was privileged by having a series of praiseworthy attributes. He never worshipped idols, lied, and committed theft and treachery. He guarded against evil, disrespectful, and indecent actions and was wise and efficient. Therefore, he gained considerable popularity among the people within a short period and became known as "Muhammad al-Amin" meaning "Muhammad the trustworthy".

The Arabs often entrusted him with their belongings and talked about his honesty and efficiency. When he was about twenty years old, a wealthy lady of Makkah, Khadijah al-Kubra, designated him as her representative in commercial trade. As a result of his truthfulness, honesty, wisdom, and efficiency, she earned a great deal of profit. She was naturally attracted by the personality and magnanimity of the Holy Prophet (S) more than ever and finally proposed to him for marriage. Afterwards also for years, she continued commercial works with her husband.

Being considered as one of the people, the Holy Prophet (S) had an ordinary association with people until the age of forty. Of course, he differed from them in that he had a praiseworthy and decent behavior and guarded against indecent deeds and conducts which had spoiled others. He did not possess cruelty, hard-heartedness, and status consciousness, thus had earned the respect and confidence of people.

It was such that when the Arabs were reconstructing the House of Ka'bah, a quarrel and dispute arose among the tribes on the erection of Al-Hajar al-Aswad (the Black Stone). The people unanimously chose the Holy Prophet (S) as an arbitrator. He then ordered the people to spread a cloak to place Al-Hajar al-Aswadwithin. The nobles of the tribes lifted the sides of the cloak and the Holy Prophet (S) installed the Al-Hajar al-Aswad in its place, thus bringing the conflict of the people to an end without any massacre and bloodshed.

Before his Al-Bi'that al-Nabawiyyah (appointment for prophethood), although the Holy Prophet (S) worshipped Allah and refrained from idol-worshipping, the people did not bother about him because he did not explicitly struggle against the superstitious beliefs of idolatry. The same applied to those belonging to other religions such as Jews and Christians, who lived respectfully among the Arabs without being bothered by them.

The Incident of Monk Buhayra

While the Holy Prophet (S) lived with his uncle, Abu Talib, and while he had not yet reached adolescence, Abu Talib set out for Damascus on business and also took the Holy Prophet (S) along.

It was a massive caravan and a great number of people travelled along with a huge quantity of merchandise until they arrived in Syria and entered the city of Busra. In the vicinity of a monastery, they pitched a tent and took rest. A monk, whose title was "Buhayra", came out of the monastery and invited them to a feast. Everybody accepted Buhayra's invitation and entered the monastery. Leaving his nephew, Muhammad (S) with his belongings, Abu Talib also attended the feast along with others.

Buhayra asked: "Is everybody present?" Abu Talib replied, "Everybody is here except a youth who is the youngest of all." Buhayra said: "Bring him along as well!" Abu Talib called on the Holy Prophet (S) who was standing under an olive tree and came to the monk.

Buhayra cast a deep glance at the Holy Prophet (S) and said: "come a little bit closer, I have something to tell you." Then, he took the Holy Prophet (S) aside. Abu Talib also went near them.

Buhayra told the Holy Prophet: "I am going to ask you a question and, by swearing on Lat and 'Uzza, would you answer me" (Lat and 'uzza were the names of two idols worshipped by the people of Makkah).

The Holy Prophet (S) stated: "These two idols are the most hated ones to me".

Buhayra said: "By swearing on Allah, would you tell the truth". The Holy Prophet said: "I always speak the truth and I have never told a lie; you ask your question".

Buhayra asked: "What do you like the most"?

The Holy Prophet (S) answered: "Loneliness".

Buhayra asked: "What do you look the most at and what do you like to look at"?

The Holy Prophet said: "The sky and the stars within it".

Buhayra asked: "What do you think of"?

The Holy Prophet (S) remained silent, but Buhayra carefully glanced at his forehead.

Buhayra asked: "When do you sleep and with what thoughts"?

The Holy Prophet stated: "When I fix my eyes upon the sky, I see the stars and I find them in my lap and myself above them".

Buhayra asked: "Do you see dream also"?

He stated: "Whatever I see in dream, the same I see while I am awake."

Buhayra asked: "What do you dream of, as an example"?

The Holy Prophet (S) kept quiet, Buhayra also kept quiet.

After a while, Buhayra asked: "May I take a look at the centre of your shoulders"?

The Holy Prophet (S), while standing still, stated: "Come and see."

Buhayra stood up, came closer, and pulled the dress of the Holy Prophet (S) off his shoulders. A mole appeared. Buhayra took a look and said in a murmuring voice: "He is the very person".

Abu Talib asked: "Which one? What do you mean"?

Buhayra said: "Tell me, what is your relationship with this youth"?

Since Abu Talib loved the Holy Prophet (S) as one of his own children, he said: "He is my son".

Buhayra said: "No, the father of this youth must have died".

"How do you know"?said Abu Talib; "That is true, this youth is my nephew".

Buhayra told Abu Talib "Listen, this youth will have a very bright and astonishing future. If others see what I have seen and recognize him, they will kill him. Hide and protect him from the enemies".

Abu Talib said: "Tell me, who is he"?

Buhayra replied: "His eyes bear the signs of the eyes of a prominent prophet and a clear mark of prophethood is on his back".

The Story of Monk Nestorius

After a few years, the Holy Prophet, acting as a representative, set out for Damascus once again along with the merchandise belonging to Khadijah al-Kubra. Khadijah sent her servant, Masirah, along with the Holy Prophet (S) and advised him to fully obey his orders. In this trip, too, when they arrived in Syria, they landed under a tree in the vicinity of the city of Busra. There was a monastery belonging to a monk called "Nestorius" who was acquainted with Masirah.

Nestorius asked Masirah: "Who is the man resting underneath that tree"?

Masirah replied: "He is a person from the family of Quraysh".

The monk said: "under this tree, no one but a prophet from among the prophets of Allah has lodged or can lodge".

He added: "Is there redness in his eyes".

Masirah said: "Yes, his eyes are always like this".

The monk said: "That's it. He is the last prophet of the prophets of Allah. I wish I could find out the day when he will invite the people."

Good Tidings Given ByThe Jews Of Madinah

Many Jewish tribes, having read about the attributes and location of the Holy Prophet (S) in their books, had left their homeland for Hijaz and taken abode in Madinah and its suburbs, waiting for the advent of the Holy Prophet (S), the Ummi (unschooled). As they were a group of wealthy and rich people, the Arabs used to disturb them from time to time and robbed them of their belongings.

Complaining against the injustice of the Arabs, the Jews told them that they would tolerate their cruelty and robbery until the migration of the Ummi prophet from Makkah to Madinah. They said that on that day, they would have their faith in him and would take vengeance on them. One of the main factors that led to the rapid belief of the people of Madinah in the Holy Prophet (S) was the memory they had aboutthese news. Finally, they acknowledged their faith, but the Jews refrained from believing in him due to their strong communalism and prejudice.

Qur'an's Reference to Prophetic Tidings

In His words the Almighty Allah refers to these good tidings in many instances. Regarding the faith of a group of people endowed with a book, the Qur'an states:

"Those who follow the Apostle-Prophet, the Ummi, whom they find written down with them in the Tawrat and the Injl, (who) enjoins them good and forbids them evil, and makes lawful to them the good things and makes unlawful to them impure things, and removes from them their burden and the shackles which were upon them...(7:157)."

Again, He states:

"And when there came to them a Book from Allah verifying that which they already had, and aforetime they were seeking victory against those who disbelieved - yet when there came to them that (Book) which they had recognized, they disbelieved in it...(2:89)."

From Al-Bi'that Al-Nabawiyyah toThe Hijrah

In the gloomy atmosphere of the Arabian Peninsula that can literally be called "the swamp of misery" and the centre of corruption and in a world full of cruelty and injustice, the Almighty Allah appointed His Prophet (S) as a blessing for the people of the world and ordered him to invite the people to Tawhid and worshipping the One Allah.

He also ordered him to call people to justice, righteousness, and strengthening their social relations. Allah also ordered him to rise in observance of truth and follow the path of the followers of righteousness and to lay the foundation of man's prosperity on the basis of faith, piety, cooperation, and self-sacrifice.

Initially, the Holy Prophet (S) was charged with the responsibility of inviting the people. Since the environment was full of obstinacy, ruthlessness, and injustice, the Prophet (S) talked his mission over only with people who were more or less susceptible to conversion. Thus a limited number of people believed in him and (according to narrations) the first man was 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (as), the son of his uncle and educated by the Prophet (S) himself, and the first woman was his wife Khadijah al-Kubra (as).

Then, Muhammad (S) was commissioned to invite his close relatives and companions (who were about forty people) to his house and described his divine mission. Then, by the order of Allah, the Holy Prophet (S) proceeded to an overt and public invitation, thus bringing forward the luminous torch of divine guidance from within the house to the arena of the world.

The reaction of the Arabs, especially the people of Makkah, was very severe against this invitation specifically after it was publicized. Unbelievers and polytheists responded negatively, savagely, and in a cruel way to this immaculate and pure invitation without using any proper logic whatsoever.

Sometimes, they called the Holy Prophet (S) a soothsayer and magician, while at times they called him lunatic and poet and used to make fun of him. Whenever he wanted to invite the people to the newly-grown religion of Islam or wanted to worship Allah, the people used to make noise and disrupt his actions.

They threw garbage and thorns on his head and used to beat and abuse him. Sometimes, they stoned him, while at times they tried to allure him by giving enticing and sweet promises such as of wealth and leadership, so that through these means they could shake up his resolution and determination. But the Holy Prophet (S) displayed no weakness and withdrawal. Sometimes, he regretted and became sad because of the ignorance and stubbornness of his people.

In this regard, Qur'anic verses were frequently revealed by which the Almighty Allah expressed His consolation to him and ordered him to be patient and forbearing. Sometimes, verses were revealed to prohibit the Holy Prophet (S) from showing the least willingness to the remarks of the people or from displaying any weakness and leniency.

Those who believed in the Holy Prophet (S) were severely tortured and punished by the kafirin. In many instances, they died under torture. Sometimes, the matter became so serious that they were tortured to the extreme and then they sought the permission of the Holy Prophet (S) to start a bloody movement and finalize their destinies. The Holy Prophet (S) said: "I do not have an order from the Almighty Allah in this respect. You must wait". A group of people took their belongings with them and left their homeland due to the heavy pressure on them.

After a while, things became much harder on the Muslims due to the extreme torture. The Holy Prophet (S) allowed his disciples to migrate to Ethiopia to be relieved of the torture and harassment of their people for a while. This group of people, led by Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, the brother of 'Ali (as) (Ja'far was one of the most trusted friends of the Holy Prophet [SA]), migrated to Ethiopia along with their families.

After being informed of the Hijrah of the Muslims, the Kafirin of Makkah sent two of their experienced men, along with a large number of gifts and souvenirs, to the king of Ethiopia, requesting the extradition of the immigrants of Makkah. Bu t with a speech delivered in the presence of the king of Ethiopia, Ja'far ibn Abi Talib explained the entirely illuminating personality of the Holy Prophet (S) and the sublime principles of Islam for the king, the Christian priests, and top authorities present at the time. He also cited several Qur'anic verses of Surah (Chapter) Maryam.

The immaculate statements of Ja'far ibn Abi Talib were so attractive that the king and the audience started shedding tears. Thus the king rejected the request of the people of Makkah and declined all gifts and souvenirs sent to him. The king issued instructions to provide all means of convenience, peace, and comfort for the immigrant Muslims in every respect.

After this event, the Kafirin of Makkah decided to break their relations with Banu Hashim (family of Hashim) who were the relatives of the Holy Prophet (S) and his followers. They also decided to totally stop all relations, discourse, and transactions with them. In this respect, they wrote a special agreement, got it signed by everyone, and left it in Ka'bah.

Banu Hashim, accompanied by the Holy Prophet (S), had to inevitably leave Makkah and take refuge in a valley known as "Shi'b Abi Talib" and lived there almost in utmost hardship and hunger. In this period, no one dared to come out of the Shi'b. During the days, they had to endure the burning heat and in the nights, they were faced with the wailing of women and children.

After three years, as a result of the obliteration of the agreement and because of the denouncement by the tribes settled around, the unbelievers dispensed with their agreement and Banu Hashim came out of their refuge.

But at that time, Abu Talib, who was the lone supporter of the Holy Prophet (S), and also Khadijah al-Kubra, the kind wife of the Holy Prophet (S), died. As a result, things became much harder for the Holy Prophet (S) and he was unable to appear in public or reveal his identity to anyone, or stay in a specific place. Altogether, he had no life-security.

A Trip to Ta'if

The year in which the Holy Prophet (S) and Banu Hashim came out of the Shi'b Abi Talib, was l3th year after al-Bi'that al-Nabawiyyah. The Holy Prophet (S) made a short trip to Ta'if (a city about 100 kilometers from Makkah) at that time and invited the people of Ta'if to embrace Islam. But the ignorant people of Ta'if attacked him from every place, abused and stoned him, and at last drove him out of the city.

The Holy Prophet (S) returned to Makkah from Ta'if and remained there for a while. But since he had no security of his life, he did not appear among the people. Since the circumstances were favorable to exterminate the Holy Prophet (S), the elders of Makkah assembled in Darun-Nadwah, which was like a consultative assembly and hatched up the final plot in a secret session to exterminate him once and for all.

The plot was designed to select one man from each Arab tribe. The selected men were then to rush into the house of the Holy Prophet (S) collectively and kill him. The purpose of selecting one representative from each tribe was to prevent the relatives of the Holy Prophet (S) from rising in revenge and from fighting with all those tribes who would direct the murder. Also the participation of one person from Banu Hashim would also keep the mouths of Banu Hashim shut regarding this matter.

This decision was finalized. About forty people from various tribes were nominated to kill the Holy Prophet (S). They surrounded his house at night, so as to enter it at dawn in order to carry out their plot, but the divine will was above the determination of these people and thwarted their plans. The Almighty Allah sent His revelation to the Holy Prophet (S), informed him of their intention, and ordered him to come out of Makkah at night itself and set out for Madinah.

The Holy Prophet (S) informed 'Ali (as) of the current situation, ordered him to sleep in his place, and gave him his last wills. He left the house at night and seeing Abu Bakr along the way, he took him also along and set out for Madinah.

Some of the dignitaries of Madinah had already met the Holy Prophet (S) in Makkah and had expressed their faith prior to his Hijrah. They had also made an agreement to support and vindicate the Holy Prophet (S), if he came to Madinah, just as they would defend their own life and honor.

The Hijrah of the Holy Prophet (S) To Madinah

The Holy Prophet (S) reached a cave in Mount Thawr near Makkah and hid there for three days. After three days, he left the cave and continued his journey until he reached Madinah where he was welcomed by the people of Madinah.

On the other side, the infidels of Makkah who had surrounded the house of the Holy Prophet (S) at night, dashed inside at dawn, and went to his bed with their swords pulled out. They unexpectedly found 'Ali (as) sleeping in the bed of the Holy Prophet (S). As soon as they found out that the Holy Prophet (S) had left Makkah, they began searching for him around Makkah, but after a thorough search they returned with a great disappointment.

The Holy Prophet (S) stayed in Madinah where the people most willingly converted to Islam and wholeheartedly supported him. The city of Madinah turned into an Islamic city. Until then, this city was called "Yathrib", but after this occurrence, it assumed the name of "Madinat al-Rasul" (the City of Prophet) and became the first Islamic city.Of course, although munafiqin (hypocrites), the Arab minorities of Madinah who formed about one-third of the city's population, being scared of the majority, pretended to be Muslims.

The sun of Islam began shining in the clear sky of Madinah and began shedding its light. In the first place, the state of conflict which had existed for many years between the two main tribes of Aws and Khazraj turned into peace and compromise. The believers of Madinah encircled like butterflies around the candle of prophetic mission. Gradually, the tribes in the territory of Madinah embraced Islam and the divine precepts descended one after the other and were implemented.

Everyday one of the roots of corruption and indecent behavior was eradicated and replaced by piety and justice. Gradually, the followers of Islam, who had remained in Makkah after the Holy Prophet's (S) Hijrah and were under the harassment and severe torture by the unbelievers, left their homes and fled to Madinah where they were received with warm hospitality by their religious brethren.

Muslims who had remained in Makkah gradually migrated and gathered in Madinah. These people were called muhajirin (immigrants) and the believers in the city of Madinah were called "Ansar"(helpers).

There were many tribes of Jews in Madinah, its suburbs, Khaybar, and Fadak whose information and scholars constantly notified the Arabs of Madinah of the good tidings of the Holy Prophet's (S) mission. But when these tribes were invited to Islam after the Hijrah, they did not accept this invitation and turned away from Islam. Finally, a non-aggression treaty was signed between the Jews and Muslims with specific terms.

The rapid advancement of Islam seriously annoyed the unbelievers of Makkah and increased their wrath and animosity towards the Holy Prophet (S) and the followers of Islam. They were after a pretext to disrupt the unity of the followers of Islam. On the other hand, the followers of Islam, too, especially the Muhajirin of Makkah who were quite unhappy with the unbelievers, expected a divine permission to punish the cruel unbelievers for their evil deeds and to liberate their women, innocent children, and helpless old people living under persecution and torture in Makkah.

The Battle of Badr

The first battle between the Muslims and the unbelievers of Makkah took place at Badr (a valley between Makkah and Madinah) in the second year of the Hijrah. In this battle, the number of fully equipped unbelievers was about one thousand. The Muslims were about one-third of them and lacked all necessary war equipment, but divine dispensation afforded the Muslims a bright victory and defeated the unbelievers in the worst possible way.

Suffering heavy casualties and many captives and losing their entire stock of equipment in this battle, the mushrikin (polytheists) ran away to Makkah. It is said that in this battle, seventy unbelievers were killed, out of which almost half of them were killed by the sword of 'Ali (as). Also seventy people from the unbelievers were taken as captives.

The Battle of Uhud

In the third year of Hijrah, the unbelievers of Makkah, led by Abu Sufyan again rushed towards Madinah with three thousand men (and according to one narration with five thousand men). They confronted the Muslims at Uhud outside Madinah. In this battle, the Holy Prophet (S) arrayed seven hundred Muslims to face the enemy. In the beginning of the battle, the Muslims had the upper hand again, but after a few hours due to the mistake of some Muslims, the army of Islam was defeated. At this time, the unbelievers attacked from all sides and the Muslims suddenly found themselves surrounded on all sides by the swords of unbelievers.

In this battle, the Muslims sustained heavy losses. Hamzah, the uncle of the Holy Prophet (S), along with seventy other disciples of the Holy Prophet (S) who were mostly Ansarwere martyred. The forehead of the Holy Prophet (S) was wounded and one of his front teeth broke.

One of the unbelievers who inflicted a blow on the Holy Prophet's (S) shoulder shouted: "I killed Muhammad". Hearing this, the army of Islam dispersed.Only 'Ali (as), along with a few men, remained steadfastly near the Holy Prophet (S). All these were killed but 'Ali (as) resisted the enemy until the end of the battle and defended the Holy Prophet (S).

On the last day, those who had fled away from the army of Islam gathered around the Holy Prophet (S) once more and prepared for battle. But the army of Abu Sufyan, however, considered only that much success as enough, stopped fighting, and set out for Madinah.

After travelling a few kilometers, the army of the unbelievers seriously regretted why they had not pursued the battle to final victory and why they had not taken Muslims' women and children as captives, and plundered their properties.

They even got busy with consultation to attack Madinah once again, but received the information that the information that the army of Islam was following them to continue the battle. Having received this information, the unbelievers became intimidated, gave up the idea of returning to Madinah, and hastily set out for Makkah.

Surely what they had heard was true, because the Holy Prophet (S), by the order of Allah, had mobilized an army from the injured who were led by 'Ali (as) to follow the enemy.

Although the Muslims sustained heavy casualties in this battle, in fact, it finished to the advantage of Islam and Muslims. The Muslims drew a more important conclusion out of this battle and experienced the inauspicious consequence of violating the order of the Holy Prophet (S). Having given up the battle, both the confronting sides promised to fight another battle in Badr next year at the same time. The Holy Prophet (S), with a group of his disciples, went to Badr on time, but the unbelievers refrained from coming.

After this battle, the Muslims became very well prepared and made advancement on all sides in the peninsula except in the region of Makkah and Ta'if.

The Battle of Khandaq

This was the third battle declared by the Arab unbelievers against the Holy Prophet (S). It was also the last battle under the leadership of the people of Makkah. It was a very severe battle in which the unbelievers had fully equipped themselves with their forces and powers. In the history, this battle is known as the "Battle of Ahzab" and "Khandaq".

After the battle of Uhud, the leaders of Makkah, led by Abu Sufyan, decided to inflict the final blow upon the Holy Prophet (S) to put off the light of Islam for good. To this end, they instigated the Arab tribes and asked for their cooperation and assistance.

In spite of the non-aggression treaty signed by the Jews and Muslims, the Jewish people also had secretly involved themselves with the plot and violated the treaty and signed a cooperation agreement with the unbelievers.

Thus, in the fifth year of Hijrah, a fully mobilized army comprising of Quraysh, various Arab tribes, and Jewish people rushed to Madinah totally equipped.

Having come to know of the intention of the enemy beforehand, the Holy Prophet (S) consulted his disciples over the matter. After a long discussion, they dug a trench all around the city of Madinah according to the proposal of Salman al-Farisi who was an intimate Companion of the Holy Prophet (S). They then got fortified within the city. After reaching Madinah, the army of the enemy found no way to enter the city. They inevitably besieged the city and started the battle in that position. The siege and battle continued for sometime.

It was in this battle only that ' Amr ibn 'Abdwudd, a most renowned equestrian and a most famous brave man of Arabia, was killed by the powerful hands of 'Ali (as). Finally, as a result of wind, cold, the fatigue of the Arab idolaters from the extended duration of the siege, and the difference and separation between the Jews and Arabs, the siege got broken without any result; thus the army of the unbelievers dispersed from around Madinah.

Battle withThe Jews, The Battle Of Khaybar

After the Battle of Khandaq, originally provoked by the Jews who cooperated with the Arab unbelievers and who had openly breached their treaty with Muslims, the Holy Prophet (S) proceeded to punish the Jewish tribes in Madinah by the order of Allah. He fought several battles, all of which ended in the victory and triumph of Muslims. The most important of these battles was the Battle of Khaybar. The Jews of Khaybar had several fortifications in hand and a considerable number of belligerents with adequate equipment at their disposal.

In this battle, 'Ali (as) killed Marhab of Khaybar, the well-known hero of the Jews, and dispersed the Jewish army. Afterwards, he rushed to the Fort of Khaybar, unhinged its door, and entered the fort along with the army of Islam. He then hoisted the banner of victory on its top. With these very battles which ended in the fifth year of Hijrah, the problem of the Jews of Hijaz came to an end.

InvitingThe Rulers And Kings To Islam

The Holy Prophet (S) settled in Madinah.Gradually, a great number of the Muslims of Makkah, who were under the torture by the unbelievers, relinquished their homes and belongings and migrated to Madinah. Ansar also kept their promise and received them wholeheartedly.

The Holy Prophet (S) constructed Masjid al-Nabi at Madinah. Other mosques were also built. Missionaries of Islam were sent to the outskirts and treaties were signed with Jewish tribes of Madinah and its suburbs and also with some Arab tribes. Thus Islam began to flourish with its enormous luminosity.

In the 6th year of the Hijrah, the Holy Prophet (S) sent letters to the rulers and kings such as the King of Iran, Qaysar (Caesar) of Rome, Khedive of Egypt, and Al-Najashi (Negus) of Ethiopia and invited them to embrace Islam.

After some time, the unbelievers of Makkah breached the treaty and, as a result of this, the Holy Prophet (S) decided to conquer Makkah. In the 8th year of the Hijrah, the Holy Prophet (S) rushed to Makkah with ten thousand soldiers and conquered Makkah without any fighting and bloodshed. He also toppled and broke many idols placed in Ka'bah.

People of Makkah accepted Islam. The Holy Prophet (S) summoned all the leaders of Makkah, who had in the last 20 years shown their animosity and behaved inhumanely with him and his followers, and pardoned them all with utmost magnanimity and without showing the slightest harshness and moroseness.

The Battle of Hunayn

After the conquest of Makkah, the Holy Prophet (S) proceeded to clear out the suburbs of the city and fought numerous battles with the Arab idol-worshippers, one of which was the Battle of Hunayn.

The Battle of Hunayn was one of the most important battles of the Holy Prophet (S). It took place in the valley of Hunayn against the tribe of Hawazin. The army of Islam, with twelve thousand soldiers, arrayed in front of the army of Hawazin which was equipped with a few thousand men. A heavy battle took place between them.

In the beginning of the battle, Hawazin severely defeated the Muslims, so much so that everybody ran away, except Ali (as) who was carrying the banner of Islam and a few others, who fought in front of the Holy Prophet (S). But after a few hours, initially the Ansar and then other Muslims returned to their bases and defeated the enemy after a very heavy fighting. In this battle, five thousand enemies were taken as captives by the Muslims, but all of them were released by the Muslims at the request of the Holy Prophet (S). The Holy Prophet (S) bought the share of thedissatisfied Muslims by paying them money and releasing their captives.

The Battle of Tabuk

In the 9th year of Hijrah, the Holy Prophet (S) dispatched an army to Tabuk (located at the borders of Hijaz and Damascus) to fight a battle with Rome, because the rumors had spread that the Qaysar of Rome was preparing an army comprised of Romans and Arabs in that area. The Battle of Mu'tah was previously fought there with Rome, leading to the martyrdom of the commanders of the army of Islam such as Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, Zayd ibn Harithah, and 'Abdullah ibn Rawahah.

The Holy Prophet (S), with an army of thirty thousand soldiers, proceeded towards Tabuk, but the people gathering there had dispersed before the arrival of the army of Islam. The Holy Prophet (S) stayed in Tabuk for three days, cleared out that territory, and then returned to Madinah.

Other Battles

Within ten years of his stay in Madinah, the Holy Prophet (S) fought almost eighty major and minor battles other than those previously mentioned. The Holy Prophet (S) personally participated in almost one-fourth of the number of these battles.

In the battles in which he participated, unlike other commanders who remained in shelters and only issued the orders for attacks and killing, the Holy Prophet (S) himself took part in the battlefield along with other soldiers, but no occasion arose for him to embark upon killing anyone.

Ghadir Khumm and the Issue of Succession

Makkah was the last city whose conquest led to the absolute domination of Islam over the Arabian Peninsula. It has the Haram (Sacred premises) of Allah and the site of Ka'bah. This city fell in the hands of the army of Islam in the 8th year of Hijrah. Shortly afterwards, the city of Ta'if was also conquered.

In the 10th year of Hijrah, the Holy Prophet (S) set out for Makkah to perform the Hijjatul Wada' (last Hajj). After performing the Hajj manasik (rituals) and giving necessary instructions to the people, the Holy Prophet (S) headed for Madinah. In the course of his journey, he ordered to stop the caravan at a place called "Ghadir (Pond) Khumm."

Among one hundred and twenty thousand Hujjaj (pilgrims) who had gathered for Hajj from all parts of the Arabian Peninsula, the Holy Prophet (S) took 'Ali's hand in his own, lifted him up, and announced his Imamah (succession of Prophet Muhammad [SA]).

By this action, the matter of succession, which controls the affairs of the Muslims, guards the Book and ahadih, and protects the divine instructions and laws, was resolved. Thus the order given by Allah in the following Ayah was executed:

"O Messenger!deliver what has been revealed to you from your Lord; and if you do it not, then you have not delivered His message;...(5:67)"

Shortly, after returning to Madinah, the Holy Prophet (S) passed away.

The Settlement ofThe Holy Prophet (S) In Madinah And The Advancement Of Islam

The invitation of the Holy Prophet (S) to Islam was widely extended in Madinah and it had embraced every home, association, district, and quarter. The people embraced Islam in groups and multitudes in such a way that the people in Makkah, Madinah, and all the tribes in the surrounding areas submitted to Islam. During the ten years of the Holy Prophet's (S) stay in Madinah, absolute domination of Islam established in the entire Arabian Peninsula.

In these ten years, the Holy Prophet (S) was preoccupied with carrying out his mission and never took rest.

He received wahy and taught the people the sublime teachings of Islam concerning education, ethics, and laws revealed to him by the Almighty Allah. The Holy Prophet (S) gave people the necessary advice, answered their questions, discussed and debated with the opponents and scholars of various nations especially those of the Jews, and managed the affairs of the country, thus enabling the people to administer lives.

In spite of all these preoccupations, the Holy Prophet (S) devoted a considerable part of his time for worshipping Allah. He observed Sawm on many days of the year, that is to say, he observed Sawm almost continuously during the three consecutive months of Rajab, Sha'ban, and Ramadhan and also observed Sawm for about a month on different occasions during the year.

Sometimes, the Holy Prophet (S) observed the Sawmul Wisal (continuous fasting) which was one of his special characteristics, i.e., he did not take anything for several consecutive days and nights. He used to spend some of his time in the management of household affairs and necessities of life. Also, at times, he spent his time to earn his subsistence.

The Almighty Allah has briefly mentioned the events of these ten years in His words:

"They desire to put out the light of Allah with their mouths, but Allah will perfect His light, though the unbelievers may beaverse (61:8)"

Allah is the One who has sent His messenger with divine guidance and true religion to the people to make His religion dominant over all other religions and faiths, even if this is unpleasant for the polytheists.

As it is evident, this divine promise had been well realized during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet (S) and after his passing away to the present day when more than one billion Muslims live all over the world.

He also states:

"You are the best of the ummahs (peoples) raised up for (the benefit of) men; you enjoin what is right and forbid the wrong and believe in Allah (3:100)"