The Promised Mahdi (Part One)

The Promised Mahdi (Part One)17%

The Promised Mahdi (Part One) Author:
Translator: Sayyid Akhtar Husain S.H. Rizvi
Publisher: Ja’fari Propagation Centre
Category: Imam al-Mahdi

The Promised Mahdi (Part One) The Promised Mahdi (Part Two)
The Promised Mahdi (Part Two)
  • Start
  • Previous
  • 33 /
  • Next
  • End
  •  
  • Download HTML
  • Download Word
  • Download PDF
  • visits: 26720 / Download: 3508
Size Size Size
The Promised Mahdi (Part One)

The Promised Mahdi (Part One)

Author:
Publisher: Ja’fari Propagation Centre
English

This book is corrected and edited by Al-Hassanain (p) Institue for Islamic Heritage and Thought


English Translation of Biharul Anwar, Volume 13 (Old Edition)/Volumes 51-52-53 (New Edition)


1

2

3

12

Chapter Twelve: Narrations of Imam Musa Kazim (a.s.)

أَبِي عَنْ سَعْدٍ عَنِ الْحَسَنِ بْنِ عِيسَى بْنِ مُحَمَّدِ بْنِ عَلِيِّ بْنِ جَعْفَرٍ عَنْ جَدِّهِ مُحَمَّدٍ عَنْ عَلِيِّ بْنِ جَعْفَرٍ عَنْ أَخِيهِ مُوسَى بْنِ جَعْفَرٍ ع قَالَ إِذَا فُقِدَ الْخَامِسُ مِنْ وُلْدِ السَّابِعِ فَاللَّهَ اللَّهَ فِي أَدْيَانِكُمْ لَا يُزِيلُكُمْ أَحَدٌ عَنْهَا يَا بُنَيَّ إِنَّهُ لَا بُدَّ لِصَاحِبِ هَذَا الْأَمْرِ مِنْ غَيْبَةٍ حَتَّى يَرْجِعَ عَنْ هَذَا الْأَمْرِ مَنْ كَانَ يَقُولُ بِهِ إِنَّمَا هِيَ مِحْنَةٌ مِنَ اللَّهِ عَزَّ وَ جَلَّ امْتَحَنَ بِهَا خَلْقَهُ وَ لَوْ عَلِمَ آبَاؤُكُمْ وَ أَجْدَادُكُمْ دِيناً أَصَحَّ مِنْ هَذَا لَاتَّبَعُوهُ فَقُلْتُ يَا سَيِّدِي مَنِ الْخَامِسُ مِنْ وُلْدِ السَّابِعِ قَالَ يَا بُنَيَّ عُقُولُكُمْ تَصْغُرُ عَنْ هَذَا وَ أَحْلَامُكُمْ تَضِيقُ عَنْ حَمْلِهِ وَ لَكِنْ إِنْ تَعِيشُوا فَسَوْفَ تُدْرِكُونَهُ

1- Ilalush Sharai: Shaykh Saduq has narrated from his father from Saad from Hasan bin Isa bin Muhammad bin Ali bin Ja’far from his grandfather Muhammad from Ali bin Ja’far from his brother, Imam Musa Ibne Ja’far (a.s.) that he said:

“When the fifth from the sons of the seventh disappears, then by Allah, by Allah, watch your religiosity. Do not allow anyone to remove it from you. O my dear son, it is necessary for the Patron of this Enterprise to disappear until many who believe in this matter turn away from it. It will be a trial from Allah, by which He will try His creation. If your fathers and grandfathers knew a creed better than this, they would have followed it.”

I said: “My master, who is the fifth from the sons of the seventh?” He said: “O my son, your intelligence is beneath understanding him and your dreams are narrower than to carry it. However, if you live, you will see him.”

InIkmaaluddin ,Ghaibat Tusi, Ghaibat Nomani andKifayatul Athar this report is narrated through other chains of narrators as well.

2- Ikmaaluddin: Shaykh Saduq has narrated from Hamadani from Ali from his father from Muhammad bin Ziyad Azdi that:

I asked my master Musa Ibne Ja’far (a.s.) about the holy Divine verse:And He has lavished His favors on you, explicit and hidden. He said: “The explicit favor is the manifest Imam and the hidden one is the hidden Imam.” I asked him, “Is there someone in the Imams who will disappear?” He said: “Yes. His person will disappear from the eyes of the people and his remembrance will not disappear from the hearts of the believers. He is the Twelfth of us. Allah will facilitate every difficult task for him and will abase every hardship for him. He will reveal the treasures of the earth for him, proximate every far for him, destroy every tyrant through him and kill the rebellious Satan on his hands.

That is the son of the mistress of the slave girls, whose birth will be hidden from the people, and mentioning him by his name will not be

permissible for them until Allah manifests him and fills the earth through him with equity and justice, as it will be replete with injustice and oppression.” Shaykh Saduq (r.a.) says, “I have not heard this narration from anyone except Ahmad Ibne Ziyad Hamadani on my return from Hajj. He was a trustworthy, religious and a knowledgeable man.­

This report is also mentioned inKifayatul Athar through another chain of narrators.

3- Ikmaaluddin: Shaykh Saduq (r.a.) has quoted from his father from Saad from Khashab from Abbas bin Amir that:

I heard Imam Musa bin Ja’far (a.s.) say, “People will say, the Master of this Affair has not been born yet.”

4- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from Hamadani from Ali bin Ibrahim from Muhammad bin Khalid from Ali bin Hisan from Dawood bin Kathir that he said:

I asked Imam Musa Kazim (a.s.) about the Master of this Affair. He said: “He is the castaway, the loner, away from his home, hidden from his family, the son of an un-avenged father.”

5- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from the father of Shaykh Saduq from Saad from Ibne Isa from Bajali from Muawiyah bin Wahab and Abi Qatadah Ali bin Muhammad from Ali bin Ja’far from his brother, Imam Musa Kazim (a.s.) that:

I asked him, “What is the interpretation of the word of Allah, the Exalted:

قُلْ أَرَأَيْتُمْ إِنْ أَصْبَحَ مَاؤُكُمْ غَوْرًا

“Say, ‘Have you thought? If in the morning your water should have disappeared into the earth, then who would bring you running water?” (Surah Mulk 67:30)

He said: “When you lose your Imam and do not see him, what are you going to do?”

6- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from Hamadani from Ali from his father from Salih bin Sindi from Yunus Ibne Abdur Rahman that: I came to Imam Musa Kazim (a.s.) and asked:

“O son of Allah’s Messenger, are you theQaim bil ­Haqq (The Establisher of the Truth)?” He said: “I am the Qaim bil Haqq, however, the Qaim who will clean the earth from the enemies of Allah and will fill it with equity, as it will be full of injustice, is the fifthfrom my sons.

He will have an occultation the length of which will be much due to his fearfor his life. Many nations will apostatize in that period and the rest will remain steadfast.” Then he said: “Bliss befor Shia, the adherers toour love during the occultation of our Qaim, who will remain steadfast on our adoration and detestation of our enemies. They are ours and we are theirs. They are pleased with us as Imams and we are pleased with them as Shia. Bliss befor them! They are, by Allah, with us inour rank on Judgment Day.”

13

Chapter Thirteen: Narrations of Imam Ali bin Musa Reza (a.s.)

الطَّالَقَانِيُّ عَنِ ابْنِ عُقْدَةَ عَنْ عَلِيِّ بْنِ الْحَسَنِ بْنِ فَضَّالٍ عَنْ أَبِيهِ عَنِ الرِّضَا ع أَنَّهُ قَالَ كَأَنِّي بِالشِّيعَةِ عِنْدَ فَقْدِهِمُ الثَّالِثَ مِنْ وُلْدِي يَطْلُبُونَ الْمَرْعَى فَلَا يَجِدُونَهُ قُلْتُ لَهُ وَ لِمَ ذَلِكَ يَا ابْنَ رَسُولِ اللَّهِ قَالَ لِأَنَّ إِمَامَهُمْ يَغِيبُ عَنْهُمْ فَقُلْتُ وَ لِمَ قَالَ لِئَلَّا يَكُونَ فِي عُنُقِهِ لِأَحَدٍ بَيْعَةٌ إِذَا قَامَ بِالسَّيْفِ

1- Ilalush Sharai and Uyun Akhbar Reza: Shaykh Saduq (r.a.) has narrated from Taliqani from Ibne Uqdah from Ali bin Hasan bin Fadhdhal from his father from Imam Reza (a.s.) that he said:

“As if I can see the Shia when they lose the third from my sons, they will be searching for the green pasture, but will not be finding it.” I said to him, “Why so, O son of Allah’s Messenger?” He said: “Because their Imam will disappear from them.” I asked: “Why?” He said: “So there will not be any pledge of allegiance for anyone over his shoulders when he rises with the sword.”

2- Uyun Akhbar Reza: Saduq (r.a.) has narrated from his father from Himyari from Ahmad bin Hilal from Ibne Mahbub that Imam Reza (a.s.) said:

“Definitely, there will occur the dumb, catastrophic mischief, in which every secret and close relation will be dropped. That will happen when the Shia will miss the third from my sons. The dwellers of the heavens and the earth, and every worthy and merited man, and every contrite and sorrowful person will cry for him.” Then he said: “My parents be the ransom of the namesake of my grandfather and my look-alike and the look-alike of Musa the son of Imran (a.s.). He is appareled in the garments of light, shining with rays of illumination of sanctity. How abundant worthy men of faith and how abundant sorrowful men of belief will be perplexed and grievous at the loss of that crystal spring.

As if I see them when in their utmost despair, they are being called by a call that is heard from faraway as it is heard from the near, a call that is a blessing for the faithful and a curse for the unbelievers.”

3- Ikmaaluddin: A similar narration is mentioned in Ikmaaluddin from Saad from Ja’far Fazari from Ali bin Hasan bin Fadhdhal from Rayyan bin Sult except that in it he says:

“Inhabitants of the earth and the heavens mourn his death.”

The author says: The statement: ‘ He is appareled in the garments of light’ implies that he will shine with divine effulgence.

4- Ikmaaluddin and Uyun Akhbar Reza: It is narrated from Hamadani from Ali from his father from Harawi from Dibil Ibne Ali Khuzai that:

I recited my long poem to my master Imam Ali Ibne Musa Reza (a.s.), the beginning of which is,

Schools of verses empty of recitations

And the House of Revelation horrendously empty

When I reached to my verse:

The rise of an Imam who will definitely rise

And stand by the name of Allah and His blessings

He will make distinction between all rights and wrongs

And will proffer requital for charities and malevolence

Imam Reza (a.s.) cried very profusely and then raised his head and said to me, “O Khuzai, the Blessed Spirit has spoken on your tongues in these two verses. Do you know who this Imam is and when he will rise?” I said: “No, my master, except I have heard that an Imam of yours will rise and clean the earth from mischief and will fill the earth with equity as it will be full of oppression.” He said: “O Dibil, the Imam after me is my son Muhammad; after Muhammad his son Ali; after Ali his son Hasan; and after Hasan his son, Hujjah Qaim, the Awaited one during his occultation, and the one obeyed in his time of appearance.

Even if not more than one day should remain from the world, Allah will prolong that day so much that he will rise and fill the world with equity just as it will be full of injustice.

As for when it will happen, that is to describe its time, and my father has narrated to me through his forefathers through Amirul Momineen (a.s.) that the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w.s.) was asked, ‘O Messenger of Allah, when is the Qaim from your progeny going to rise?’ He said: ‘His example is like the example of the Hour:

لاَ يُجَلِّيهَا لِوَقْتِهَا إِلاَّ هُوَ ثَقُلَتْ فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالأَرْضِ لاَ تَأْتِيكُمْ إِلاَّ بَغْتَةً

“…none but He shall manifest it at its time; it will be momentous in the heavens and the earth; it will not come on you but of a sudden.” (Surah Araaf 7:187)

InKifayatul Athar, a similar traditional report is mentioned on the authority of Abu Salat Harwi.

5- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from Ibne Walid from Saffar from Ibne Yazid from Ayyub Ibne Nuh that:

I said to Imam Reza (a.s.), “We hope that you will be the Patron of this Affair and that may Allah, the Exalted, confer this to you without use of violence. You have been pledged allegiance to and coins have been minted on your name.”

He said: “There is no one of us that letters come and go to him, is asked questions, pointed with fingers, and religious dues taken to, but he will be assassinated or he will die on his bed, until Allah, the Exalted, sends for this Order a man whose birth and place of growth will be hidden and he will not be hidden in his lineage.”

6- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from Attar from his father from Ashari from Muhammad bin Hamadan from his uncle, Ahmad bin Zakariya that:

Imam Reza (a.s.) asked me, “Where is your house in Baghdad?” I said: “At Karkh.” He said: “That is the safest of places. There has to happen the deaf catastrophic mischief in which every secret and close relation will be dropped. That will happen after the Shia will miss the third from my sons.”

7- Ghaibat Nomani: It is narrated from Muhammad bin Hamam from Abdullah bin Ja’far from Yaqtini from Muhammad bin Abi Yaqub Balkhi that:

I heard Imam Reza (a.s.) say, “They will be tested through something that is severer and greater. They will be tested with a fetus in the abdomen of his mother and the suckling baby, until it is said that he has disappeared and that he is dead. They will say, ‘There is no Imam.’ However, even the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w.s.) disappeared, and many others and many others disappeared. And here I am, awaiting a death in the bed.”

The author says: The Holy Prophet (s.a.w.s.) disappeared a number of times like when he stayed in the cave of Hira and three years in Sheb Abu Talib and three days in the Thawr Cave. And he was also concealed from the Meccans on his way from the cave to Medina. And it is possible that His Eminence has used the plural because prophets of Allah had gone into hiding many times but the narrator has quoted the singular as ‘disappearance of the Holy Prophet (s.a.w.s.)’.

8- Ghaibat Nomani: It is narrated from Kulaini from Ali bin Muhammad from some of his associates from Ayyub bin Nuh from Imam Reza (a.s.) that he said:

“When your standard is raised from your behind, then expect the salvation from beneath your feet.”

14

Chapter Fourteen: Narrations of Imam Muhammad Taqi (a.s.)

الدَّقَّاقُ عَنْ مُحَمَّدِ بْنِ هَارُونَ الرُّويَانِيِّ عَنْ عَبْدِ الْعَظِيمِ الْحَسَنِيِّ قَالَ دَخَلْتُ عَلَى سَيِّدِي مُحَمَّدِ بْنِ عَلِيٍّ ع وَ أَنَا أُرِيدُ أَنْ أَسْأَلَهُ عَنِ الْقَائِمِ أَ هُوَ الْمَهْدِيُّ أَوْ غَيْرُهُ فَابْتَدَأَنِي فَقَالَ يَا أَبَا الْقَاسِمِ إِنَّ الْقَائِمَ مِنَّا هُوَ الْمَهْدِيُّ الَّذِي يَجِبُ أَنْ يُنْتَظَرَ فِي غَيْبَتِهِ وَ يُطَاعَ فِي ظُهُورِهِ وَ هُوَ الثَّالِثُ مِنْ وُلْدِي وَ الَّذِي بَعَثَ مُحَمَّداً بِالنُّبُوَّةِ وَ خَصَّنَا بِالْإِمَامَةِ إِنَّهُ لَوْ لَمْ يَبْقَ مِنَ الدُّنْيَا إِلَّا يَوْمٌ وَاحِدٌ لَطَوَّلَ اللَّهُ ذَلِكَ الْيَوْمَ حَتَّى يَخْرُجَ فَيَمْلَأَ الْأَرْضَ قِسْطاً وَ عَدْلًا كَمَا مُلِئَتْ جَوْراً وَ ظُلْماً وَ إِنَّ اللَّهَ تَبَارَكَ وَ تَعَالَى يُصْلِحُ أَمْرَهُ فِي لَيْلَةٍ كَمَا أَصْلَحَ أَمْرَ كَلِيمِهِ مُوسَى ع لِيَقْتَبِسَ لِأَهْلِهِ نَاراً فَرَجَعَ وَ هُوَ رَسُولُ نَبِيٍّ ثُمَّ قَالَ ع أَفْضَلُ أَعْمَالِ شِيعَتِنَا انْتِظَارُ الْفَرَجِ

1- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from Daqqaq from Muhammad bin Harun Rauyani from Abdul Azeem Hasani that:

I came to my master, Imam Muhammad Taqi (a.s.) intending to ask him about the Qaim whether he is the Mahdi or someone else. However, he initiated the topic before I brought it up, saying, “O Abul Qasim, the Qaim is from us and he is the Mahdi. It is obligatory to wait for him in his occultation and to obey him in his appearance. He is the third from my sons. By the One Who sent Muhammad with Prophethood and distinguished us through Imamate, even if it does not remain from the world but a single day, Allah will prolong that day until he rises. He will fill the earth with equity and justice, as it will be replete with injustice and oppression. Allah, the Exalted, will rectify his order in one night, as He rectified the order of His Converser Musa (a.s.) who went to fetch some fire for his family and returned a prophet, an apostle.” Then he said: “The best action of our Shia is to wait for the reappearance.”

2- Ghaibat Nomani: It is narrated from Muhammad bin Hamam from Ahmad bin Mabandad from Ahmad bin Hilal from Umayyah bin Ali Qaisi that he said:

I said to Imam Muhammad Taqi (a.s.), “Who is the Imam after you?” He said: “My son Ali, my son Ali.” Then he lowered his head briefly in contemplation and then raised it and said: “There will be a considerable perplexity.”

I said: “When it happens, to whom we should turn to?” He remained silent. Then he said: “Nowhere,” and repeated it three times. I asked again. He said: “To the cities.” I asked, “Which city?” He said: “This city of ours; and is there a Medina other than this?”

3- Ghaibat Nomani: It is narrated from Muhammad bin Hamam from Abi Abdullah Muhammad bin Hisham from Abu Saad Sahal bin Ziyad from

Abdul Azeem that he heard Abu Ja’far Muhammad Ibne Ali Imam Reza (a.s.) say:

“When my son Ali dies, the light after him will come into view and then disappear. Woe is for the doubter and bliss is for the believer, who will run with his religion for refuge. Then after that there will be events in which forelocks would go grey and times will be very severe.”

4- Kifayatul Athar: It is narrated from Abu Abdullah Khuzai from Asadi from Sahal from Abdul Azeem Hasani that: I said to Imam Muhammad Taqi (a.s.):

“I hope that you would be the Qaim from Ahle Bayt (a.s.), who will fill the earth with equity and justice as it will be replete with injustice and oppression.” He said: “O Abul Qasim, there is no one of us but he is a Qaim with the order of Allah and guide to the religion of Allah.

However, I am not the Qaim through whom Allah will cleanse the earth from men of infidelity and rejection, and will fill it with equity and justice. He is the one whose birth will be hidden from the people and whose person will disappear from them and it will be unlawful to mention him by his name. He is the namesake of the Messenger of Allah and will bear his patronymic. He is the one for whom the earth will roll and every difficult task will be facilitated. His companions, equal to the three hundred and thirteen fighters of Badr, will gather around him from distant locations of the earth. To this the word of Allah refers:

أَيْنَ مَا تَكُونُواْ يَأْتِ بِكُمُ اللّهُ جَمِيعًا إِنَّ اللّهَ عَلَى كُلِّ شَيْءٍ قَدِيرٌ

“…wherever you are, Allah will bring you all together, surely Allah has power over all things.” (Surah Baqarah 2:148)

When this number of people of the earth will unite for him, his command will appear. When the covenant, which is ten thousand people, fulfills for him, he will rise with the permission of Allah. He will continue to kill the enemies of Allah until Allah, the High, will be happy from him.”

I asked, “My master, how would he know that Allah is pleased with him?” He said: “Allah will cast compassion in his heart. “

5- Kifayatul Athar: It is narrated from Muhammad bin Ali from Ibne Abdus from Qutaibah from Hamadan bin Sulaiman from Saqar Ibne Abi Dalf that:

I heard Imam Muhammad Taqi (a.s.) say, “The Imam after me is my son, Ali. His command is my command, his word my word, obedience to him is obedience to me. The Imam after him is his son Hasan. His command is his father’s command, his word is his father’s word, and obedience to him is obedience to his father.” Then he became silent. I asked: “O son of Allah’s Messenger, who is the Imam after Hasan?” He cried very profusely and then said: “After Hasan is his son Qaim bil Haqq, the Awaited.” I said to him, “O son of Allah’s Messenger, why is he called Qaim?” He said: “Because he will rise after the death of his remembrance and apostasy of the majority of the believers in his Imamate.” I said: “Why is he called the Awaited?” He said: “He will have an occultation the days of which will be many and the duration of which will be long. The sincere will wait his uprise and the

doubters will reject him and rejecters will mock at him. A person who will assign a time will lie, a person who will hurry will perish, and the one who will submit will be saved.”

6- Kifayatul Athar: It is narrated from Ali bin Muhammad Sindi from Muhammad bin Hasan from Himyari from Ahmad bin Hilal from Umayyah bin Ali Qaisi that he said:

I said to Imam Taqi (a.s.): “Who is the heir after you?” He replied: “My son, Ali.” Then he said: “Behold there will be a perplexity.” I said: “To where shall we turn then?” He remained quiet and then said: “To Medina.” I asked: “Which Medina?” He said: “This Medina of ours, and is there a Medina other than this?”

7- Ahmad bin Hilal says: Muhammad bin Ismail bin Bazi’ narrated to me that Umayyah bin Ali came and asked Imam Taqi (a.s.) the same question, to which he gave the same answer.

8- From the same chains it is narrated from Imam Muhammad Taqi (a.s.) that he said: “When three names, Muhammad, Ali and Hasan, come consecutively, their fourth one will be their Qaim.”

15

Chapter Fifteen: Narrations of Imam Ali Naqi (a.s.) and Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.)

أَبِي وَ ابْنُ الْوَلِيدِ عَنْ سَعْدٍ عَنْ مُحَمَّدِ بْنِ أَحْمَدَ الْعَلَوِيِّ عَنْ أَبِي هَاشِمٍ الْجَعْفَرِيِّ قَالَ سَمِعْتُ أَبَا الْحَسَنِ صَاحِبَ الْعَسْكَرِ ع يَقُولُ الْخَلَفُ مِنْ بَعْدِي ابْنِيَ الْحَسَنُ فَكَيْفَ لَكُمْ بِالْخَلَفِ مِنْ بَعْدِ الْخَلَفِ فَقُلْتُ وَ لِمَ جَعَلَنِيَ اللَّهُ فِدَاكَ فَقَالَ لِأَنَّكُمْ لَا تَرَوْنَ شَخْصَهُ وَ لَا يَحِلُّ لَكُمْ ذِكْرُهُ بِاسْمِهِ قُلْتُ فَكَيْفَ نَذْكُرُهُ‏ قَالَ قُولُوا الْحُجَّةُ مِنْ آلِ مُحَمَّدٍ ص

1- Uyun Akhbar Reza and Ikmaaluddin: Shaykh Saduq (r.a.) has narrated from his father and Ibne Walid from Saad from Muhammad bin Ahmad Alawi from Abi Hashim Ja’fari that he said:

I heard Abul Hasan of the Askar (a.s.) say, “My successor after me is my son, Hasan. How would you be like to the heir after the heir?” “Why, may I be your ransom?” I asked. He said: “Because you will not see his person and it will not be permissible for you to mention him by his name.” I asked him, “So how are we going to mention him?” He said: “Say, Hujjah (proof) from Aale Muhammad (a.s.).”

2- Ikmaaluddin: Shaykh Saduq (r.a.) has narrated from his father from Himyari from Muhammad bin Umar or Imran Katib from Ali bin Muhammad Saymoori from Ali bin Mahziyar that he said:

I wrote to Imam Hadi (a.s.) asking him about the relief (Faraj ). He replied: “When your Patron will disappear from the abode of oppressors, expect the relief.”

3- Ikmaaluddin: Shaykh Saduq (r.a.) has narrated from his father and Ibne Walid together from Saad from Khashab from Ishaq bin Ayyub that he said:

I heard Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) say, “The Master of this Affair is the one about whom people will say he is not born yet.”

4- Ikmaaluddin: Shaykh Saduq (r.a.) has narrated from his father from Saad from Muhammad bin Ubaidullah bin Abi Ghanim from Ibrahim bin Muhammad bin Faris that he said:

I and Ayyub bin Nuh were on the way to Mecca. We disembarked at the valley of Zabala and sat down talking. We ended up discussing our current situation and the lack of access to the Imam. Ayyub bin Nuh said: “I wrote this year, mentioning some of these things. He wrote back to me, ‘When your standard is raised from your backs, expect the relief from beneath your feet.”

The author says: “expect the relief from the beneath of your feet,” is an allusion that the reappearance will be very soon.

5- Ikmaaluddin: Hamadani has narrated from Ali from his father from Ali bin Sadaqah from Ali Ibne Abdul Ghaftar that:

When Imam Ali Naqi (a.s.) passed away, the Shia wrote to Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) asking him about the position of Imamate. He wrote to them, “The position is mine so long as I am alive. When the measures of Allah, the High, catch me, my heir will come to you. And how would you be like to the heir after the heir?”

6- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from Attar from Saad from Musa bin Ja’far Baghdadi that he said:

I heard Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) say, “As if I see you, you have disputed after me with regard to my heir.

Behold, someone who professes faith in the Imams after the Prophet of Allah yet denies my son, is like someone who professes faith in all prophets and apostles of Allah and then rejects the Prophethood of Muhammad the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w.s.); and the denier of the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w.s.) is like one who rejects all the prophets. Because obedience to our last one is obedience to our first one and rejecter of our last one is the rejecter of our first one. Behold, my son will have an occultation in which people will doubt, except the ones Allah saves.”

7- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from Taliqani from Ali bin Hamam that he said:

I heard Muhammad bin Uthman Amari, (a.s.) say, I heard my father say, Abu Muhammad Hasan Ibne Ali (a.s.) was asked, while I was with him, about the tradition narrated from his forefathers, peace be unto them, that the earth does not remain without the Hujjah of Allah over His creation until Judgment Day and that if anyone who dies without the cognition of the Imam of his Age, he dies a pagan death. He said: “This is true as the daylight is true.” It was said: “O son of Allah’s Messenger, who is the Hujjah and the Imam after you?” He said: “My son MHMD. And he is the Imam and the Hujjah after me. Whoever dies not knowing him, will die a pagan death. Behold, he will have an occultation during which the ignorant individuals will be perplexed and the invalidators will perish and the time-assigners will lie. Then he will rise. As if I am gazing at the white standards waving over his head in the Najaf of Kufa.”

8- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from Ali bin Abdullah Warraq from Saad from Musa Ibne Ja’far Baghdadi that he said:

A letter came from Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) which stated, “They presumed that they want to murder me in order to cut off my progeny. Allah belied their word, and all praise is due to Allah.”

9- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from Muzaffar Alawi from Ibne Ayyashi from his father from Ahmad bin Ali bin Kulthum from Ali bin Ahmad Raazi from Ahmad Ibne Ishaq that he said:

I heard Abu Muhammad Hasan Ibne Ali Askari (a.s.) say, “All praise is due to Allah, the One Who did not take me from the world until He showed

me the heir after me, the one who of all people looks most similar to the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w.s.) in his physique and in his character. May Allah, the High, protect him in his occultation and then manifest him, so he may fill the earth with equity and justice as it will be full of injustice and oppression.”

10- Ghaibat Tusi: It is narrated from Saad bin Abdullah from Hasan bin Ali Zaituni from Zuhri Kufi from Banan bin Hamdawayh that he said:

The passing away of Imam Ali Naqi (a.s.) was mentioned before Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.). He said: “That is so long as I am alive and remaining. However, how would it be like when they miss the one after me?”

11- Ghaibat Tusi: It is narrated from Abu Hashim Ja’fari that he said:

I said to Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.), “Your majesty prohibits me from asking you, would that you give me permission to inquire from you?” He said: “Ask.” I said: “O my master, do you have a son?” He said: “Yes.” I said: “If something happens, then where should I inquire about him?” He said: “In Medina.”

12- Ghaibat Tusi: It is narrated from a group from Abi Mufaddal Shaibani from Abu Naeem Nasr bin Isaam bin Mughira Fahri alias Qarqaara from Abu Saeed Muraghi from Ahmad bin Ishaq Qummi that:

He asked Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) about the Master of this Affair, in reply to which the Imam made a gesture, meaning he is alive and his neck has hardened.

13- Kifayatul Athar: It is narrated from Abu Mufaddal Shaibani from Kulaini from Allaan Razi that he said:

One of our scholars narrated to me that when the concubine of Abu Muhammad was pregnant, he said to her, “You will give birth to a boy. His name is MHMD and he is the Qaim after me.”

14- Ikmaaluddin: It is narrated from Attar from his father from Ja’far Fazari from Muhammad bin Ahmad Madaini from Abu Hatim that he said:

I heard Abu Muhammad Hasan Ibne Ali (a.s.) say, “In the year two hundred and sixty my Shia will go asunder.” In that year Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) passed away and his Shia and supporters went different ways. Some of them followed Ja’far; some of them went astray and were seized by doubts; some of them remained on their perplexity; and some of them remained steadfast on their religion through the help of God, the Exalted.

15- Al-Kharaij: Qutub Rawandi has narrated from Ali bin Ibrahim from his father, Isa Ibne Sabih that he said:

Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) entered upon me in the prison. I knew him. He said to me, “You are sixty five years and one month and two days old.” There was a book of supplication with me, which had my birth date. I looked and it was as he had said. He asked, “Do you have a son?” I said: “No.” He said: “O Allah, give him a son so he may be his forearm. Good a

forearm is a son!” Then he said:A person with an arm avenges his oppression. Desolate is the one who does not have an arm.

I asked, “Do you have a son?” He said: “By Allah, soon I will have a son who will fill the earth with equity. But now, no.” Then he versified as follows:

Perchance, you will see me one day

As I will be with my many sons around me, because before Tamim sired a nation,

He lived a long while amidst the people as he was one man.

16

Chapter Sixteen: Prophecies of Soothsayers engraved on rocks

Prediction of Satih the soothsayer before reappearance

Bursa has narrated from Kaab bin Harith in hisMashariqul Anwaar , that King Dhazdan had an inquiry for which he summoned Satih the soothsayer and when he came the king placed a Dinar in his shoe below the foot and then asked him to enter. When Satih entered, he asked:

“O Satih, tell me what I have concealed and where have I concealed it?”

Satih replied, “I swear by the Kaaba, the black stone and the dark night that you have concealed a Dinar below your foot.”

“You are right,” said the king, “from where have you learnt this?”

“From a brother of mine,” replied Satih.

“Tell me what all would come to pass in the future?”

“When the righteous will be destroyed and the vile would take up leadership and values will become false and people incline to wealth and power; when breaking off relations and cruelty will be common and the mean will be prominent; when the unlawful will be considered legal; promises will be broken; no one will care for anyone; and it will be at a time when a tail like comet will appear which will terrify the Arabs. Rains will stop, water bodies will dry up, different types of storms will rage. Food grains will become dearer.

After that some people will come from the direction of Berbers riding on beautiful ponies and their destination will be Egypt. After that a person will rise from the descendants of Saqar. He will make the black flags red (by blood). He will legalize unlawful acts; wreak havoc in Kufa; shame will disappear; most women will be seen displaying their fair legs on the streets; fornication will become common.

At that time, Mahdi, a descendant of the Prophet will appear. When a victim will be killed in Medina and his cousin will be eliminated in Mecca. A secret will be exposed. At that time an unfortunate fellow will come with his oppressive group and the Romans will help in the killing of that bull. An eclipse will occur at that time when the armies will be arrayed.

Then a ruler of Sana (Yemen) will appear. He will be as white as cotton and he will be named Husain or Hasan. His advent will put an end to mischiefs. At that time will appear the holy personality and the Alawite Sayyid and he will save the people from calamities and guide them by the help of the Almighty Allah. His luminosity will remove the darkness of ignorance and oppression and the truth will be unveiled. He will distribute wealth among the people equitably. He will place the sword back into its case and then never shed any blood. People will live a life of prosperity and comfort and he will establish justice and peace in the world and restore the rights of the oppressed and deprived. There will be celebrations everywhere. Due to his justice, blindness and ignorance will disappear. He will fill the earth with justice and equity. He will doubtlessly be a sign of Judgment Day.

Ibne Ayyash has narrated through his chains from Nushjan bin Budmaran in hisAl-Muqtadhib that:

When Fars was defeated in Qadisiya and Yazdgird bin Shahryar came to know that Rustom was killed and defeated by the Arabs he thought that the whole army was killed with Rustom; meanwhile a messenger arrived with the news that 50000 soldiers were killed at Qadisiya. Yazdgird fled with his family members and standing at the Gate of Aiwan said:

O Aiwan, peace be on you; I am leaving you now, but I will return soon; and if I am unable to return a person from my descendants will come whose time had not yet arrived.

Sulaiman Dailami has say: I came to Imam Ja’far Sadiq (a.s.) and inquired about the above narration. He replied: It denotes your Imam Qaim who will be my sixth descendant and he will be a descendant of Yazdgird from the maternal side.

Abdullah bin Qasim has narrated from Abi Islam Qaji from Abdullah bin Muslim from Shobi that once Abdul Malik bin Marwan summoned him and said: O Abu Umar, a letter has come from Musa bin Nasr, governor of the western province, which says that there was a city of yellow skinned people which Prophet Sulaiman (a.s.) had constructed with the help of jinns. It is located in Andalusia desert. Prophet Sulaiman (a.s.) had buried treasures in that area. I have decided to march there but a slave has informed me that the route is long and difficult and as long as provisions are not there for the whole journey, it is difficult to go there. So far whoever has tried to reach there has failed. Only Dara bin Dara had managed to reach there. But when Alexander killed Dara he said: Except from that part of Andalusia there is no land which I have not conquered and annexed. If Dara can reach there I am more eligible to go there.

So Alexander made preparations for a year; and when he was sure that everything was ready, before that he dispatched some of his scouts to explore the route but they came back to report that there were many obstructions on the way.

Abdul Malik wrote to Musa bin Nasr that he should appoint someone as his representative and prepare to leave for that place.

So Musa made the preparations and set out for that place. He reached there and after returning from there he wrote to Abdul Malik the conditions prevailing there and wrote that when many days passed and all the provisions were exhausted, we turned to the sea shore which was full of trees and finally reached a wall on which the following verses were inscribed:

“Those who possess unlimited power, and they think that they will live in the world forever; they should know that no one will live in the world forever. If someone had lived forever; who was more powerful than Sulaiman bin Dawood (a.s.)? He should have lived forever. He commanded the jinns to make a building for himself that would last till Judgment Day. So that building was constructed adjacent to those walls and there he buried all the treasures of the world; but they sunk into the ground and no sign remained of his kingdom. It was so because that he may know that except for the kingdom of Allah no ones kingdom will endure forever. Now when

in the progeny of Adnan, from the family of Bani Hashim, a person will be born whom the Almighty Allah will give miracles and send to all the people of the world. He will have the keys of all the world. And then those keys will remain with his successors and they are his twelve caliphs who will come after him and when from those caliphs the one who will rise with the order of Allah (Qaim bi Amrillah ) his name will be announced from the sky.

When Abdul Malik read this letter and the messenger, Talib bin Mudrik also narrated the eye-witness account, at that time Muhammad bin Shahab Zuhri was seated with Abdul Malik. He asked Zuhri: “What is your opinion about this strange matter?”

Zuhri said: “In my view, jinns are guarding that place.”

“And what do you think about the call of the sky?”

“Chief of believer, its better if you don’t ask about it.”

“How can I ignore it? It is a great news. You will have to tell me about it in any case.”

“His Eminence, Ali Ibnul Husain (a.s.) has said that the call will be issued for one of the descendants of Fatima, daughter of the Prophet (s.a.).”

“He and you, are both liars, boasting all the time! He will be from my family.”

“I have only narrated a tradition of Ali Ibnul Husain (a.s.) to you; if you don’t believe me you can ask him directly and don’t blame me for lying. He alone is the source of this report.”

Abdul Malik said, “I have no need to question the descendants of Abu Turab (Imam Ali). But O Zuhri, never repeat this to anyone else.”

“All right, I will do as you say,” said I.

PART I: THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SHI'ISM

CHAPTER I THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF SHI'ISM

Shi'ism began with a reference made for the first time to the partisans of Ali (shi'ah-i ' Ali), the first leader of the Household of the Prophet, during the lifetime of the Prophet himself. The course of the first manifestation and the later growth of Islam during the twenty-three years of prophecy brought about many conditions which necessitated the appearance of a group such as the Shi'ites among the companions of the Prophet.

The Holy Prophet during the first days of his prophecy, when according to the text of the Quran he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to his religion, told them clearly that whoever would be the first to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Ali was the first to step forth and embrace Islam. The Prophet accepted Ali's submission to the faith and thus fulfilled his promise.

From the Shi'ite point of view it appears as unlikely that the leader of a movement, during the first days of his activity, should introduce to strangers one of his associates as his successor and deputy but not introduce him to his completely loyal and devout aides and friends. Nor does it appear likely that such a leader should accept someone as his deputy and successor and introduce him to others as such, but then throughout his life and religious call deprive his deputy of his duties as deputy, disregard the respect due to his position as successor, and refuse to make any distinctions between him and others.

The Prophet, according to many unquestioned and completely authenticated hadiths, both Sunni and Shi'ite, clearly asserted that Ali was preserved from error and sin in his actions and sayings. Whatever he said and did was in perfect conformity with the teachings of religion and he was the most knowledgeable of men in matters pertaining to the Islamic sciences and injunctions.

During the period of prophecy Ali performed valuable services and made remarkable sacrifices. When the infidels of Mecca decided to kill the Prophet and surrounded his house, the Holy Prophet decided toemigrate to Medina. He said to Ali, "Will you sleep in my bed at night so that they will think that I am asleep and I will be secure from being pursued by them?" Ali accepted this dangerous assignment with open arms. This has been recounted in different histories and collections of hadith. (The emigration from Mecca to Medina marks the date of origin of the Islamic calendar, known as the hijrah.) Ali also served by fighting in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khaybar, Khandaq, and Hunayn in which the victories achieved with his aid were such that if Ali had not been present the enemy would most likely have uprooted Islam and the Muslims, as is recounted in the usual histories, lives of the Prophet, and collections of hadith.

For Shi'ites, the central evidence of Ali's legitimacy as successor to the Prophet is the event of Ghadir Khumm when the Prophet chose Ali to the "general guardianship" (walayat-i 'ammah) of the people and made Ali, like himself, their "guardian" (wali).

It is obvious that because of such distinctive services and recognition, because of Ali's special virtues which were acclaimed by all, and because of the great love the Prophet showed for him, some of the companions of the Prophet who knew Ali well, and who were champions of virtue and truth, came to love him. They assembled around Ali and followed him to such an extent that many others began to consider their love for him excessive and a few perhaps also became jealous of him. Besides all these elements, we see in many sayings of the Prophet reference to the "shi'ah of Ali" and the "shi'ah of the Household of the Prophet."

The Cause of the Separation of the Shi'ite Minority from the Sunni Majority

The friends and followers of Ali believed that after death of the Prophet the caliphate and religious authority (marja'iyat-i 'ilmi) belonged to Ali. This belief came from their consideration of Ali's position and station in relation to the Prophet, his relation to the chosen among the companions, as well as his relation to Muslims in general. It was only the events that occurred during the few days of the Prophet's final illness that indicated that there was opposition to their view. Contrary to their expectation, at the very moment when the Prophet died and his body lay still unburied, while his household and a few companions were occupied with providing for his burial and funeral service, the friends and followers of Ali received news of the activity of another group who had gone to the mosque where the community was gathered faced with this sudden loss of their leader. This group, which was later to form the majority, set forth in great haste to select a caliph for the Muslims with the aim of ensuring the welfare of the community and solving its immediate problems. They did this without consulting the Household of the Prophet, his relatives or many of his friends, who were busy with the funeral, and without providing them with the least information. Thus Ali and his companions were presented with a fait accompli.

Ali and his friends - such as 'Abbas, Zubayr, Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad and 'Ammar - after finishing with the burial of the body of the Prophet became aware of the proceedings by which the caliph had been selected. They protested against the act of choosing the caliph by consultation or election, and also against those who were responsible for carrying it out. They even presented their own proofs and arguments, but the answer they received was that the welfare of the Muslims was at stake and the solution lay in what had been done.

It was this protest and criticism which separated from the majority the minority that were following Ali and made his followers known to society as the "partisans" or "shi'ah" of Ali. The caliphate of the time was anxious to guard against this appellation being given to the Shi'ite minority and thus to have Muslim society divided into sections comprised of a majority and a minority. The supporters of the caliph considered the caliphate to be a matter of the consensus of the community (ijma') and called those who objected the "opponents of allegiance." They claimed that the Shi'ah stood, therefore, opposed to Muslim society. Sometimes the Shi'ahwere given other pejorative and degrading names.

Shi'ism was condemned from the first moment because of the political situation of the time and thus it could not accomplish anything through mere political protest. Ali, in order to safeguard the well-being of Islam and of the Muslims, and also because of lack of sufficient political and military power, did not endeavor to begin an uprising against the existing political order, which would have been of a bloody nature. Yet those who protested against the established caliphate refused to surrender to the majority in certain questions of faith and continued to hold that the succession to the Prophet and religious authority belonged by right to Ali. They believed that all spiritual and religious matters should be referred to him and invited people to become his followers.

The Two Problems of Succession and Authority in Religious Sciences

In accordance with the Islamic teachings which form its basis, Shi'ism believed that the most important question facing Islamic society was the elucidation and clarification of Islamic teachings and the tenets of the religious sciences. Only after such clarifications were made could the application of these teachings to the social order be considered. In other words, Shi'ism believed that, before all else, members of society should be able to gain a true vision of the world and of men based on the real nature of things. Only then could they know and perform their duties as human beings - in which lay their real welfare - even if the performance of these religious duties were to be against their desires. After carrying out this first step a religious government should preserve and execute real Islamic order in society in such a way that man would worship none other than God, would possess personal and social freedom to the extent possible, and would benefit from true personal and social justice.

These two ends could be accomplished only by a person who was inerrant and protected by God from having faults. Otherwise people could become rulers or religious authorities who would not be free from the possibility of distortion of thought or the committing of treachery in the duties placed upon their shoulders. Were this to happen, the just and freedom-giving rule of Islam could gradually be converted to dictatorial rule and a completely autocratic government. Moreover, the pure religious teachings could become, as can be seen in the case of certain other religions, the victims of change and distortion in the hands of selfish scholars given to the satisfaction of their carnal desires. As confirmed by the Holy Prophet, Ali followed perfectly and completely the Book of God and the tradition of the Prophet in both words and deeds. As Shi'ism sees it, if, as the majority say, only the Quraysh opposed the rightful caliphate of Ali, then that majority should have answered the Quraysh by asserting what was right. They should have quelled all opposition to the right cause in the same way that they fought against the group who refused to pay the religious tax (zakat). The majority should not have remained indifferent to what was right for fear of the opposition of the Quraysh.

What prevented the Shi'ah from accepting the elective method of choosing the caliphate by the people was the fear of the unwholesome consequences that might result from it: fear of possible corruption in Islamic government and of the destruction of the solid basis for the sublime religioussciences. As it happened, later events in Islamic history confirmed this fear (or prediction), with the result that the Shi'ites became ever firmer in their belief. During the earliest years, however, because of the small number of its followers, Shi'ism appeared outwardly to have been absorbed into the majority, although privately it continued to insist on acquiring the Islamic sciences from the Household of the Prophet and to invite people to its cause. At the same time, in order to preserve the power of Islam and safeguard its progress, Shi'ism did not display any open opposition to the rest of Islamic society. Members of the Shi'ite community even fought hand in hand with the Sunni majority in holy wars (jihad) and participated in public affairs. Ali himself guided the Sunni majority in the interest of the whole Islam whenever such action was necessary.

The Political Method of the Selection of the Caliph by Vote and Its Disagreement with the Shi'ite View

Shi'ism believes that the Divine Law of Islam (Shari'ah), whose substance is found in the Book of God and in the tradition (Sunnah) of the Holy Prophet, will remain valid to the Day of Judgment and can never, nor will ever, be altered. A government which is really Islamic cannot under any pretext refuse completely to carry out the Shari'ah's injunctions. The only duty of an Islamic government is to make decisions by consultation within the limits set by the Shari'ah and in accordance with the demands of the moment.

The vow of allegiance to Abu Bakr at Saqifah, which was motivated at least in part by political considerations, and the incident described in the hadith of "ink and paper," which occurred during the last days of the illness of the Holy Prophet, reveal the fact that those who directed and backed the movement to choose the caliph through the process of election believed that the Book of God should be preserved in the form of a constitution. They emphasized the Holy Book and paid much less attention to the words of the Holy Prophet as an immutable source of the teachings of Islam. They seem to have accepted the modification of certain aspects of Islamic teachings concerning government to suit the conditions of the moment and for the sake of the general welfare.

This tendency to emphasize only certain principles of the Divine Law is confirmed by many sayings that were later transmitted concerning the companions of the Holy Prophet. For example, the companions were considered to be independent authorities in matters of the Divine Law (mujtahid), being able to exercise independent judgment (ijtihad) in public affairs. It was also believed that if they succeeded in their task they would be rewarded by God and if they failed they would be forgiven by Him since they were among the companions. This view was widely held during the early years following the death of the Holy Prophet. Shi'ism takes a stricter stand and believes that the actions of the companions, as of all other Muslims, should be judged strictly according to the teachings of the Shari'ah. For example, there was the complicated incident involving the famous general Khalid ibn Walid in the house of one of the prominent Muslims of the day, Malik ibn Nuwajrah, which led to the death of the latter. The fact that Khalid was not at all taken to task for this incident because of his being an outstanding military leader shows in the eyes of Shi'ism an undue lenience toward some of the actions of the companions which were below the norm of perfect piety and righteousness set by the actions of the spiritual elite among the companions.

Another practice of the early years which is criticized by Shi'ism is the cutting off of the khums from the members of the Household of the Prophet and from the Holy Prophet's relatives. Likewise, because of the emphasis laid by Shi'ism on the sayings and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet it is difficult for it to understand why the writing down of the text of hadith was completely banned and why, if a written hadith were found, it would be burned. We know that this ban continued through the caliphate of the khulafa' rashidun into the Umayyad period and did not cease until the period of Umar ibn 'Abd al- 'Aziz, who ruled from A.H. 99/A.D. 717 TO A.H. 101/A.D. 719.

During the period of the second caliph (13/634-25/644) there was a continuation of the policy of emphasizing certain aspects of the Shari'ah and of putting aside some of the practices which the Shi'ites believe the Holy Prophet taught and practiced. Some practices were forbidden, some were omitted, and some were added. For instance, the pilgrimage of tamattu ' (a kind of pilgrimage in which the 'umrah ceremony is utilized in place of the hajj ceremony) was banned by Umar during his caliphate, with the decree that transgressors would be stoned; this in spite of the fact that during his final pilgrimage the Holy Prophet - peace be upon him - instituted, as in Quran, Surah II, 196, a special form for the pilgrimage ceremonies that might be performed by pilgrims coming from far away. Also, during the lifetime of the Prophet of God temporary marriage (mut'ah) was practiced, but Umar forbade it. And even though during the life of the Holy Prophet it was the practice to recite in the call to prayers, "Hurry to the best act" (hayya 'ala khayr el-'amal), Umar ordered that it be omitted because he said it would prevent people from participating in holy war, jihad. (It is still recited in the Shi'ite call to prayers, but not in the Sunni call.) There were also additions to the Shari'ah: during the time of the Prophet a divorce was valid only if the three declarations of divorce ("I divorce thee") were made on three different occasions, but Umar allowed the triple divorce declaration to be made at one time. Heavy penalties were imposed on those who broke certain of these new regulations, such as stoning in the case of mut'ah marriage.

It was also during the period of the rule of the second caliph that new social and economic forces led to the uneven distribution of the public treasury (bayt al-mal) among the people, an act which was alter the cause of bewildering class differences and rightful and bloody struggles among Muslims. At this time Mu'awiyah was ruling in Damascus in the style of the Persian and Byzantine kings and was even given the title of the "Khusraw of the Arabs" (a Persian title of the highest imperial power), but no serious protest was made against him for his worldly type of rule.

The second caliph was killed by a Persian slave in 25/644. In accordance with the majority vote of a six-man council which assembled by order of the second caliph before his death, the third caliph was chosen. The third caliph did not prevent his Umayyad relatives from becoming dominant over the people during his caliphate and appointed some of them as rulers in the Hijaz, Iraq, Egypt, and other Muslim lands. These relatives began to be lax in applying moral principles in government. Some of them openly, committed injustice and tyranny, sin and iniquity, and broke certain of the tenets of firmly established Islamic laws.

Before long, streams of protest began to flow toward the capital. But the caliph, who was under the influence of his relatives - particularly Marwan ibn Hakam - did not act promptly or decisively to remove the causes against which the people were protesting. Sometimes it even happened that those who protested were punished and driven away.

An incident that happened in Egypt illustrates the nature of the rule of the third caliph. A group of Muslims in Egypt rebelled against Uthman. Uthman sensed the dander and asked Ali for help, expressing his feeling of contrition. Ali told the Egyptians, "You have revolted in order to bring justice and truth to life. Uthman has repented saying, 'I shall change my ways and in three days will fulfill your wishes. I shall expel the oppressive rulers from their posts.'" Ali then wrote an agreement with them on behalf of Uthman and they started home. On the way they saw the slave of Uthman riding on his camel in the direction of Egypt. They became suspicious of him and searched him. On him they found a letter for the governor of Egypt containing the following words: "In the name of God. When 'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Addis comes to you beat him with a hundred lashes, shave his head and beard and condemn him to long imprisonment. Do the same in the case of 'Amr ibn al'Hamq, Suda ibn Hamran, and 'Urwah ibn Niba '." The Egyptians took the letter and returned with anger to Uthman, saying, "You have betrayed us!" Uthman denied the letter. They said, "Your slave was the carrier of the letter." He answered, "He has committed this act without my permission and knowledge." They said, "The letter is in the handwriting of your secretary." He replied, "This has been done without my permission and knowledge." They said, "In any case you are not competent to be caliph and must resign, for if this has been done with your permission you are a traitor and if such important matters take place without your permission and knowledge then your incapability and incompetence is proven. In any case, either resign or dismiss the oppressive agents from office immediately." Uthman answered, "If I wish to act according to your will, then it is you who are the rulers. Then, what is my function?" They stood up and left the gathering in anger.

During his caliphate Uthman allowed the government of Damascus, at the head of which stood Mu'awiyah, to be strengthened more than ever before. In reality, the center of gravity of the caliphate as far as political power was concerned was shifting to Damascus and the organization in Medina, the capital of the Islamic world, was politically no more than a form without the necessary power and substance to support it. Finally, in the year 35/656, the people rebelled and after a few days of siege and fighting the third caliph was killed.

The first caliph was selected through the vote of the majority of the companions, the second caliph by the will and testament of the first, and the third by a six-man council whose members and rules of procedure were organized and determined by the second caliph. Altogether, the policy of these three caliphs, who were in power for twenty-five years, was to execute and apply Islamic laws and principles in society in accordance with ijtihad and what appeared most wise at the time to the caliphs themselves. As for the Islamic sciences, the policy of these caliphs was to have the Holy Quran read and understood without being concerned with commentaries upon it or allowing it to become the subject of discussion. The hadith of the Prophet was recited and was transmitted orally without being written down. Writing was limited to the text of the Holy Quran and was forbidden in the case of hadith.

After the battle of Yamamah which ended in 12/633, many of those who had been reciters of the Holy Quran and who knew it by heart were killed. As a result Umar ibn al-Khattab proposed to the first caliph to have the verses of the Holy Quran collected in written form, saying that if another war were to occur and the rest of those who knew the Quran by heart were to be killed, the knowledge of the text of the Holy Book would disappear among men. Therefore, it was necessary to assemble the Quranic verses in written form.

From the Shi'ite point of view it appears strange that this decision was made concerning the Quran and yet despite the fact that the prophetic hadith, which is the complement of the Quran, was faced with the same danger and was not free from corruption in transmission, addition, diminution, forgery and forgetfulness, the same attention was not paid to it. On the contrary, as already mentioned, writing it down was forbidden and all of the written versions of it that were found were burned, as if to emphasize that only the text of the Holy Book should exist in written form.

As for the other Islamic sciences, during this period little effort was made to propagate them, the energies of the community being spent mostly in establishing the new sociopolitical order. Despite all the praise and consecration which are found in the Quran concerning knowledge ('ilm), and the emphasis placed upon its cultivation, the avid cultivation of the religious sciences was postponed to a later period of Islamic history.

Most men were occupied with the remarkable and continuous victories of the Islamic armies, and were carried away by the flood of immeasurable booty which came from all directions toward the Arabianpeninsula . With this new wealth and the worldliness which came along with it, few were willing to devote themselves to the cultivation of the sciences of the Household of the Prophet, at whose head stood Ali, whom the Holy Prophet had introduced to the people as the one most versed in the Islamic sciences. At the same time, the inner meaning and purpose of the teachings of the Holy Quran were neglected by most of those who were affected by this change. It is strange that, even in the matter of collecting the verses of the Holy Quran, Ali was not consulted and his mane was not mentioned among those who participated in this task, although it was known by everyone that he had collected the text of the Holy Quran after the death of the Prophet.

It has been recounted in many traditions that after receiving allegiance from the community, Abu Bakr sent someone to Ali and asked for his allegiance. Ali said, "I have promised not to leave my house except for the daily prayers until I compile the Quran." And it has been mentioned that Ali gave his allegiance to Abu Bakr after six months. Thisitself is proof that Ali had finished compiling the Quran. Likewise, it has been recounted that after compiling the Quran he placed the pages of the Holy Book on a camel and showed it to the people. It is also recounted that the battle of Yamamah after which the Quran was compiled, occurred during the second year of the caliphate of Abu Bakr. These facts have been mentioned in most works on history and hadith which deal with the account of the compilation of the Holy Quran.

These and similar events made the followers of Ali more firm in their belief and more conscious of the course that lay before them. They increased their activity from day to day and Ali himself, who was cut off from the possibility of educating and training the people in general, concentrated on privately training an elite.

During this twenty-five year period Ali lost through death three of his four dearest friends and associates, who were also among the companions of the Prophet: Salman al-Farsi, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, and Miqdad. They had been constant in their friendship with him in all circumstances. It was also during this same period that some of the other companions of the Holy Prophet and a large number of their followers in the Hijaz, the Yemen, Iraq, and other lands, joined the followers of Ali. As a result, after the death of the third caliph the people turned to Ali from all sides, swore allegiance to him and chose him as caliph.

The Termination of the Caliphate of 'Ali Amir al-mu'minin and His Method of Rule

The caliphate of Ali began toward the end of the year 35/656 and lasted about four years and nine months. During his period as caliph Ali followed the ways of the Holy Prophet and brought conditions back to their original state. He forced the resignation of all the incompetent political elementswho had a hand in directing affairs and began in reality a major transformation of a "revolutionary" nature which caused him innumerable difficulties.

On his first day as caliph, in an address to the people, Ali said, "O People, be aware that the difficulties which you faced during the apostolic period of the Prophet of God have come upon you once again and seized you. Your ranks must be turned completely around so that the people of virtue who have fallen behind should come forward and those who had come to the fore without being worthy should fall behind. There is both truth (haqq) and falsehood (batil). Each has its followers; but a person should follow the truth. If falsehood be prevalent it is not something new, and if the truth is rare and hard to come by, sometimes even that which is rare wins the day so that there is hope of advance. Of course it does not occur often that something which has turned away from man should return to him."

Ali continued his radically different type of government based more on righteousness than political efficacy but, as is necessary in the case of every movement of this kind, elements of the opposition whose interests were endangered began to display their displeasure and resisted his rule. Basing their actions on the claim that they wanted to revenge the death of Uthman, they instigated bloody wars which continued throughout almost all the time that Ali was caliph. From the Shi'ite point of view those who caused these civil wars had no end in mind other than their own personal interest. The wish to revenge the blood of the third caliph was no more than an excuse to fool the crowd. There was no question of a misunderstanding.

After the death of the Holy Prophet, a small minority, following Ali, refused to pay allegiance. At the head of the minority there were Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad, and Ammar. At the beginning of the caliphate of Ali also a sizable minority in disagreement refused to pay allegiance. Among the most persistent opponents were Sa'id ibn 'Ass, Walid ibn 'Uqbah, Marwan ibn Hakam, 'Amr ibn 'Ass, Busr ibn Artat, Samurah ibn Jundab, and Mughirah ibn Shu'bah.

The study of the biography of these two groups, and meditation upon the acts they have performed and stories recounted of them in history books, reveal fully their religious personality and aim. The firstgroup were among the elite of the companions of the Holy Prophet and among the ascetics, devout worshipers and selfless devotees of Islam who struggled on the path of Islamic freedom. They were especially loved by the Prophet. The Prophet said, "God has informed me that He loves four men and that I should love them also." They asked about their names. He mentioned Ali and then the names of Abu Dharr, Salman and Miqdad.(Sunan of Ibn Majah, Cairo, 1372, vol. I, p. 66.) 'A'ishah has recounted that the Prophet of God said, "If two alternatives are placed before Ammar, he will definitely choose that which ismore true and right."(Ibn Majah, vol. I, p. 66.) The Prophet said, "There is no one between heaven and earth more truthful than Abu Dharr."(Ibn Majah, vol. I, p. 68.) There is no record of a single forbidden act committed by these men during their lifetime. They never spilled any blood unjustly, did not commit aggression against anyone, did not steal anyone's property, never sought to corrupt and misguide people.

History is, however, full of accounts of unworthy acts committed by some of the second group. The various acts committed by some of these men in opposition to explicit Islamic teachings are beyond reckoning. These acts cannot be excused in any manner except the way that is followed by certain groups among the Sunnis who say that God was satisfied with them and therefore they were free to perform whatever act they wished, and that they would not be punished for violating the injunctions and regulations existing in the Holy Book and the Sunnah.

The first war in the caliphate of Ali, which is called the "Battle of the Camel," was caused by the unfortunate class differences created during the period of rule of the second caliph as a result of the new socioeconomic forces which caused an uneven distribution of the public treasury among members of the community. When chosen to the caliphate, Ali divided the treasury evenly as had been the method of the Holy Prophet, but this manner of dividing the wealth upset Talhah and Zubayr greatly. They began to show signs of disobedience and left Medina for Mecca with the alleged aim of making the pilgrimage. They persuaded "the mother of the Faithful" (umm al-mu'minin), A'ishah, who was not friendly with Ali, to join them and in the name of wanting to revenge the death of the third caliph they began the bloody Battle of the Camel. This was done despite the fact that this same Talhah and Zubayr were in Medina when the third caliph was besieged and killed but did nothing to defend him. Furthermore, after his death they were the first to pay allegiance to Ali on behalf of the immigrants (muhajirun) as well as on their own. Also, the "mother of the Faithful," A'ishah, did not show any opposition to those who had killed the third caliph at the moment when she received the news of his death. It must be remembered that the main investigators of the disturbances that led to the death of the third caliph were those companions who wrote letters from Medina to people near and far inviting them to rebel against the caliph, a fact which is repeated in many early Muslim histories.

As for the second war, called the Battle of Siffin, which lasted for a year and a half, its cause was the covetousness of Mu'awiyah for the caliphate which for him was a worldly political instrument rather than a religious institution. But as an excuse he made the revenge of the blood of the third caliph the main issue and began a war in which more than a hundred thousand people perished without reason. Naturally, in these wars Mu'awiyah was the aggressor rather than the defender, for the protest to revenge someone's blood can never occur in the form of defense. The pretext of this war was blood revenge. During the last days of his life, the third caliph, in order to quell the uprising against him, asked Mu'awiyah for help, but the army of Mu'awiyah which set out from Damascus to Medina purposely waited on the road until the caliph was killed. Then he returned to Damascus to begin an uprising to revenge the caliph's death. After the death of Ali and his gaining the caliphate himself, Mu'awiyah forgot the question of revenging the blood of the third caliph and did not pursue the matter further.

After Siffin there occurred the battle of Nahrawan in which a number people, among whom there could be found some of the companions, rebelled against Ali, possibly at the instigation of Mu'awiyah. These people were causing rebellion throughout the lands of Islam, killing the Muslims and especially the followers of Ali. They even attacked pregnant women and killed their babies. Ali put down this uprising as well, but a short while later washimself killed in the mosque of Kufa by one of the members of this group who came to be known as the Khawarij.

The opponents of Ali claim that he was a courageous man but did not possess political acumen. They claim that at the beginning of his caliphate he could have temporarily made peace with his opponents. He could have approached them through peace and friendship, thus courting their satisfaction and approval. In this way he could have strengthened his caliphate and only then turned to their extirpation and destruction. What people who hold this view forgot is that the movement of Ali was not based on political opportunism. It was a radical and revolutionary religious movement (in the true sense of revolution as a spiritual movement to reestablish the real order of things and not in its current political and social sense); therefore it could not have been accomplished through compromise or flattery and forgery. A similar situation can be seen during the apostleship of the Holy Prophet. The infidels and polytheists proposed peace to him many times and swore that if he were to abstain from protesting against their gods they would not interfere with his religious mission. But the Prophet did not accept such a proposal, although he could in those days of difficulty have made peace and used flattery to fortify his own position, and then have risen against his enemies. In fact, the Islamic message never allows a right and just cause,nor a falsehood to be rejected and disproven through another falsehood. There are many Quranic verses concerning this matter.

PART I: THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SHI'ISM

CHAPTER I THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF SHI'ISM

Shi'ism began with a reference made for the first time to the partisans of Ali (shi'ah-i ' Ali), the first leader of the Household of the Prophet, during the lifetime of the Prophet himself. The course of the first manifestation and the later growth of Islam during the twenty-three years of prophecy brought about many conditions which necessitated the appearance of a group such as the Shi'ites among the companions of the Prophet.

The Holy Prophet during the first days of his prophecy, when according to the text of the Quran he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to his religion, told them clearly that whoever would be the first to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Ali was the first to step forth and embrace Islam. The Prophet accepted Ali's submission to the faith and thus fulfilled his promise.

From the Shi'ite point of view it appears as unlikely that the leader of a movement, during the first days of his activity, should introduce to strangers one of his associates as his successor and deputy but not introduce him to his completely loyal and devout aides and friends. Nor does it appear likely that such a leader should accept someone as his deputy and successor and introduce him to others as such, but then throughout his life and religious call deprive his deputy of his duties as deputy, disregard the respect due to his position as successor, and refuse to make any distinctions between him and others.

The Prophet, according to many unquestioned and completely authenticated hadiths, both Sunni and Shi'ite, clearly asserted that Ali was preserved from error and sin in his actions and sayings. Whatever he said and did was in perfect conformity with the teachings of religion and he was the most knowledgeable of men in matters pertaining to the Islamic sciences and injunctions.

During the period of prophecy Ali performed valuable services and made remarkable sacrifices. When the infidels of Mecca decided to kill the Prophet and surrounded his house, the Holy Prophet decided toemigrate to Medina. He said to Ali, "Will you sleep in my bed at night so that they will think that I am asleep and I will be secure from being pursued by them?" Ali accepted this dangerous assignment with open arms. This has been recounted in different histories and collections of hadith. (The emigration from Mecca to Medina marks the date of origin of the Islamic calendar, known as the hijrah.) Ali also served by fighting in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khaybar, Khandaq, and Hunayn in which the victories achieved with his aid were such that if Ali had not been present the enemy would most likely have uprooted Islam and the Muslims, as is recounted in the usual histories, lives of the Prophet, and collections of hadith.

For Shi'ites, the central evidence of Ali's legitimacy as successor to the Prophet is the event of Ghadir Khumm when the Prophet chose Ali to the "general guardianship" (walayat-i 'ammah) of the people and made Ali, like himself, their "guardian" (wali).

It is obvious that because of such distinctive services and recognition, because of Ali's special virtues which were acclaimed by all, and because of the great love the Prophet showed for him, some of the companions of the Prophet who knew Ali well, and who were champions of virtue and truth, came to love him. They assembled around Ali and followed him to such an extent that many others began to consider their love for him excessive and a few perhaps also became jealous of him. Besides all these elements, we see in many sayings of the Prophet reference to the "shi'ah of Ali" and the "shi'ah of the Household of the Prophet."

The Cause of the Separation of the Shi'ite Minority from the Sunni Majority

The friends and followers of Ali believed that after death of the Prophet the caliphate and religious authority (marja'iyat-i 'ilmi) belonged to Ali. This belief came from their consideration of Ali's position and station in relation to the Prophet, his relation to the chosen among the companions, as well as his relation to Muslims in general. It was only the events that occurred during the few days of the Prophet's final illness that indicated that there was opposition to their view. Contrary to their expectation, at the very moment when the Prophet died and his body lay still unburied, while his household and a few companions were occupied with providing for his burial and funeral service, the friends and followers of Ali received news of the activity of another group who had gone to the mosque where the community was gathered faced with this sudden loss of their leader. This group, which was later to form the majority, set forth in great haste to select a caliph for the Muslims with the aim of ensuring the welfare of the community and solving its immediate problems. They did this without consulting the Household of the Prophet, his relatives or many of his friends, who were busy with the funeral, and without providing them with the least information. Thus Ali and his companions were presented with a fait accompli.

Ali and his friends - such as 'Abbas, Zubayr, Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad and 'Ammar - after finishing with the burial of the body of the Prophet became aware of the proceedings by which the caliph had been selected. They protested against the act of choosing the caliph by consultation or election, and also against those who were responsible for carrying it out. They even presented their own proofs and arguments, but the answer they received was that the welfare of the Muslims was at stake and the solution lay in what had been done.

It was this protest and criticism which separated from the majority the minority that were following Ali and made his followers known to society as the "partisans" or "shi'ah" of Ali. The caliphate of the time was anxious to guard against this appellation being given to the Shi'ite minority and thus to have Muslim society divided into sections comprised of a majority and a minority. The supporters of the caliph considered the caliphate to be a matter of the consensus of the community (ijma') and called those who objected the "opponents of allegiance." They claimed that the Shi'ah stood, therefore, opposed to Muslim society. Sometimes the Shi'ahwere given other pejorative and degrading names.

Shi'ism was condemned from the first moment because of the political situation of the time and thus it could not accomplish anything through mere political protest. Ali, in order to safeguard the well-being of Islam and of the Muslims, and also because of lack of sufficient political and military power, did not endeavor to begin an uprising against the existing political order, which would have been of a bloody nature. Yet those who protested against the established caliphate refused to surrender to the majority in certain questions of faith and continued to hold that the succession to the Prophet and religious authority belonged by right to Ali. They believed that all spiritual and religious matters should be referred to him and invited people to become his followers.

The Two Problems of Succession and Authority in Religious Sciences

In accordance with the Islamic teachings which form its basis, Shi'ism believed that the most important question facing Islamic society was the elucidation and clarification of Islamic teachings and the tenets of the religious sciences. Only after such clarifications were made could the application of these teachings to the social order be considered. In other words, Shi'ism believed that, before all else, members of society should be able to gain a true vision of the world and of men based on the real nature of things. Only then could they know and perform their duties as human beings - in which lay their real welfare - even if the performance of these religious duties were to be against their desires. After carrying out this first step a religious government should preserve and execute real Islamic order in society in such a way that man would worship none other than God, would possess personal and social freedom to the extent possible, and would benefit from true personal and social justice.

These two ends could be accomplished only by a person who was inerrant and protected by God from having faults. Otherwise people could become rulers or religious authorities who would not be free from the possibility of distortion of thought or the committing of treachery in the duties placed upon their shoulders. Were this to happen, the just and freedom-giving rule of Islam could gradually be converted to dictatorial rule and a completely autocratic government. Moreover, the pure religious teachings could become, as can be seen in the case of certain other religions, the victims of change and distortion in the hands of selfish scholars given to the satisfaction of their carnal desires. As confirmed by the Holy Prophet, Ali followed perfectly and completely the Book of God and the tradition of the Prophet in both words and deeds. As Shi'ism sees it, if, as the majority say, only the Quraysh opposed the rightful caliphate of Ali, then that majority should have answered the Quraysh by asserting what was right. They should have quelled all opposition to the right cause in the same way that they fought against the group who refused to pay the religious tax (zakat). The majority should not have remained indifferent to what was right for fear of the opposition of the Quraysh.

What prevented the Shi'ah from accepting the elective method of choosing the caliphate by the people was the fear of the unwholesome consequences that might result from it: fear of possible corruption in Islamic government and of the destruction of the solid basis for the sublime religioussciences. As it happened, later events in Islamic history confirmed this fear (or prediction), with the result that the Shi'ites became ever firmer in their belief. During the earliest years, however, because of the small number of its followers, Shi'ism appeared outwardly to have been absorbed into the majority, although privately it continued to insist on acquiring the Islamic sciences from the Household of the Prophet and to invite people to its cause. At the same time, in order to preserve the power of Islam and safeguard its progress, Shi'ism did not display any open opposition to the rest of Islamic society. Members of the Shi'ite community even fought hand in hand with the Sunni majority in holy wars (jihad) and participated in public affairs. Ali himself guided the Sunni majority in the interest of the whole Islam whenever such action was necessary.

The Political Method of the Selection of the Caliph by Vote and Its Disagreement with the Shi'ite View

Shi'ism believes that the Divine Law of Islam (Shari'ah), whose substance is found in the Book of God and in the tradition (Sunnah) of the Holy Prophet, will remain valid to the Day of Judgment and can never, nor will ever, be altered. A government which is really Islamic cannot under any pretext refuse completely to carry out the Shari'ah's injunctions. The only duty of an Islamic government is to make decisions by consultation within the limits set by the Shari'ah and in accordance with the demands of the moment.

The vow of allegiance to Abu Bakr at Saqifah, which was motivated at least in part by political considerations, and the incident described in the hadith of "ink and paper," which occurred during the last days of the illness of the Holy Prophet, reveal the fact that those who directed and backed the movement to choose the caliph through the process of election believed that the Book of God should be preserved in the form of a constitution. They emphasized the Holy Book and paid much less attention to the words of the Holy Prophet as an immutable source of the teachings of Islam. They seem to have accepted the modification of certain aspects of Islamic teachings concerning government to suit the conditions of the moment and for the sake of the general welfare.

This tendency to emphasize only certain principles of the Divine Law is confirmed by many sayings that were later transmitted concerning the companions of the Holy Prophet. For example, the companions were considered to be independent authorities in matters of the Divine Law (mujtahid), being able to exercise independent judgment (ijtihad) in public affairs. It was also believed that if they succeeded in their task they would be rewarded by God and if they failed they would be forgiven by Him since they were among the companions. This view was widely held during the early years following the death of the Holy Prophet. Shi'ism takes a stricter stand and believes that the actions of the companions, as of all other Muslims, should be judged strictly according to the teachings of the Shari'ah. For example, there was the complicated incident involving the famous general Khalid ibn Walid in the house of one of the prominent Muslims of the day, Malik ibn Nuwajrah, which led to the death of the latter. The fact that Khalid was not at all taken to task for this incident because of his being an outstanding military leader shows in the eyes of Shi'ism an undue lenience toward some of the actions of the companions which were below the norm of perfect piety and righteousness set by the actions of the spiritual elite among the companions.

Another practice of the early years which is criticized by Shi'ism is the cutting off of the khums from the members of the Household of the Prophet and from the Holy Prophet's relatives. Likewise, because of the emphasis laid by Shi'ism on the sayings and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet it is difficult for it to understand why the writing down of the text of hadith was completely banned and why, if a written hadith were found, it would be burned. We know that this ban continued through the caliphate of the khulafa' rashidun into the Umayyad period and did not cease until the period of Umar ibn 'Abd al- 'Aziz, who ruled from A.H. 99/A.D. 717 TO A.H. 101/A.D. 719.

During the period of the second caliph (13/634-25/644) there was a continuation of the policy of emphasizing certain aspects of the Shari'ah and of putting aside some of the practices which the Shi'ites believe the Holy Prophet taught and practiced. Some practices were forbidden, some were omitted, and some were added. For instance, the pilgrimage of tamattu ' (a kind of pilgrimage in which the 'umrah ceremony is utilized in place of the hajj ceremony) was banned by Umar during his caliphate, with the decree that transgressors would be stoned; this in spite of the fact that during his final pilgrimage the Holy Prophet - peace be upon him - instituted, as in Quran, Surah II, 196, a special form for the pilgrimage ceremonies that might be performed by pilgrims coming from far away. Also, during the lifetime of the Prophet of God temporary marriage (mut'ah) was practiced, but Umar forbade it. And even though during the life of the Holy Prophet it was the practice to recite in the call to prayers, "Hurry to the best act" (hayya 'ala khayr el-'amal), Umar ordered that it be omitted because he said it would prevent people from participating in holy war, jihad. (It is still recited in the Shi'ite call to prayers, but not in the Sunni call.) There were also additions to the Shari'ah: during the time of the Prophet a divorce was valid only if the three declarations of divorce ("I divorce thee") were made on three different occasions, but Umar allowed the triple divorce declaration to be made at one time. Heavy penalties were imposed on those who broke certain of these new regulations, such as stoning in the case of mut'ah marriage.

It was also during the period of the rule of the second caliph that new social and economic forces led to the uneven distribution of the public treasury (bayt al-mal) among the people, an act which was alter the cause of bewildering class differences and rightful and bloody struggles among Muslims. At this time Mu'awiyah was ruling in Damascus in the style of the Persian and Byzantine kings and was even given the title of the "Khusraw of the Arabs" (a Persian title of the highest imperial power), but no serious protest was made against him for his worldly type of rule.

The second caliph was killed by a Persian slave in 25/644. In accordance with the majority vote of a six-man council which assembled by order of the second caliph before his death, the third caliph was chosen. The third caliph did not prevent his Umayyad relatives from becoming dominant over the people during his caliphate and appointed some of them as rulers in the Hijaz, Iraq, Egypt, and other Muslim lands. These relatives began to be lax in applying moral principles in government. Some of them openly, committed injustice and tyranny, sin and iniquity, and broke certain of the tenets of firmly established Islamic laws.

Before long, streams of protest began to flow toward the capital. But the caliph, who was under the influence of his relatives - particularly Marwan ibn Hakam - did not act promptly or decisively to remove the causes against which the people were protesting. Sometimes it even happened that those who protested were punished and driven away.

An incident that happened in Egypt illustrates the nature of the rule of the third caliph. A group of Muslims in Egypt rebelled against Uthman. Uthman sensed the dander and asked Ali for help, expressing his feeling of contrition. Ali told the Egyptians, "You have revolted in order to bring justice and truth to life. Uthman has repented saying, 'I shall change my ways and in three days will fulfill your wishes. I shall expel the oppressive rulers from their posts.'" Ali then wrote an agreement with them on behalf of Uthman and they started home. On the way they saw the slave of Uthman riding on his camel in the direction of Egypt. They became suspicious of him and searched him. On him they found a letter for the governor of Egypt containing the following words: "In the name of God. When 'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Addis comes to you beat him with a hundred lashes, shave his head and beard and condemn him to long imprisonment. Do the same in the case of 'Amr ibn al'Hamq, Suda ibn Hamran, and 'Urwah ibn Niba '." The Egyptians took the letter and returned with anger to Uthman, saying, "You have betrayed us!" Uthman denied the letter. They said, "Your slave was the carrier of the letter." He answered, "He has committed this act without my permission and knowledge." They said, "The letter is in the handwriting of your secretary." He replied, "This has been done without my permission and knowledge." They said, "In any case you are not competent to be caliph and must resign, for if this has been done with your permission you are a traitor and if such important matters take place without your permission and knowledge then your incapability and incompetence is proven. In any case, either resign or dismiss the oppressive agents from office immediately." Uthman answered, "If I wish to act according to your will, then it is you who are the rulers. Then, what is my function?" They stood up and left the gathering in anger.

During his caliphate Uthman allowed the government of Damascus, at the head of which stood Mu'awiyah, to be strengthened more than ever before. In reality, the center of gravity of the caliphate as far as political power was concerned was shifting to Damascus and the organization in Medina, the capital of the Islamic world, was politically no more than a form without the necessary power and substance to support it. Finally, in the year 35/656, the people rebelled and after a few days of siege and fighting the third caliph was killed.

The first caliph was selected through the vote of the majority of the companions, the second caliph by the will and testament of the first, and the third by a six-man council whose members and rules of procedure were organized and determined by the second caliph. Altogether, the policy of these three caliphs, who were in power for twenty-five years, was to execute and apply Islamic laws and principles in society in accordance with ijtihad and what appeared most wise at the time to the caliphs themselves. As for the Islamic sciences, the policy of these caliphs was to have the Holy Quran read and understood without being concerned with commentaries upon it or allowing it to become the subject of discussion. The hadith of the Prophet was recited and was transmitted orally without being written down. Writing was limited to the text of the Holy Quran and was forbidden in the case of hadith.

After the battle of Yamamah which ended in 12/633, many of those who had been reciters of the Holy Quran and who knew it by heart were killed. As a result Umar ibn al-Khattab proposed to the first caliph to have the verses of the Holy Quran collected in written form, saying that if another war were to occur and the rest of those who knew the Quran by heart were to be killed, the knowledge of the text of the Holy Book would disappear among men. Therefore, it was necessary to assemble the Quranic verses in written form.

From the Shi'ite point of view it appears strange that this decision was made concerning the Quran and yet despite the fact that the prophetic hadith, which is the complement of the Quran, was faced with the same danger and was not free from corruption in transmission, addition, diminution, forgery and forgetfulness, the same attention was not paid to it. On the contrary, as already mentioned, writing it down was forbidden and all of the written versions of it that were found were burned, as if to emphasize that only the text of the Holy Book should exist in written form.

As for the other Islamic sciences, during this period little effort was made to propagate them, the energies of the community being spent mostly in establishing the new sociopolitical order. Despite all the praise and consecration which are found in the Quran concerning knowledge ('ilm), and the emphasis placed upon its cultivation, the avid cultivation of the religious sciences was postponed to a later period of Islamic history.

Most men were occupied with the remarkable and continuous victories of the Islamic armies, and were carried away by the flood of immeasurable booty which came from all directions toward the Arabianpeninsula . With this new wealth and the worldliness which came along with it, few were willing to devote themselves to the cultivation of the sciences of the Household of the Prophet, at whose head stood Ali, whom the Holy Prophet had introduced to the people as the one most versed in the Islamic sciences. At the same time, the inner meaning and purpose of the teachings of the Holy Quran were neglected by most of those who were affected by this change. It is strange that, even in the matter of collecting the verses of the Holy Quran, Ali was not consulted and his mane was not mentioned among those who participated in this task, although it was known by everyone that he had collected the text of the Holy Quran after the death of the Prophet.

It has been recounted in many traditions that after receiving allegiance from the community, Abu Bakr sent someone to Ali and asked for his allegiance. Ali said, "I have promised not to leave my house except for the daily prayers until I compile the Quran." And it has been mentioned that Ali gave his allegiance to Abu Bakr after six months. Thisitself is proof that Ali had finished compiling the Quran. Likewise, it has been recounted that after compiling the Quran he placed the pages of the Holy Book on a camel and showed it to the people. It is also recounted that the battle of Yamamah after which the Quran was compiled, occurred during the second year of the caliphate of Abu Bakr. These facts have been mentioned in most works on history and hadith which deal with the account of the compilation of the Holy Quran.

These and similar events made the followers of Ali more firm in their belief and more conscious of the course that lay before them. They increased their activity from day to day and Ali himself, who was cut off from the possibility of educating and training the people in general, concentrated on privately training an elite.

During this twenty-five year period Ali lost through death three of his four dearest friends and associates, who were also among the companions of the Prophet: Salman al-Farsi, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, and Miqdad. They had been constant in their friendship with him in all circumstances. It was also during this same period that some of the other companions of the Holy Prophet and a large number of their followers in the Hijaz, the Yemen, Iraq, and other lands, joined the followers of Ali. As a result, after the death of the third caliph the people turned to Ali from all sides, swore allegiance to him and chose him as caliph.

The Termination of the Caliphate of 'Ali Amir al-mu'minin and His Method of Rule

The caliphate of Ali began toward the end of the year 35/656 and lasted about four years and nine months. During his period as caliph Ali followed the ways of the Holy Prophet and brought conditions back to their original state. He forced the resignation of all the incompetent political elementswho had a hand in directing affairs and began in reality a major transformation of a "revolutionary" nature which caused him innumerable difficulties.

On his first day as caliph, in an address to the people, Ali said, "O People, be aware that the difficulties which you faced during the apostolic period of the Prophet of God have come upon you once again and seized you. Your ranks must be turned completely around so that the people of virtue who have fallen behind should come forward and those who had come to the fore without being worthy should fall behind. There is both truth (haqq) and falsehood (batil). Each has its followers; but a person should follow the truth. If falsehood be prevalent it is not something new, and if the truth is rare and hard to come by, sometimes even that which is rare wins the day so that there is hope of advance. Of course it does not occur often that something which has turned away from man should return to him."

Ali continued his radically different type of government based more on righteousness than political efficacy but, as is necessary in the case of every movement of this kind, elements of the opposition whose interests were endangered began to display their displeasure and resisted his rule. Basing their actions on the claim that they wanted to revenge the death of Uthman, they instigated bloody wars which continued throughout almost all the time that Ali was caliph. From the Shi'ite point of view those who caused these civil wars had no end in mind other than their own personal interest. The wish to revenge the blood of the third caliph was no more than an excuse to fool the crowd. There was no question of a misunderstanding.

After the death of the Holy Prophet, a small minority, following Ali, refused to pay allegiance. At the head of the minority there were Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad, and Ammar. At the beginning of the caliphate of Ali also a sizable minority in disagreement refused to pay allegiance. Among the most persistent opponents were Sa'id ibn 'Ass, Walid ibn 'Uqbah, Marwan ibn Hakam, 'Amr ibn 'Ass, Busr ibn Artat, Samurah ibn Jundab, and Mughirah ibn Shu'bah.

The study of the biography of these two groups, and meditation upon the acts they have performed and stories recounted of them in history books, reveal fully their religious personality and aim. The firstgroup were among the elite of the companions of the Holy Prophet and among the ascetics, devout worshipers and selfless devotees of Islam who struggled on the path of Islamic freedom. They were especially loved by the Prophet. The Prophet said, "God has informed me that He loves four men and that I should love them also." They asked about their names. He mentioned Ali and then the names of Abu Dharr, Salman and Miqdad.(Sunan of Ibn Majah, Cairo, 1372, vol. I, p. 66.) 'A'ishah has recounted that the Prophet of God said, "If two alternatives are placed before Ammar, he will definitely choose that which ismore true and right."(Ibn Majah, vol. I, p. 66.) The Prophet said, "There is no one between heaven and earth more truthful than Abu Dharr."(Ibn Majah, vol. I, p. 68.) There is no record of a single forbidden act committed by these men during their lifetime. They never spilled any blood unjustly, did not commit aggression against anyone, did not steal anyone's property, never sought to corrupt and misguide people.

History is, however, full of accounts of unworthy acts committed by some of the second group. The various acts committed by some of these men in opposition to explicit Islamic teachings are beyond reckoning. These acts cannot be excused in any manner except the way that is followed by certain groups among the Sunnis who say that God was satisfied with them and therefore they were free to perform whatever act they wished, and that they would not be punished for violating the injunctions and regulations existing in the Holy Book and the Sunnah.

The first war in the caliphate of Ali, which is called the "Battle of the Camel," was caused by the unfortunate class differences created during the period of rule of the second caliph as a result of the new socioeconomic forces which caused an uneven distribution of the public treasury among members of the community. When chosen to the caliphate, Ali divided the treasury evenly as had been the method of the Holy Prophet, but this manner of dividing the wealth upset Talhah and Zubayr greatly. They began to show signs of disobedience and left Medina for Mecca with the alleged aim of making the pilgrimage. They persuaded "the mother of the Faithful" (umm al-mu'minin), A'ishah, who was not friendly with Ali, to join them and in the name of wanting to revenge the death of the third caliph they began the bloody Battle of the Camel. This was done despite the fact that this same Talhah and Zubayr were in Medina when the third caliph was besieged and killed but did nothing to defend him. Furthermore, after his death they were the first to pay allegiance to Ali on behalf of the immigrants (muhajirun) as well as on their own. Also, the "mother of the Faithful," A'ishah, did not show any opposition to those who had killed the third caliph at the moment when she received the news of his death. It must be remembered that the main investigators of the disturbances that led to the death of the third caliph were those companions who wrote letters from Medina to people near and far inviting them to rebel against the caliph, a fact which is repeated in many early Muslim histories.

As for the second war, called the Battle of Siffin, which lasted for a year and a half, its cause was the covetousness of Mu'awiyah for the caliphate which for him was a worldly political instrument rather than a religious institution. But as an excuse he made the revenge of the blood of the third caliph the main issue and began a war in which more than a hundred thousand people perished without reason. Naturally, in these wars Mu'awiyah was the aggressor rather than the defender, for the protest to revenge someone's blood can never occur in the form of defense. The pretext of this war was blood revenge. During the last days of his life, the third caliph, in order to quell the uprising against him, asked Mu'awiyah for help, but the army of Mu'awiyah which set out from Damascus to Medina purposely waited on the road until the caliph was killed. Then he returned to Damascus to begin an uprising to revenge the caliph's death. After the death of Ali and his gaining the caliphate himself, Mu'awiyah forgot the question of revenging the blood of the third caliph and did not pursue the matter further.

After Siffin there occurred the battle of Nahrawan in which a number people, among whom there could be found some of the companions, rebelled against Ali, possibly at the instigation of Mu'awiyah. These people were causing rebellion throughout the lands of Islam, killing the Muslims and especially the followers of Ali. They even attacked pregnant women and killed their babies. Ali put down this uprising as well, but a short while later washimself killed in the mosque of Kufa by one of the members of this group who came to be known as the Khawarij.

The opponents of Ali claim that he was a courageous man but did not possess political acumen. They claim that at the beginning of his caliphate he could have temporarily made peace with his opponents. He could have approached them through peace and friendship, thus courting their satisfaction and approval. In this way he could have strengthened his caliphate and only then turned to their extirpation and destruction. What people who hold this view forgot is that the movement of Ali was not based on political opportunism. It was a radical and revolutionary religious movement (in the true sense of revolution as a spiritual movement to reestablish the real order of things and not in its current political and social sense); therefore it could not have been accomplished through compromise or flattery and forgery. A similar situation can be seen during the apostleship of the Holy Prophet. The infidels and polytheists proposed peace to him many times and swore that if he were to abstain from protesting against their gods they would not interfere with his religious mission. But the Prophet did not accept such a proposal, although he could in those days of difficulty have made peace and used flattery to fortify his own position, and then have risen against his enemies. In fact, the Islamic message never allows a right and just cause,nor a falsehood to be rejected and disproven through another falsehood. There are many Quranic verses concerning this matter.


7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17