Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

A SUPPLEMENTARY DISCUSSION

Certain objections have been raised against the notion of existence of quiddities in the mind, in the sense that they exist there by themselves.

First Objection

The view that quiddities exist in the mind by themselves implies that a single thing should be both a substance and an accident at the same time, which is impossible. To explain, the substance (jawhar) intellected by the mind is a substance in accordance with the principle of retention of the essentials (dhatiyyât). However, the same substance is also an accident (‘arad), because it subsists through the soul in much the same way as an accident subsists, through its substratum (ma‘rûd). This is self-contradictory, because it implies that a thing be both independent of a subject (mawdû’) and depend on a subject at the same time.

Second Objection

The mental quiddity belongs to the category (maqûlah) of quality (kayf),’ in accordance with the view that the intelligible forms (al-suwar al-‘ilmiyyah) are qualities of the soul (kayfiyyât nafsâniyyah). When we conceive a substance, that conception would fall under the category of substance, on the basis of the principle of retention of the essentials (dhatiyyât). At the same time, as said, it falls under the category of quality, while the categories are mutually exclusive. This implies a contradiction in the essence of the mental existent. Similarly, when we conceive something belonging to a category other than that of substance, the conceived quiddity would fall under two categories. This is true also when the conception is that of a sensible quality (kayf mahsûs), for it will fall under the category of sensible quality as well as that of psychic quality (kayf nafsânî). In all these cases, a single thing falls under two mutually exclusive categories, which is logically impossible.

The philosophers who believe in mental existence admit that the second objection poses a greater difficulty than the first one. The idea that a single thing may be a substance as well as an accident does not pose much of a difficulty, because the essential difference between the categories is the one between substance, quality, quantity and so on. For the notion of accident - as something that subsists through its subject - is a general one that applies to the nine categories. It may validly include mental substance as well and apply to it. Moreover, in accordance with the definition of substance as ‘a quiddity which does not require a subject to exist externally,’ it may validly subsist in the mind through a subject, for it is while existing externally that it does, not require a subject. However, the falling of a single quiddity under two categories  - such as substance and quality or quantity and quality - is necessarily impossible, for the categories are mutually exclusive with respect to essence.

The Attempts to Address the Two Objections

In view of the above and similar objections, some (viz. al-Râzî) have been led to an outright denial of mental existence, holding that knowledge is

a relation between the soul and external reality. Accordingly, that which is known falls solely under the category of external entities. However, we have shown the inadmissibility of such a position. Some others have been led to hold that external quiddities existing in the mind are resemblances (asybâh), not the quiddities themselves. A thing’s resemblance is something other than and different from the thing itself. Hence the intellected forms are qualities of the soul, which do not retain the character of the external categories, and no difficulty arises on the basis of this view.

However, we have shown that this position implies a denial of the possibility of knowledge.

Several other attempts have been made to resolve the above-mentioned difficulties, which are as follow:

` (i) Some of them (viz. al-Qawshajî) have said that knowledge (‘ilm) is different from the known (ma’lûm). The cognition (hushûl) of an external quiddity by the mind involves two things. One is the intellected quiddity itself as it was in external reality. That is the known, and it does not subsist through the soul but is self-subsisting, being present in the mind like a thing present in space and time. The other is a quality present in the soul and subsisting through it. That is knowledge, and it is by virtue of it that ignorance is removed from the soul. Accordingly, the known - whether substance, quantity or something else - falls under an external category, whereas knowledge is a quality of the soul. Thus understood, the difficulty posed by coincidence of two categories or two kinds of one category does not arise.

However, such a description is contrary to what introspection reveals to us during cognition. The form of something present in the soul during cognition is exactly what relieves the soul of ignorance and afford us the knowledge of that thing.

(ii) Some others who believe in the fundamental reality of quiddity (viz. al-Sayyid al-Sanad Shadr al-Dîn al-Syirâzî) have been led to hold that the forms intellected by the mind are divested from their corresponding external quiddities and transformed into qualities. To explain, since the external existence of quiddity is prior to the [mental existence of] quiddity itself, aside from existence there will be no quiddity at all. Mental existence and external existence are different from one another with a real difference, so that when existence is transformed through an external existent becoming a mental existent, there is no reason why quiddity too should not be transformed by the transformation of substance, quantity or any other category into the category of quality. Hence a thing itself has no definite reality with regard to itself. Rather, when a mental quality occurs in the external world it is either substance or some other category, and when an external substance occurs in the mind it becomes transformed into a mental quality. Given the difference between mental and external quiddities (as a result of the above-mentioned transformation), the claim that things themselves come into the mind requires that there should be a common principle between the two. To conceive such a principle, it is sufficient for the intellect to conceptualize something indefinite and common between the two - like the conception of a matter common to a material body and its

disintegrated form - so that what is in the mind should correspond to what is in external reality.

The above theory is fruitless, first because the belief in the transformation of quiddity and of a real difference between the two modes of existence (external and mental) is inconsistent with the doctrine subscribed to by its proponent, that quiddity is fundamentally real and existence is a derivative construct.

Second, since it implies an essential difference between the mental form and the external object known, it boils down to a theory of resemblances and skepticism.

(iii) Some others (viz. al-Dawwânî) have stated that since knowledge is essentially identical with the object of knowledge, it belongs to the same category as the known object. Thus if the latter happens to be a substance, the former is also a substance, and if the latter is a quantity it is also a quality, and so on. As to naming knowledge a ‘quality’ by the philosophers, it is based on a somewhat loose expression, similar to the common usage wherein an attribute representing a substance is called a quality when applied to something else. With this, they claim, the second difficulty is overcome concerning the falling of other categories under the category of quality.

As to the first difficulty, that a single thing should be a substance and accident simultaneously, its solution - as mentioned earlier - is that ‘accident’ in its general sense includes the nine accidental categories as well as mental substance. Hence it does not constitute any difficulty.

The difficulty inherent in this view is that the mere applicability of the concept of one of the categories to a thing, as we shall explain later, does not justify its being classed under that category.

Moreover, the philosophers are explicit in their statement that ‘acquired knowledge’ (al- ‘ilm al-hushûlî) is a psychic quality that really falls under the category of quality and there is no looseness of expression involved.

(iv) Then there is the theory of Shadr al-Muta’allihin - may God’s mercy be upon him - which has been set forth by him in his books. The theory is based on a distinction between two forms of predication (haml): ‘primary essential predication’ and ‘common predication.’ It is the second kind of predication that implies that the intelligible form falls under an external category. To explain, the mere inclusion of a generic or specific concept in the definition of a thing and its applicability to it does not require that thing to be classed under that genus or species. Such a classification depends on the thing’s possessing the properties possessed externally by that genus or species. Hence the mere inclusion of the concepts of ‘substance’ or ‘body,’ for instance, in the definition of the human being (according to which the human being is defined as ‘a substance that is a growing, sensate body capable of voluntarily motion and possess¬ing rationality) does not entail its falling under the category of substance, or under the genus ‘body,’ unless it occurs as a concrete substance, without needing a subject, or as a body possessing three dimensions.

Similarly, the inclusion of ‘quantity’ and ‘continuity’ in the definition of ‘surface’ (which is defined as ‘a static, two-dimensional continuous

quantity’) does not necessitate its inclusion under ‘quantity’ and ‘continuous extension,’ unless as a concrete quantity it is susceptible to division and possesses the property of continuity.

Were the mere correspondence of a concept to a thing to require its inclusion under the category of that thing, then every universal would itself be an individual, as it applies to itself through primary predication. Hence inclusion under a category requires the possession of external properties and it is obvious that such properties exist in external existence, not in mental existence.

This shows that mentaj forms do not fall under the categories to which they correspond, for they do not possess the [external] properties expected of them. However, though the mental form does not possess the properties of the corresponding external object known, as a state (hât) or habit (malakah) present for the soul, from which it dispels ignorance, it is an ‘external’ existent existing for the soul, which possesses it as an attribute. The definition of quality is applicable to it through common predication, as quality is therefore defined as “an accident which is not subject to division or relation.” Hence the mental form as such falls under the category of quality, though from the viewpoint of its being a mental existent corresponding to external reality it does not fall-due to the absence of external properties - under any category except perhaps the category of quality-by-accident.

The above explanation reveals the inadmissibility of the objection of some thinkers who have taken exception to the statement that knowledge is an essential quality (kayf bi al-dzâf) and the mental form an accidental quality (kayf bi al-‘arad). Their argument is that the very existence of those forms and their existence for the soul are one and the same. They argue that the existence and manifestation of the mental forms for the soul are nothing additional to their existence, so that they may be a quality in the soul, because their externality has ceased in its entirety; furthermore, their quiddities in themselves each belong to a particular category, while with regard to their mental existence they are neither substances nor accidents. Moreover, their manifestation for the soul is nothing but that quiddity and that existence, since the manifestation of a thing is not something additional to it, otherwise it would have a manifestation of itself, whereas there is nothing else. As to quality, it is of such a nature that it is predicated of its subject by inherence. If manifestation and existence for the soul were a categorical relation, the quiddity of knowledge would be relation not quality. But since it is an emanative relation (i.e. the creative relation between a cause and its effect) originating in the soul, it is existence. Therefore, knowledge is light and manifestation (zhuhûr), and the latter are both existence, and existence is not quiddity.

This objection is not valid because though the cognitive form is existent for the soul and manifest for it, that is not on account of its being a mental existent corresponding to an external reality without possessing its properties, but due to its being a state or ‘habit’ for the soul that dispels privation (i.e. ignorance) from it, and as such it is a perfection (kamâl) for the soul, additional to it, and possessed by it as an attribute. That is an

extraneous effect produced on the soul. Since the soul is the subject for the cognitive form and independent of it in itself, the latter is its accident and the definition of quality is applicable to it. Hence the claim that there is nothing additional to the soul, which is united with it, is inadmissible.

Therefore, it is clear that the cognitive form, being a state or habit of the soul, is a quality in essence, and it is a quality by accidence due to its being a mental existent.

Third Objection:

The doctrine of mental existence and presence of the very (quiddities of) things in the mind implies that the soul, while conceiving heat and cold, width and length, motion and rest, triangle and rectangle, etc., should simultaneously become hot and cold, wide and long, triangular and rectangular and so on. That is because we do not call to mind anything hot or cold, wide or long, and so on, without the soul acquiring these opposite attributes, which subsist through it.

The answer is that such external notions like heat and cold and the like become present in the mind with their quiddities, not with their actual existences, and correspond to them in the sense of primary predication, not common predication. That which necessitates things becoming attributed with these qualities does so by acquiring them with their external existences and subsisting through their subjects, not by conceiving their quiddities and their subsistence in the sense of primary predication.

Fourth Objection

We conceive things that are essentially impossible, such as ‘God’s partner’ (sharîk al-Bârî), the simultaneous co-existence or non-existence of two contradictories, and the negation of a thing’s identity with itself. Should things be themselves present in the mind, such essential impossibilities would obtain subsistence.

The answer is that the essential impossibilities are present in the mind in the sense of primary predication, not in that of common predication. Hence ‘God’s partner’ is ‘God’s partner’ in the mind in the sense of primary predication, but from the viewpoint of common predication it is a contingent (mumkin), a quality of the soul, and a creature of God. The same applies to other impossibilities.

Fifth Objection

We do conceive the earth with its great expanse, its plains, mountains, continents and oceans, as well as the great distances of space together with the planets and the stars with their huge dimensions. The impression of these huge dimensions in the mind, or in a part of the nervous system - according to physiologists -  amounts to the impression of something big in something small, which is impossible. That which is said in response to this objection - that the receiving agent is infinitely divisible - is inadmissible, because a small area about that of one’s palm, though it should be infinitely divisible, cannot contain a mountain.

The answer to this objection is that the particular perceived forms are in fact immaterial, as will be discussed later on.’ Their immateriality is imaginal (mitsâlî), wherein such material properties as dimension, geometric form, etc., are retained, but not matter itself. Hence they are present in the soul on the plane of imaginal immateriality (tajarrud mitbâli) without being imprinted on a bodily organ or a faculty related to it. As to the actions and reactions that occur on a material plane during the process of sensation or perception, they are the preparatory means for the soul for apprehending the particular imaginal cognitive forms.

Sixth Objection

The physiologists state that sensation and perception involve the formation in the sense organs of impressions (shuwar) of physical bodies with all their external relations and characteristics. The sense organs modify the impressions in accordance with their particular nature and convey them to the brain. Man cognizes their sizes, dimensions, and shapes through a kind of comparison between the parts of the impressions apprehended. This description does not leave any room for the belief in presence of external quiddities themselves in the mind.

The answer is that the physiologists do indeed speak of certain physical actions and reactions involved in perception. However, these physical impressions, which differ from the external things perceived, are not what constitute the perceived form itself. Rather they constitute a preparatory stage that prepares the soul for the presence before it of the external quiddities with an imaginal (mitsâlî), not a material, existence. Otherwise the disparity between the impressions in the organs of sensation and perception and the external objects represented by these impressions will amount to negation of the possibility of knowledge.

In fact this is one of the strongest proofs of the immaterial presence of the quiddities themselves for the mind. That is because should we assume them to have some kind of material existence - in whatever manner - that cannot get rid of disparity between the apprehended forms and the external realities they represent, thus necessarily implying a denial of the possibility of knowledge.

Seventh Objection

The doctrine of mental existence implies that a single thing should simultaneously be a particular and a universal. This is obviously inadmissible. To explain, the intellected quiddity of ‘man,’ for instance, is a universal in so far as it is applicable to a multiplicity of persons. At the same time it is a particular in so far as it is present in a particular soul through which it subsists, thus becoming particularized through its particularity, being different from the quiddity of ‘man’ intellected by other souls. Hence it is simultaneously a particular and a universal.

The answer is that there are two different aspects (jihât) involved here. The intellected quiddity is a universal in so far as it is a mental existent corresponding to external reality and applicable to a multiplicity of objects.

And in so far as it is a quality of the soul - aside from its correspondence to external reality - it is a particular.

المرحلة الثالثة في انقسام الوجود إلى ما في نفسه و ما في غيره و انقسام ما في نفسه إلى ما لنفسه و ما لغيره

و فيها ثلاثة فصول

CHAPTER THREE: The Division of Existence into Existence-in-itself and Existence-in-something-else, and of Existence-in-itself into Existence-for-itself and Existence-for-something-else

3 Units

الفصل الأول الوجود في نفسه و الوجود في غيره

من الوجود ما هو في غيره و منه خلافه و ذلك أنا إذا اعتبرنا القضايا الصادقة كقولنا الإنسان ضاحك وجدنا فيها وراء الموضوع و المحمول أمرا آخر به يرتبط و يتصل بعضهما إلى بعض ليس يوجد إذا اعتبر الموضوع وحده و لا المحمول وحده و لا إذا اعتبر كل منهما مع غير الآخر فله وجود ثم إن وجوده ليس ثالثا لهما واقعا بينهما مستقلا عنهما و إلا احتاج إلى رابطين آخرين يربطانه بالطرفين فكان المفروض ثلاثة خمسة ثم الخمسة تسعة و هلم جرا و هو باطل.

فوجوده قائم بالطرفين موجود فيهما غير خارج منهما و لا مستقل بوجه عنهما لا معنى له مستقلا بالمفهومية و نسميه الوجود الرابط و ما كان بخلافه كوجود الموضوع و المحمول و هو الذي له معنى مستقل بالمفهومية نسميه الوجود المحمولي و الوجود المستقل فإذن الوجود منقسم إلى مستقل و رابط و هو المطلوب.

و يظهر مما تقدم

أولا أن الوجودات الرابطة لا ماهية لها لأن الماهية ما يقال في جواب ما هو فلها لا محالة وجود محمولي ذو معنى مستقل بالمفهومية و الرابط ليس كذلك.

و ثانيا أن تحقق الوجود الرابط بين أمرين يستلزم اتحادا ما بينهما لكونه واحدا غير خارج من وجودهما.

و ثالثا أن الرابط إنما يتحقق في مطابق الهليات المركبة التي تتضمن ثبوت شي‏ء لشي‏ء و أما الهليات البسيطة التي لا تتضمن إلا ثبوت الشي‏ء و هو ثبوت موضوعها فلا رابط في مطابقها إذ لا معنى لارتباط الشي‏ء بنفسه و نسبته إليها

3.1. EXISTENCE-IN-ITSELF AND EXISTENCE-IN-SOMETHING-ELSE

Existence is either existence-in-something-else or its opposite [i.e. existence-in-itself]. To explain, when we consider a true proposition, for instance, ‘Man is a biped,’ we find that there is something in it [i.e. the verb “to be” used as a copula] besides the subject and the predicate that relates them to each other. This relation is absent when we consider solely the subject or the predicate, or when each of them is conceived along with some other thing. Hence that something has existence. Moreover, its existence is not something additional to the existence of the two sides, or something situated between them and existing independently of them, for otherwise it would require two other copulas to relate it to each of the two sides. Then the three would become five and the five would similarly become nine and so on ad infinitum.

Hence its existence inheres in the two sides and depends on them, not being extraneous to or independent of them. It has no independent meaning of its own as a concept. We call it “copulative existence” (al-wujûd al-râbith). That which is not such - such as the existence of the subject and that of the predicate - and has an independent meaning as a concept, is called “substantive existence” (al-wujûd al-mahmûlî, lit. predicative existence) or “independent existence” (al-wujud al-mustaqil). Hence existence is divisible into independent and copulative as stated.

From what has been said, it becomes clear that:

(i) copulative existents have no quiddity; for the quiddity of a thing is what is mentioned in answer to the question, ‘What is it?’ Quiddity has a substantive existence and independent meaning as a concept. Copulative existence is not such.

(ii) Second, the occurrence of a copulative existent between two things necessitates a unity between them, for it is united with them and is not external to their existence.

(iii) Third, the copulative existent occurs in facts corresponding to “composite propositions” (al-halliyyât al-murakkabah, i.e. propositions of the type ‘A is B’) wherein a thing is affirmed of another thing. Às to “simple propositions” (al-halliyyât al-basîthah, i.e. propositions of the type ‘A is’ or ‘A exists’), in which merely the subsistence of the subject is affirmed, there occurs no copulative existence in the corresponding fact, for there is no sense in a thing’s relation with itself.

الفصل الثاني كيفية اختلاف الرابط و المستقل

اختلفوا في أن الاختلاف بين الوجود الرابط و المستقل هل هو اختلاف نوعي بمعنى أن الوجود الرابط ذو معنى تعلقي لا يمكن تعقله على الاستقلال و يستحيل أن يسلخ عنه ذلك الشأن فيعود معنى اسميا بتوجيه الالتفات إليه بعد ما كان معنى حرفيا أو لا اختلاف نوعيا بينهما.

و الحق هو الثاني لما سيأتي في مرحلة العلة و المعلول أن وجودات المعاليل رابطة بالنسبة إلى عللها و من المعلوم أن منها ما وجوده جوهري و منها ما وجوده عرضي و هي جميعا وجودات محمولية مستقلة تختلف حالها بالقياس إلى عللها و أخذها في نفسها فهي بالنظر إلى عللها وجودات رابطة و بالنظر إلى أنفسها وجودات مستقلة فإذن المطلوب ثابت.

و يظهر مما تقدم أن المفهوم تابع في استقلاله بالمفهومية و عدمه لوجوده الذي ينتزع منه و ليس له من نفسه إلا الإبهام

3.2. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COPULATIVE AND INDEPENDENT EXISTENCE

The metaphysicians differ concerning the character of the difference between copulative and independent existence, as to whether it is a specific difference. That is, is copulative existence a relational concept inconceivable as a substantive and independent notion, in the sense that it is impossible to divest it of this character by conceiving it as a substantive after its being a non-substantive notion (ma’nî harfî)? Or is it the case that there is no specific difference between it and independent existence?

The truth lies with the latter position, for, as will be seen later on in the chapter on cause and effect, the existence of the effect is copulative (râbith) in relation to its cause, although, as we know, effects consist of substances and accidents, both of which have predicative and independent existence. They are copulative existents when viewed in relation to their causes, but are independent existents when considered by themselves.

It becomes clear from what has been said that every concept is subject in the independence of its meaning, or the lack of it, to the existence from which it is abstracted, and is in itself indefinite.

الفصل الثالث من الوجود في نفسه ما هو لغيره و منه ما هو لنفسه

و المراد بكون وجود الشي‏ء لغيره أن يكون الوجود الذي له في نفسه و هو الذي يطرد عن ماهيته العدم هو بعينه يطرد عدما عن شي‏ء آخر لا عدم ذاته و ماهيته و إلا كان لوجود واحد ماهيتان و هو كثرة الواحد بل عدما زائدا على ذاته و ماهيته له نوع مقارنة له كالعلم الذي يطرد بوجوده العدم عن ماهيته الكيفية و يطرد به بعينه عن موضوعه الجهل الذي هو نوع من العدم يقارنه و كالقدرة فإنها كما تطرد عن ماهية نفسها العدم تطرد بعينها عن موضوعها العجز.

و الدليل على تحقق هذا القسم وجودات الأعراض فإن كلا منها كما يطرد عن ماهية نفسه العدم يطرد بعينه عن موضوعه نوعا من العدم و كذلك الصور النوعية الجوهرية فإن لها نوع حصول لموادها تكملها و تطرد عنها نقصا جوهريا و هذا النوع من الطرد هو المراد بكون الوجود لغيره و كونه ناعتا.

و يقابله ما كان طاردا لعدم نفسه فحسب كالأنواع التامة الجوهرية كالإنسان و الفرس و يسمى هذا النوع من الوجود وجودا لنفسه فإذن المطلوب ثابت و ذلك ما أردناه.

و ربما يقسم الوجود لذاته إلى الوجود بذاته و الوجود بغيره و هو بالحقيقة راجع إلى العلية و المعلولية و سيأتي البحث عنهما.

3.3. EXISTENCE-IN-ITSELF-FOR-ITSELF AND EXISTENCE-IN-ITSELF-FOR-SOMETHING-ELSE

By ‘existence for something else’ is meant an existent by itself that in addition to dispelling non-being from its own quiddity, removes a non-being from another thing, though not from its essence and quiddity; for otherwise one existent will possess two quiddities, which implies the multiplicity of that which is one. Hence the non-being removed is one that is extraneous to the thing’s essence and quiddity, having a kind of association with it. An example of it is knowledge, whose existence, in addition to removing non-being from its quiddity, removes ignorance from its subject, ignorance being a kind of non-being associated with the subject. Similar is ability, which in addition to removing non-being from its own quiddity removes disability from its subject.

The evidence for this kind of existent is provided by accidents (a’râdh), each one of which dispels a kind of non-being from its subject, in addition to dispelling non-being from its own quiddity. The same is true of each of the substantial specific forms (al-shuwar al-naw’iyyah al-jawhariyyah), which in a way actualize their matters (mawâdd), complete them and dispel their substantial deficiency. This is the kind of removal of non-being that is meant by ‘existence for something else’ (al-wujûd li ghayrih) and its being ‘attributive.’

It stands opposed to what is called ‘existence for itself (wujûd li nafsih), which dispels non-being solely from itself, like the various kinds of complete specific substances, such as man, horse, etc.

Often metaphysicians divide existence for itself further into that which is existence by itself and existence by something else, but this division relates to causality, which will be discussed later.

المرحلة الرابعة في المواد الثلاث الوجوب و الإمكان و الامتناع

و البحث عنها في الحقيقة بحث عن انقسام الوجود إلى الواجب و الممكن و البحث عن الممتنع تبعي

و فيها تسعة فصول

CHAPTER FOUR: The Three Modes: Necessity, Contingency and Impossibility

9 Units

الفصل الأول في تعريف المواد الثلاث و انحصارها فيها

كل مفهوم إذا قيس إلى الوجود, فإما أن يجب له فهو الواجب; أو يمتنع, و هو الممتنع; أو لا يجب له و لا يمتنع, و هو الممكن; فإنه إما أن يكون الوجود له ضروريا, و هو الأول; أو يكون العدم له ضروريا, و هو الثاني; و إما أن لا يكون شي‏ء منهما له ضروريا, و هو الثالث.

و أما احتمال كون الوجود و العدم كليهما ضروريين, فمرتفع بأدنى التفات.

و هي بينة المعاني, لكونها من المعاني العامة التي لا يخلو عن أحدها مفهوم من المفاهيم; و لذا كانت لا تعرف إلا بتعريفات دورية; كتعريف الواجب ب “ما يلزم من فرض عدمه محال” ثم تعريف المحال و هو الممتنع ب “ما يجب أن لا يكون” أو “ما ليس بممكن و لا واجب” و تعريف الممكن ب “ما لا يمتنع وجوده و عدمه.”

4.1. THE THREEFOLD MODES AND THEIR DEFINITIONS

Every idea when considered from the viewpoint of existence is either necessary (wâjib), impossible (mumtani’), or contingent (mumkin), i.e. neither necessary nor impossible. In the first case, existence is a necessity; in the second, non-existence is a necessity; in the third, neither existence nor non-existence is a necessity.

The meaning of these three modes is self-evident and they are so pervasive that no idea is devoid of any one of them. Hence they cannot be defined, and the definitions that have been offered are circular (like the one that defines the necessary as “a thing the supposition of whose non-existence entails an impossibility,” the impossible as “that whose non-existence is necessary” or “that which is neither possible nor necessary,” and the contingent as “that whose existence or non-existence is not impossible”).

الفصل الثاني انقسام كل من المواد إلى ما بالذات و ما بالغير و ما بالقياس

كل واحدة من المواد ثلاثة أقسام: ما بالذات, و ما بالغير, و ما بالقياس إلى الغير; إلا الإمكان, فلا إمكان بالغير و المراد بما بالذات: أن يكون وضع الذات كافيا في تحققه, و إن قطع النظر عن كل ما سواه; و بما بالغير; ما يتعلق بالغير; و بما بالقياس إلى الغير: أنه إذا قيس إلى الغير كان من الواجب أن يتصف به.

فالوجوب بالذات كما في الواجب الوجود, تعالى, فإن ذاته بذاته يكفي في ضرورة الوجود له من غير حاجة إلى شي‏ء غيره.

و الوجوب بالغير كما في الممكن الموجود الواجب وجوده بعلته

.

و الوجوب بالقياس إلى الغير كما في وجود أحد المتضائفين إذا قيس إلى وجود الآخر, فإن وجود العلو إذا قيس إليه وجود السفل يأبى إلا أن يكون للسفل وجود, فلوجود السفل وجوب بالقياس إلى وجود العلو, وراء وجوبه بعلته.

و الامتناع بالذات, كما في المحالات الذاتية, كشريك الباري, و اجتماع النقيضين; و الامتناع بالغير, كما في وجود المعلول الممتنع لعدم علته, و عدمه الممتنع لوجود علته, و الامتناع بالقياس إلى الغير, كما في وجود أحد المتضائفين إذا قيس إلى عدم الآخر, و في عدمه إذا قيس إلى وجود الآخر.

و الإمكان بالذات, كما في الماهيات الإمكانية, فإنها في ذاتها لا تقتضي ضرورة الوجود و لا ضرورة العدم; و الإمكان بالقياس إلى الغير, كما في الواجبين بالذات المفروضين, ففرض وجود أحدهما لا يأبى وجود الآخر و لا عدمه, إذ ليس بينهما علية و معلولية و لا هما معلولا علة ثالثة.

و أما الإمكان بالغير فمستحيل, لأنا إذا فرضنا ممكنا بالغير, فهو في ذاته إما واجب بالذات, أو ممتنع بالذات, أو ممكن بالذات, إذ المواد منحصرة في الثلاث, و الأولان يوجبان الانقلاب, و الثالث يوجب كون اعتبار الإمكان بالغير لغوا.

4.2. THE SUB-DIVISIONS OF EACH OF THE MODES

Each of the three modes is divisible into three kinds: (i) essential (bi al-dzât), i.e., that which is such (i.e. necessary, contingent or impossible) by-itself, (ii) accidental (bi al-ghayr), i.e., that which is such by something else, and (iii) relative (bi al-qiyâs ila al-ghayr), i.e., that which is such in relation to something else. An exception here is the ‘contingent,’ for which there is no such subdivision as ‘contingent by something else.’

The exalted Necessary Being, whose existence is necessary by itself, without standing in need of anything else, represents essential necessity.

By ‘accidentally contingent’ is meant the contingent whose existence becomes necessary upon the existence of its cause.

Relative necessity applies to the existence of each of two correlatives (mutadhâ‘afayn), whose existence is necessary in relation to that of the other correlative, like the higher one and the lower one, the existence of each of which is necessary in relation to that of the other, apart from the necessity arising from their cause.

Examples of the essentially impossible are such essential impossibilities as God’s partner (sharîk al-Bârî) and the coming together of two contradictories (ijtimâ’ al-naqidhayn). An example of accidental impossibility is the impossibility of the existence of an effect arising from the non-existence of its cause, and the impossibility of its non-existence upon the existence of its cause. An example of relative impossibility is the impossibility of the existence of one of the two correlatives in relation to non-existence of the other, and that of its non-existence in relation to existence of the other correlative.

As to essential contingency (imkân dzâtt), it applies to the contingent quiddities, which in themselves are neither necessarily existent nor necessarily non-existent. As to relative contingency, it applies to two hypothetical necessary beings each of which is essentially necessary, because the supposition of one of them does not preclude the existence or non-existence of the other; for there is neither any relation of causality between them, nor are they effects of a third cause.

As to accidental contingency, it is impossible; for if we assume something that is accidentally contingent, it should itself be either: (i) essentially necessary; (ii) essentially impossible; or (iii) essentially contingent, for here the modes are confined to these three. The first two assumptions entail a violation of the law of identity, and the third leads to the absurdity of considering what is essentially contingent as being accidentally contingent.

الفصل الثالث واجب الوجود ماهيته إنيته

واجب الوجود ماهيته إنيته بمعنى أن لا ماهية له وراء وجوده الخاص به; و ذلك أنه لو كانت له ماهية و ذات وراء وجوده الخاص به, لكان وجوده زائدا على ذاته عرضيا له, و كل عرضي معلل بالضرورة, فوجوده معلل.

و علته إما ماهيته أو غيرها, فإن كانت علته ماهيته -و العلة متقدمة على معلولها بالوجود بالضرورة- كانت الماهية متقدمة عليه بالوجود; و تقدمها عليه إما بهذا الوجود, و لازمه تقدم الشي‏ء على نفسه و هو محال; و إما بوجود آخر, و ننقل الكلام إليه و يتسلسل; و إن كانت علته غير ماهيته, فيكون معلولا لغيره و ذلك ينافي وجوب الوجود بالذات. و قد تبين بذلك: أن الوجوب بذاته وصف منتزع من حاق وجود الواجب, كاشف عن كون وجوده بحتا في غاية الشدة غير مشتمل على جهة عدمية, إذ لو اشتمل على شي‏ء من الأعدام, حرم الكمال الوجودي الذي في مقابله; فكانت ذاته مقيدة بعدمه, فلم يكن واجبا بالذات صرفا له كل كمال.

4.3. QUIDDITY AND THE NECESSARY BEING

The essence of the Necessary Being is Its existence, in the sense that It has no quiddity besides Its particular existence; for were It to have a quiddity besides Its particular existence, its existence would be additional and accidental to Its essence. Since everything accidental is necessarily caused (ma’lûl), Its existence too would be something caused, its cause being either Its quiddity or something else.

Were Its quiddity Its cause, that quiddity would precede It in existence, as the cause is necessarily prior to its effect in terms of existence. This priority of Its quiddity to Its existence would be either with this existence or with another. The first alternative necessarily entails a thing being prior to itself, which is impossible. The second leads to an infinite regress when the same argument is shifted to it.

Were Its cause something other than Its quiddity, It would be an effect of something else, which contradicts Its essential necessity.

The above discussion reveals that essential necessity is a characteristic derived from the very reality of the Necessary Being, which shows that It is absolute existence, at the extreme of splendour, without possessing any aspect of privation (non-being). For did It possess any kind of privation, it would be devoid of the existential perfection that stands opposed to such a privation, and Its essence would be limited by the absence of that perfection and, consequently, it would not be essentially necessary and absolute, possessing every kind of perfection.

الفصل الرابع واجب الوجود بالذات واجب الوجود من جميع الجهات

إذ لو كان غير واجب بالنسبة إلى شي‏ء من الكمالات التي تمكن له بالإمكان العام, كان ذا جهة إمكانية بالنسبة إليه, فكان خاليا في ذاته عنه متساوية نسبته إلى وجوده و عدمه, و معناه تقيد ذاته بجهة عدمية و قد عرفت في الفصل السابق استحالته.

4.4. THE NECESSARY BEING IS NECESSARY IN ALL RESPECTS

If the Necessary Being were to have a relation of non-necessity with anything pertaining to Its possible perfections, It would have an aspect of contingency in relation to it. That is, in Itself It would be devoid of it, being indifferent to its existence and non-existence. This entails a limit involving privation for Its essence, which is impossible as shown in the preceding section.

الفصل الخامس في أن الشي‏ء ما لم يجب لم يوجد و بطلان القول بالأولوية

لا ريب أن الممكن, الذي يتساوى نسبته إلى الوجود و العدم عقلا, يتوقف وجوده على شي‏ء يسمى علة و عدمه على عدمها.

و هل يتوقف وجود الممكن على أن يوجب العلة وجوده, و هو الوجوب بالغير؟ أو أنه يوجد بالخروج عن حد الاستواء, و إن لم يصل إلى حد الوجوب؟ و كذا القول في جانب العدم, و هو المسمى بالأولوية; و قد قسموها إلى الأولوية الذاتية و هي التي يقتضيها ذات الممكن و ماهيته, و غير الذاتية و هي خلافها, و قسموا كلا منهما إلى “كافية” في تحقق الممكن و “غير كافية.”

و الأولوية بأقسامها باطلة:

أما الأولوية الذاتية فلأن الماهية قبل الوجود باطلة الذات لا شيئية لها حتى تقتضي أولوية الوجود كافية أو غير كافية; و بعبارة أخرى: الماهية من حيث هي ليست إلا هي, لا موجودة و لا معدومة و لا أي شي‏ء آخر.

و أما الأولوية الغيرية, و هي التي تأتي من ناحية العلة, فلأنها لما لم تصل إلى حد الوجوب لا يخرج بها الممكن من حد الاستواء, و لا يتعين بها له الوجود أو العدم, و لا ينقطع بها السؤال: إنه لم وقع هذا دون ذاك؟; و هو الدليل على أنه لم تتم بعد للعلة عليتها.

فتحصل: أن الترجيح إنما هو بإيجاب العلة وجود المعلول, بحيث يتعين له الوجود و يستحيل عليه العدم, أو إيجابها عدمه; فالشي‏ء -أعني الممكن- ما لم يجب لم يوجد.

خاتمة

ما تقدم من الوجوب هو الذي يأتي الممكن من ناحية علته; و له وجوب آخر يلحقه بعد تحقق الوجود أو العدم, و هو المسمى بالضرورة بشرط المحمول; فالممكن الموجود محفوف بالضرورتين: السابقة و اللاحقة.

Generosity

Generosity is the opposite of stinginess. It stands for offering money, food, or any other lawful gaining out of one’s free will. It is in fact the worthiest nature. As a sign of the unprecedented virtue of generosity is that you see every precious and appreciable thing is described as generous. For example, God says:

“This is a generous Quran (56:77).”

“A generous messenger came to them (44:17).” “And corn-fields and generous mansions (44:26).”

The The Ahlul-Bayt (a) therefore praised generosity laudably:

Imam as-Sadiq related that the Prophet (S) said:

“The best men in view of faith is the most openhanded1 .”

“The generous is close to Allah, close to people, and close to Paradise. The stingy is remote from Allah, remote from people, and close to Hell2 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “A generous young man who is plunging in sins is favorable, in the sight of Allah, to a niggardly old man who plunges in worship3 .”

“Spend and be sure that Allah will recompense you. Any male or female servant of Allah who behaves stingily in a field that pleases Allah will surely spend many folds in a field that displeases Him4 .”

Advantages of Generosity

A society cannot feel happy or tranquil unless its individuals feel the spirit of mutual sympathy and harmonize with each other in feelings and senses. Such being the case, the society will be just like a compact building. Mutual sympathy has a bright picture that shines with beauty and brilliance. Undoubtedly, the noblest, most beautiful, and most everlasting picture of mutual sympathy is the feelings of the wealthy individuals for the poor. Such feelings will surely ease the pains of poverty.

By the application of this noble humane principal, (namely, the principals of mutual sympathy) the poor will bear the feelings of amicability towards the wealthy, and this will help the community live happily.

From this cause, the Islamic Sharia has called for openhandedness and sympathy with the poor, and condemned the societies whose individuals suffer starvation and deprivation without finding any one who extends the hand of help towards them. It has also regarded the wealthy who do not help the poor as being very far-off Islam.

The Prophet (S) said: “He who begins his day without caring for the affairs of the Muslims is not a Muslim.”

“He who passes a night satiated while his neighbor is hungry has never believed in me. On the Day of Resurrection, Allah shall not look at the inhabitants of a village one of whose individuals is hungry5 .”

Fields of Generosity

Virtues of generosity vary according to its fields. The noblest virtue of generosity, however, is carrying out the obligations of the Sharia, such as the zakat6 , khums7 , and the like.

The Prophet (S) said: “The most generous is he who fulfills that which Allah has deemed obligatory upon him8 .”

Then comes the second criterion of generosity, which is the settlement of the dependents’ needs. In addition to its being obligatory in the sight of both the Sharia and traditions, this matter is very important because, naturally, a man’s family members are the worthiest of his charity and kindness.

Some individuals may behave abnormally in this regard. They may ignore this genuine natural principal and go on conferring generously on the strangers for seeking reputation, while they behave stingily with their family members who, such being the case, will live in neediness and suffer poverty. Such irregular behaviors are originated from meanness and foolishness.

Imam al-Kadhim (a) said: “Man’s dependents are his prisoners. Anyone upon whom Allah confers with graces should be generous towards his prisoners. If he does not, he will soon be deprived of these graces9 .”

Imam ar-Rida (a) said: “Man should save the requirements of his family members’ lives, so that they will not hope were he dead10 .”

It is a big mistake to deprive the relatives of such emotions and pour them on the foreigners, because such behavior is regarded as barefaced disgrace that arouses the relatives’ hatred and deprives of their sympathy. The true generous should begin with the nearest and the most beneficiary in his endowments, such as friends, neighbors, and people of virtue, because such classes are worthier of being treated generously.

Incentives of Generosity

The incentives of generosity vary according to individuals and reasons of openhandedness. The noblest incentive in this regard is that which is offered for the sake of God. The incentive may be the desire for gaining praise and glory and, in this case, the generous is regarded as the merchant who bargains with his generosity. The incentive may, also, be the desire for gaining something or being saved from a fearful harm. These two matters encourage generosity.

Love plays the greatest role in the encouragement on openhandedness for attracting and drawing the emotions of the beloved.

It is worth mentioning that the results and fruits of generosity will not be sweet unless it is freed from the reproachful reminding of the favor, the blemishes of procrastination, and the appearances of exaggeration.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Favors are worthless unless they are disregarded, veiled, and provided immediately. If you disregard your favors, you will surely revere the one to whom you have done that favor. If you cover up the favors that you do, you will surely accomplish your deeds. If you offer your favor as soon as possible, you will surely give it pleasantly; otherwise, you will destroy and give unpleasantly11 .”

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 67 (quoted from al-Kafi

2. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 3 (quoted from al- Imama wat-Tabssira).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 68 (quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 68 (quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from al-Kafi.

6. Zakat is the obligatory payment made annually under Islamic law on certain kinds of property and used for charitable and religious objects.

7. Khums is obligatory payment of one-fifth of the wealth made once under Islamic laws.

8. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 67 (as quoted from al- Faqih).

9. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 61 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

10. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 61 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

11. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; 16 quoted from Kitab ul- Ahsara; 116 and Ilal ush-Sharaayi.

Altruism

Altruism is the noblest concept of generosity. Not everyone can adorn himself with this trait, because it is dedicated to the few ideal persons whom are characterized by openhandedness and who attained the climax of generosity as they gave liberally while they are in urgent need. They therefore preferred charity to the settlement of their needs. The holy Quran praises the virtues of such persons:

“They give preference to them over themselves - even concerning the things that they themselves urgently need (59:9).”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “The best almsgiving is that which is given by the needy. Allah says:“They give preference to them over themselves - even concerning the things that they themselves urgently need (59:9) 1 .”

The Prophet (S) was the highest example of altruism: Jabir Ibn Abdullah said: The Prophet (S) had never refused anyone’s request.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) narrated: In al-Jirana, the Prophet (S) distributed the treasury among people. He gave every single individual who asked from him. As people crowded around him, they pushed him until he had to lean on a tree that scratched his back. People kept on pushing him until they took him away from that tree and his garment was hanged to one of its branches. He was shouting: “People, let me have my garment! By Allah I swear, even if I have treasures as many as the trees of Tuhama, I will distribute among you. You shall never find me coward or stingy2 .”

The Prophet (S) used to prefer the poor to himself. He used to give them his food while he suffered hunger to the degree that he, once, tied the stone of hunger on his stomach so as to share the pains of hunger with the poor.

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “The Prophet (S) had never eaten his fill for three consecutive days since Allah gave him the Divine Mission3 .”

The The Ahlul-Bayt (a) were copies of the Prophet in the fields of generosity and altruism.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) narrated: Ali was the most similar to the Prophet. He used to eat bread with oil and serve people with bread and meat4.

The following holy Verse was revealed for Ali and his family:

“They feed the destitute, orphans, and captives for the love of Allah, saying: We only feed you for the sake of Allah and we do not want any reward or thanks from you (76:9).”

The disciples of The Ahlul-Bayt have unanimously agreed that the previous holy Verse was revealed for Ali, Fatima, al-Hasan, and al-Hussein (a). Moreover, a good deal of ulema of other sects have also asserted so.

Interpreting Sura of al-Insan, az-Zamakhshari records the following narration in his book titled Tafsir ul- Keshaf:

Ibn Abbas narrated:

The Prophet (S), with some of his companions, visited al-Hasan and al-Hussein who were sick. They suggested that Imam Ali should vow a three-day fasting if they would recover their health. The Imam, as well as their mother Fatima and Fudda their bondwoman implemented that suggestion. When al- Hasan and al-Hussein were healed, the group fasted. The Imam had no food at that time; therefore, he had to borrow three measures of barley from Shimon the Jew. In the first day, Fatima (a) milled and baked one of these measures. In the very time of breaking fast, a poor man knocked their door and said: “Peace be upon you; the family of Muhammad. I am a poor Muslim. Serve me with food and God may serve you from the food of Paradise.” The Imam gave him his share. The others pursued him and gave their shares. They passed that night without eating anything.

On the second day of their fasting, an orphan complaining hunger knocked their door in the time of breaking fast. They offered their shares and passed the second night without having anything except water.

On the third day and in the very time of breaking fast, a prisoner complaining hunger knocked their door asking for some food. They all offered him their shares before having anything of it.

On the fourth day, Imam Ali took al-Hasan and al- Hussein to the Prophet while they were trembling because of hunger. “I am very touched for what I see,” said the Prophet who walked with them to their house. There, he saw Fatima standing in her place of prayer while her belly was stuck to her back and her eyes were deep-set. He was affected by such a view. In the meantime, the Archangel Gabriel descended and said: “Muhammad, enjoy it. Allah may please you in connection to your household.” He then recited the Sura5 .

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 58 (as quoted from al- Faqih).

2. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; 1/607 (as quoted from Ilal ush-Sharayi). Jirana is a place between Mecca and Ta’if.

3. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; part 1 page 194 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 9 page 538 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from Sayyid A. Sharafuddin’s al-Kalimat ul-Gharraa; page 29.

Stinginess

Stinginess stands for the abstention from giving in situations of generosity. It is the opposite of generosity and among the mean features that cause humility, hatred, and disgrace. Islam has censured and warned the Muslims strongly against stinginess:

“It is you who are asked to spend for the cause of Allah, but some of you behave in a niggardly way. Whoever behaves miserly does so against his own soul. Allah is Self-sufficient and you are poor (47:38).”

“The stingy ones who try to make others stingy or those who hide the favors that Allah has bestowed on them. We have prepared a humiliating torment for the disbelievers (4:37).”

“Those who are avaricious of the favors that Allah has given them should not think that this is good for them. Avarice is evil and whatever they are avaricious about will be tied to their necks on the Day of Judgment (3:180).”

Imam as-Sadiq narrated on the authority of his fathers that Amirul-Mu'minin (a) once heard a man saying that stinginess is less forgivable than wronging. The Imam commented: “No, this is a lie. A wrong man may repent, seek Allah’s forgiveness, and correct his mistakes. But when one behaves in a stingy mood, he will not defray the zakat and almsgiving, will not regard his relatives, will not receive the guests hospitably, and will not spend his fortune in the cause of Allah and in the fields of charity. Paradise is forbidden for the stingy1 .”

“I wonder at the stingy who speeds towards the very destitution from which he wants to run away and misses the very ease of life which he covets. Consequently, he passes his life like the destitute, but will have to render an account in the next world like the rich2 .”

Disadvantages of Stinginess

Stinginess causes malice and hatred of the close as well as the foreigners. The closest individuals of the stingy may hope were he dead, because he deprives them of his fortune and they expect greedily to inherit him. Besides, the stingy is the most tiring: he exerts all efforts for collecting fortunes, but he does not enjoy them, because he very soon leaves all the fortunes to the heirs. Hence, “he passes his life in this world like the destitute, but will have to render an account in the next world like the rich.”

Forms of Stinginess

All forms of stinginess are abominable; yet, there is a variance among them. The most sinful form of stinginess is the refusal to defray the financial obligations that God has imposed upon Muslims for organizing their economical lives. Thus, the defects of stinginess vary among persons and states. For example, the stinginess of the wealthy is worse than that of the poor, and to behave stingily with the dependents, relatives, friends, and guests is uglier than it is with the foreigners.

Treatment of Stinginess

The advantages and disadvantages of stinginess should be kept in mind, because this may decrease the vehemence of stinginess. If this is not useful, the stingy should prompt himself to openhandedness for the desire of gaining good reputation. If a man feels at ease with openhandedness, he will discipline himself with sincerity and will like for himself to spend in the cause of God.

There are definite motives of stinginess. The treatment, then, is related to such motives. To stop these motives is to remove the effects.

The strongest motive of stinginess is fear of poverty, which is one of the evil inspirations of the Devil so as to prevent generosity. By its wise and unparalleled style, the holy Quran decides that stinginess is useless, but it brings about bankruptcy and deprivation:

“It is you who are asked to spend for the cause of Allah, but some of you behave in a niggardly way. Whoever behaves miserly does so against his own soul. Allah is Self-sufficient and you are poor (47:38).”

The holy Quran also decides that everything that is given or spent out of generosity will not go in vain; yet, God the All-generous will compensate for it:

“Whatever thing you spend, He exceeds it with reward, and He is the best of Sustainers. (34:39)”

The holy Quran continues to enjoin openhandedness, confirming that he who spends for God’s sake is lending God who will repay him many folds out of His extensive kindness:

“Spending money for the cause of Allah is as the seed from which seven ears may grow, each bearing one hundred grains. Allah gives in multiples to those whom He wants. Allah is Munificent and All- knowing. (2:261)”

The holy Quran addresses a horrible threat against those whom are enslaved by stinginess:

“Those who horde gold and silver and do not spend (anything out of it) for the cause of Allah, should know that their recompense will be a painful torment on the Day of Judgment and that their treasures will be heated by the fire of hell and pressed against their foreheads, sides and back with this remark: “These are your own treasures which you hoarded for yourselves. See for yourselves what they feel like.” (9:34-5)”

Among the other incentives of stinginess is fathers’ excessive care for the future of their sons. Such fathers will not spend their fortunes so as to save them for their sons, believing that such fortunes will protect their sons from poverty. Such an emotion, which is deep-rooted in man’s mentality, cannot be harmful or excessive if it is moderate, reasonable, and away from negligence and exaggeration. Nevertheless, it is unfit for people of reason to feel such an emotion so exaggeratively. The holy Quran warns fathers against the prevalence of this emotion over them so that they will not be seduced by the love for their sons:

“Know that your possessions and children are a temptation for you and that Allah has the greatest reward for the righteous ones. (8:28)”

The best word in this regard is the following missive of Amirul-Mu'minin (a):

“So then, the worldly collection, which is between your hands, was possessed before you and will be possessed by others after you. You are only hording for one of two men: a man who will use that fortune in the acts of obedience to Allah, and this fortune that you suffered unhappiness until you collected it will be the source of happiness for such an individual. The other man is that who will use the fortune that you collected in the fields of disobedience to Allah, and your hording will cause him unhappiness. None of these two men is worthy of being preferred to yourself or being burdened on your back; therefore, you should hope Allah’s mercy for the past and hope Allah’s sustenance for the remaining3 .”

Regarding God’s saying,

“That is how God will show them their regrettable deeds (2:167),”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “The intendeds in the previous Verse are those who do not spend their fortunes in the ways of Allah and then die to leave them to others who will use them either in fields of obedience or disobedience to Allah. If the heirs use these fortunes in fields of obedience to Allah, those who collected them stingily will see them accounted with the good deeds of those heirs and, therefore, they will feel regretful for them. If the heirs use such fortunes in the fields of disobedience to Allah, the collectors will be regarded as assistants of those disobedient heirs4 .”

There are groups of people who love money maniacally for its being money, without considering it as the means to a pleasure in this world or the world to come. Such groups find their pleasures only in hording money and, then, they behave towards it extremely stingily.

This sort of love is considered as mania that causes unhappiness and perdition. Money is not the purpose; yet, it is only the means used for livelihood and the Hereafter. Money that is used for any other means is useless:

“Since wealth does not necessarily guarantee everlasting happiness, then why do you not show kindness to the orphans, or urge one another to feed the destitute? Why do you take away the inheritance of others indiscriminately and why do you have an excessive love of riches?

When the earth is crushed into small pieces and (when you find yourself) in the presence of your Lord and the rows and rows of angels, your greed for riches will certainly be of no avail to you. On that day, hell will be brought closer and the human being will come to his senses, but this will be of no avail to him. He will say,"Would that I had done some good deeds for this life." On that day, the punishment of Allah and His detention will be unparalleled. And His bonds will be such as none other can bind. (89: 17-26)”

“In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent the Merciful: Woe to every slanderer and backbiter who collects and hoards wealth, thinking that his property will make him live forever. By no means! They will be thrown into hutamah. Would that you knew what hutamah is! It is a fierce fire created by Allah to penetrate into the hearts. It will engulf them in its long columns of flames. (104)”

Amirul-Mu'minin (a) said: “This world is only termination, suffering, raids, and lessons. As a form of its termination is that, you see that the bows of time are strung, its arrows are put to use, its spears are not missing the target, and its wounds are incurable. It hits the healthy with ailment and hits the alive with death.

As a form of the suffering of this world is, that man gathers while he will not have what he gathers and builds but he will not reside in what he builds. Then he leaves to Allah without being able to carry the wealth or use his building. As a form of the raids of this world is that, you imminently see the lucky change into unlucky and the unlucky change into lucky. Between the two, there is nothing more than the luxury that vanished and the misery that befell. As a form of the lessons of this world is that a man becomes very near to achieve his expectation but suddenly death captures him5 .”

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 69 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

2. Quoted from Nahj ul-Balagha.

3. Quoted from Nahj ul-Balagha.

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 69 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

5. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; part 1 page 467.

Chastity

Chastity is the abstention from whatever is unallowable and unsuitable, such as excessive food and carnal appetites. It is among the noblest traits and highest features that indicate elevation of faith, self-honoring, and dignity:

The Prophet (S) said: “The two hollow things the stomach and the genitals, are the main reasons beyond my umma’s1 being in Hell2 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “The best worship in the sight of Allah is the chastity of the stomach and the genitals3 .”

A man said to Imam al-Baqir (a) that his practices of worship were weak and his prayers and days of fasting were few; however, he hope he would eat and copulate only in legal ways. The Imam answered: “No jihad is better than the chastity of the stomach and the genitals4 .”

Reality of Chastity

Chastity does not mean to deprive oneself of the legal desires of food and sex. It only represents the moderation in the use of such desires. As a matter of fact, negligence and excess are always harmful to humankind. The excessive desires for food and sex cause gross dangers to which we will refer in our discussion of gluttony. Shortage in such desires also causes deprivation of the life enjoyments and legal pleasures. It also causes bodily weakness as well as feebleness of energies and morale.

The Sought Moderation

It is difficult to identify the moderation in the desires for food and sex because of the different needs and energies of individuals. Moderation of an individual may be considered as exaggeration or shortage for another. The relative moderation is to have only the quantity that is sufficient, away from greed and fill. The best criterion in this regard is that which was stated by Amirul- Mu'minin:

“Son! May I instruct you four words after which you will no longer need medicine? Do not eat unless you are hungry. Stop eating while you are still hungry. Chew food deliberately. Before sleeping, go to toilet. You will not need medicine if you follow.”

“In the holy Quran, there is a Verse gathering the whole matter of medicine. It is:

“Eat and drink but do not be excessive.” (7:31) 5

Advantages of Chastity

Chastity achieves happiness on both levels of individuals and communities. It beautifies man, raises him above gluttony, guards him against flattery to the mean ones, and enjoins him to gain the means of living and desires of life through legal ways.

Notes

1. Umma stands for the Islamic community.

2. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 2 page 183 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 65 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 2 page 184 (as quoted from al-Barqi’s al-Mahasin. In al-Kafi, there is a similar narration).

5. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; 2/79 (as quoted from ar- Rawandi’s ad-Dawaat).

Gluttony

Gluttony is the opposite of chastity. It stands for the excessive desires for food and sex. It is a mean tendency indicating self-feebleness, greedy nature, and slavery of instincts.

Amirul-Mu'minin (a) said: “He who wants to survive, yet no one will survive forever, should ease his back from the burdens of debts-, have the food as early as possible, and reduce copulation with women1 .”

Once, Amirul-Mu'minin (a) ate some dates, drank water, and then beat on his stomach with his hand and said: “Away with him who lets his stomach cause him to be in Hell.” He then recited the poetic verse:

Whenever you respond to the desires of your stomach and genitals, they both will give nothing but the extreme dispraise2 .

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Gluttony is the source of every malady except fever, which appears to the body3 .”

“The sated stomach overdoes4 .”

“Allah hates the overeating5 .”

Abu al-Hasan (a) said: “If people have moderate food, their bodies will be healthy6 .”

Disadvantages of Gluttony

It is not unacceptable to say that gluttony, charms of the falsities of life, and attraction of luxury and lavish expenditure have been the main elements of retardation. All these elements have taken the nations into corruption. Overeating, for example, has many bad results. Modern medicine has proved that most of the diseases, curls, lines on the skins that deform the attractive lineaments of men and women, accumulation of fats, deepness of eyes, exhausting powers, and ailed mentalities the reason of all these defects is the continuous gluttony and the fatty foods. It has been also proved that overeating exhausts the stomach and creates various sorts of healthy troubles, such as arteriosclerosis, angina pectoris, hypertension, and diabetes.

The sexual gluttony also causes similar defects, such as impotence of the public health, disappearance of nervous power, and vanishing of vitality.

Treatment of Gluttony

• It is necessary for the overeater to keep in mind the advantages of chastity and ponder over the disadvantages of gluttony.

• It is necessary for the overeater to try his best to train himself on moderate food. The protective and remedial constitution of health is the moderation of food and the avoidance of overeating. This constitution is summarized in the holy Verse:

“Eat and drink but do not be excessive.” (7:31)

The treatment of the sexual gluttony is as follows:

• Keeping in mind the dangers of sexual excess and moral and material corruptions.

• Striving the simulative of sexual desires, such as looking at the beauties of women, mixing of the sexes, excessive sexual imagination, and daydreams.

Notes

1. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 14 page 545 (as quoted from Tibb ul-Ayimma).

2. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; vol. 1 page 27.

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al-Faqih).

5. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

6. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; 14/876 (as quoted from al- Barqi’s al-Mahasin).

Faithfulness and Breach

Faithfulness is the fulfillment of the deposited rights. It is the opposite of breach and one of the noblest traits and most dignified qualities that achieve admiration and success.

The opposite of faithfulness is breach, which stands for the seizure and usurpation of rights. It is one of the meanest qualities and nastiest manners that cause indignity, failure, and disappointment.

Therefore, reports and traditions urged faithfulness and warned against breach:

“Allah commands you to return that which had been entrusted to you to the rightful owners. Be just when passing judgment among people. Allah's advice is the most noble. (4:58)”

“Believers, do not be dishonest to Allah and the Messengers or knowingly abuse your trust. (8:27)”

The Prophet (S) said: “My umma will be kept in goodness so long as they do not breach the trusts of each other, keep on fulfilling their trusts, and defray the zakat; otherwise, they will be inflicted with famine and harsh years of draught1 .”

“The fulfillment of the trusts brings sustenance, while treachery causes poverty2 .”

“He who breaches the trust is not one of us.”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Do not be deceived by their very much offering of prayers and observance of fasting. In fact, prayers and fasting have become habits that they feel desolate if they omit them. You should test them by their truthfulness and fulfillment of trusts3 .”

“Abide by God-fearing and fulfillment of the trusts of them who deposit things with you. If the killer of Ali Ibn Abi Talib deposits with me a trust, I will surely keep it for him4 .”

Advantages of Faithfulness and Disadvantages of Breach

Faithfulness plays a great role in the lives of nations. It is the system of their deeds, the support of their affairs, the title of their nobility, and the way to their moral and material development. The faithful individuals win the others’ admiration, trust, love, and confidence. Besides, such individuals will win shares in people’s fortunes and profits.

This fact is applicable to all nations whose lives cannot advance without the surroundings of confidence. Through faithfulness, the Arabs could control the reins of economy and keys of industry and commerce that brought abundant profits. Unfortunately, Muslims, thereafter, neglected faithfulness; therefore, they failed and were disappointed.

Thus, breach of trusts is one of the major reasons of failure. It is a serious factor causing mutual mistrust, enmity, and fear. Such factor results in social corruption, loose of ties, waste of interests, and dissipation of energies.

Forms of Breach

There are many forms of breach that vary in the scope of its cruelty, crimes, and results. The evilest form is treason that is committed by the thinkers and writers who violate the sacred facts of science by means of distortion and misrepresentation. The divulgement of Muslims’ secrets is another form of breach. A third one is the breach of the deposits. To confiscate such deposits is surely a double crime of breach, larceny, and usurpation. There are many other repulsive forms of breach that injure both the individuals and communities, such as trickery, cheating, deficient measurements, fraud, and dishonesty.

Notes

1. Quoted from as-Saduq’s Thawab ul-A’mal.

2. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 10 page 112 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 82 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 10 page 112 (as quoted from al- Kafi and Tahdhib).

Fraternity

Spiritual Fraternity

The pre-Islamic era was a stage of tragedies in the various mental and material fields. Moral dissolution and disorder were the most horrible tragedies that caused people to practice natures of beasts, law of jungle, disagreement, fighting, killing, usurpation, and declamation of revenge and retaliation.

When the dawn of Islam rose to spread its lights over humankind, it could, through its immortal principles and unparalleled constitution, stop these tragedies and cut off these combats. Then, it changed these ignorant herds into “the best nation that ever existed among humanity1 .”

Faith replaced atheism, order replaced disorder, knowledge replaced ignorance, peace replaced war, and mercy replaced retaliation.

Thus, these concepts faded away and were replaced by the new Islamic principles. The Prophet (S) began to establish that ideal nation whose individuals were unique in order, morals, and perfection. As they progressed under the pennon of the holy Quran and the leadership of the Prophet (S), Muslims flew in the horizons of generosity until they could achieve the principle of fraternity in such a method that could not be achieved by any other code. Moreover, the ties of belief became stronger than those of kinship, and, likewise, the bonds of faith exalted over the tribal and national bonds. Muslims, hence, became a united nation of compact lineup, high edifice, and fluttering pennon:

“People, we have created you all male and female and have made you nations and tribes so that you would recognize each other. The most honorable among you in the sight of Allah is the most pious of you. Allah is All-knowing and All-aware (49:13).”

The holy Quran went on implanting the concepts of spiritual fraternity in the mentalities through numerous Verses compacted by a remarkable and wise style.

The Quran, once, legislates fraternity as a law that should be applied by Muslims:

“Believers are each other's brothers. Restore peace among your brothers. Have fear of Allah so that perhaps you will receive mercy (49:10).”

On another occasion, the Quran confirms the law of fraternity and warns against factors of disagreement, reminding of the grace of the Islamic fraternity and harmony after long periods of disagreement and fighting:

“All of you united hold fast to the rope of Allah, and recall how He favored you when your hostility to each other had torn you apart. He united your hearts in one faith and through His grace you became brothers (3:103).”

In abstract, Islam has exerted all efforts for strengthening the spiritual fraternity among Muslims and protecting it against trends of disagreement and separation through the constitution of the social ties.

As a model, we provide the following:

 The Islamic constitution of the social ties took Muslims’ emotions and feelings far above the slavery of the tribal sectarianism to guide them to the noblest aim; namely, the obedience to God and the seeking of His satisfaction. Love, hate, giving, deprivation, support, and disappointment all these should be for the sake of God. Such being the case, the handles of fraternity will become firmer and Muslims will become the like of the well-established building each part of which strengthens the other.

The Prophet (S) said: “The mutual love of the believers that is intended sincerely for the sake of Allah is one of the greatest classes of faith. He who loves, hates, gives, deprives all for the sake of Allah is surely one of the choices of Allah2 .”

Imam as-Sajjad (a) said: “When Allah will gather the past and the late generations on the Day of Resurrection, a caller that everybody will hear will cry out on those who loved each other for the sake of Allah. A few people will stand up. They will be sent to Paradise without being rendered to judgment. In their way to Paradise, the angels will meet and ask them. ‘We are going to our abodes in Paradise without being rendered to judgment,’ they will answer. As the angels ask them about their class, they will answer, ‘We loved each other for the sake of Allah.’ As the angels ask them about their deeds due to which they have gained such a rank, they will answer, ‘We loved and hated for the sake of Allah.’ The angels then will say: Very well is the reward of the doers of charity3 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “If you want to know whether you are to the good or not, you should test your heart: if it loves the people of obedience to Allah and hates the people of disobedient to Him, you are then to the good and Allah loves you. If your heart hates the people of the obedience to Allah and loves the people of the disobedience to Him, you are then not to the good and Allah hates you. Certainly, man will be attached to the one whom he loved4 .”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “On the Day of Resurrection, those who love each other purely for the sake of Allah will be on luminous stages; the light of their faces, bodies, stages, and everything will be shining so that shining will be their distinctive feature and everybody will point to them and say those loved each other for the sake of Allah5 .”

“He who does not love or hate for the sake of the religion is not Muslim6 .”

The Islamic constitution of the social ties enjoined Muslims to adhere to the factors of coalition, dignity, and luxury, such as exhorting each other to the right, helping each other in fields of piety, supporting each other for the achievement of justice, and joining the forces in the economical fields of life. According to the Islamic Sharia, all Muslims are one family whose matters of happiness and unhappiness are the same. The constitution of such a family is:

“Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah and those with him are stern to the disbelievers yet kind among themselves. (48:29)”

And the slogan is the saying of the Prophet (S):

“He who begins his day without caring for the affairs of the Muslims is not a Muslim.”

The Islamic constitution of the social ties warned Muslims against all factors of separation, hostility, obscenity, backbiting, tale bearing, breach, and cheating as well as all other matters that arouse seditions and rancor. The Muslims’ principal in this point is the Prophet’s saying:

“The true believer is only he whom Muslims can trust in regard with their estates and souls. The true Muslim is only he whom Muslims are saved from his hand physical harm- and tongue- verbal harm-. The true Muhajir7 emigrant- is that who deserts the sins8 .”

 The Islamic constitution of the social ties granted the opportunities of improving friendly relations between Muslims, such as exchanging visits, frequenting religious circles, and witnessing Islamic gatherings such as collective prayers, hajj9 , and the like.

Notes

1. Quoted from the holy Quran; 3:110.

2. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 89 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

3. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 1 page 283 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 90 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 89 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

6. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 90 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

7. Muhajirs: The emigrants. The early Muslims of Mecca who had to flee their homeland to Medina.

8. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 99 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

9. Hajj is the pilgrimage to the Sacred Mosque at Mecca undertaken in the twelfth month of the Hijri year and constituting one of the religious duties of Islam.

Generosity

Generosity is the opposite of stinginess. It stands for offering money, food, or any other lawful gaining out of one’s free will. It is in fact the worthiest nature. As a sign of the unprecedented virtue of generosity is that you see every precious and appreciable thing is described as generous. For example, God says:

“This is a generous Quran (56:77).”

“A generous messenger came to them (44:17).” “And corn-fields and generous mansions (44:26).”

The The Ahlul-Bayt (a) therefore praised generosity laudably:

Imam as-Sadiq related that the Prophet (S) said:

“The best men in view of faith is the most openhanded1 .”

“The generous is close to Allah, close to people, and close to Paradise. The stingy is remote from Allah, remote from people, and close to Hell2 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “A generous young man who is plunging in sins is favorable, in the sight of Allah, to a niggardly old man who plunges in worship3 .”

“Spend and be sure that Allah will recompense you. Any male or female servant of Allah who behaves stingily in a field that pleases Allah will surely spend many folds in a field that displeases Him4 .”

Advantages of Generosity

A society cannot feel happy or tranquil unless its individuals feel the spirit of mutual sympathy and harmonize with each other in feelings and senses. Such being the case, the society will be just like a compact building. Mutual sympathy has a bright picture that shines with beauty and brilliance. Undoubtedly, the noblest, most beautiful, and most everlasting picture of mutual sympathy is the feelings of the wealthy individuals for the poor. Such feelings will surely ease the pains of poverty.

By the application of this noble humane principal, (namely, the principals of mutual sympathy) the poor will bear the feelings of amicability towards the wealthy, and this will help the community live happily.

From this cause, the Islamic Sharia has called for openhandedness and sympathy with the poor, and condemned the societies whose individuals suffer starvation and deprivation without finding any one who extends the hand of help towards them. It has also regarded the wealthy who do not help the poor as being very far-off Islam.

The Prophet (S) said: “He who begins his day without caring for the affairs of the Muslims is not a Muslim.”

“He who passes a night satiated while his neighbor is hungry has never believed in me. On the Day of Resurrection, Allah shall not look at the inhabitants of a village one of whose individuals is hungry5 .”

Fields of Generosity

Virtues of generosity vary according to its fields. The noblest virtue of generosity, however, is carrying out the obligations of the Sharia, such as the zakat6 , khums7 , and the like.

The Prophet (S) said: “The most generous is he who fulfills that which Allah has deemed obligatory upon him8 .”

Then comes the second criterion of generosity, which is the settlement of the dependents’ needs. In addition to its being obligatory in the sight of both the Sharia and traditions, this matter is very important because, naturally, a man’s family members are the worthiest of his charity and kindness.

Some individuals may behave abnormally in this regard. They may ignore this genuine natural principal and go on conferring generously on the strangers for seeking reputation, while they behave stingily with their family members who, such being the case, will live in neediness and suffer poverty. Such irregular behaviors are originated from meanness and foolishness.

Imam al-Kadhim (a) said: “Man’s dependents are his prisoners. Anyone upon whom Allah confers with graces should be generous towards his prisoners. If he does not, he will soon be deprived of these graces9 .”

Imam ar-Rida (a) said: “Man should save the requirements of his family members’ lives, so that they will not hope were he dead10 .”

It is a big mistake to deprive the relatives of such emotions and pour them on the foreigners, because such behavior is regarded as barefaced disgrace that arouses the relatives’ hatred and deprives of their sympathy. The true generous should begin with the nearest and the most beneficiary in his endowments, such as friends, neighbors, and people of virtue, because such classes are worthier of being treated generously.

Incentives of Generosity

The incentives of generosity vary according to individuals and reasons of openhandedness. The noblest incentive in this regard is that which is offered for the sake of God. The incentive may be the desire for gaining praise and glory and, in this case, the generous is regarded as the merchant who bargains with his generosity. The incentive may, also, be the desire for gaining something or being saved from a fearful harm. These two matters encourage generosity.

Love plays the greatest role in the encouragement on openhandedness for attracting and drawing the emotions of the beloved.

It is worth mentioning that the results and fruits of generosity will not be sweet unless it is freed from the reproachful reminding of the favor, the blemishes of procrastination, and the appearances of exaggeration.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Favors are worthless unless they are disregarded, veiled, and provided immediately. If you disregard your favors, you will surely revere the one to whom you have done that favor. If you cover up the favors that you do, you will surely accomplish your deeds. If you offer your favor as soon as possible, you will surely give it pleasantly; otherwise, you will destroy and give unpleasantly11 .”

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 67 (quoted from al-Kafi

2. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 3 (quoted from al- Imama wat-Tabssira).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 68 (quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 68 (quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from al-Kafi.

6. Zakat is the obligatory payment made annually under Islamic law on certain kinds of property and used for charitable and religious objects.

7. Khums is obligatory payment of one-fifth of the wealth made once under Islamic laws.

8. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 67 (as quoted from al- Faqih).

9. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 61 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

10. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 61 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

11. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; 16 quoted from Kitab ul- Ahsara; 116 and Ilal ush-Sharaayi.

Altruism

Altruism is the noblest concept of generosity. Not everyone can adorn himself with this trait, because it is dedicated to the few ideal persons whom are characterized by openhandedness and who attained the climax of generosity as they gave liberally while they are in urgent need. They therefore preferred charity to the settlement of their needs. The holy Quran praises the virtues of such persons:

“They give preference to them over themselves - even concerning the things that they themselves urgently need (59:9).”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “The best almsgiving is that which is given by the needy. Allah says:“They give preference to them over themselves - even concerning the things that they themselves urgently need (59:9) 1 .”

The Prophet (S) was the highest example of altruism: Jabir Ibn Abdullah said: The Prophet (S) had never refused anyone’s request.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) narrated: In al-Jirana, the Prophet (S) distributed the treasury among people. He gave every single individual who asked from him. As people crowded around him, they pushed him until he had to lean on a tree that scratched his back. People kept on pushing him until they took him away from that tree and his garment was hanged to one of its branches. He was shouting: “People, let me have my garment! By Allah I swear, even if I have treasures as many as the trees of Tuhama, I will distribute among you. You shall never find me coward or stingy2 .”

The Prophet (S) used to prefer the poor to himself. He used to give them his food while he suffered hunger to the degree that he, once, tied the stone of hunger on his stomach so as to share the pains of hunger with the poor.

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “The Prophet (S) had never eaten his fill for three consecutive days since Allah gave him the Divine Mission3 .”

The The Ahlul-Bayt (a) were copies of the Prophet in the fields of generosity and altruism.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) narrated: Ali was the most similar to the Prophet. He used to eat bread with oil and serve people with bread and meat4.

The following holy Verse was revealed for Ali and his family:

“They feed the destitute, orphans, and captives for the love of Allah, saying: We only feed you for the sake of Allah and we do not want any reward or thanks from you (76:9).”

The disciples of The Ahlul-Bayt have unanimously agreed that the previous holy Verse was revealed for Ali, Fatima, al-Hasan, and al-Hussein (a). Moreover, a good deal of ulema of other sects have also asserted so.

Interpreting Sura of al-Insan, az-Zamakhshari records the following narration in his book titled Tafsir ul- Keshaf:

Ibn Abbas narrated:

The Prophet (S), with some of his companions, visited al-Hasan and al-Hussein who were sick. They suggested that Imam Ali should vow a three-day fasting if they would recover their health. The Imam, as well as their mother Fatima and Fudda their bondwoman implemented that suggestion. When al- Hasan and al-Hussein were healed, the group fasted. The Imam had no food at that time; therefore, he had to borrow three measures of barley from Shimon the Jew. In the first day, Fatima (a) milled and baked one of these measures. In the very time of breaking fast, a poor man knocked their door and said: “Peace be upon you; the family of Muhammad. I am a poor Muslim. Serve me with food and God may serve you from the food of Paradise.” The Imam gave him his share. The others pursued him and gave their shares. They passed that night without eating anything.

On the second day of their fasting, an orphan complaining hunger knocked their door in the time of breaking fast. They offered their shares and passed the second night without having anything except water.

On the third day and in the very time of breaking fast, a prisoner complaining hunger knocked their door asking for some food. They all offered him their shares before having anything of it.

On the fourth day, Imam Ali took al-Hasan and al- Hussein to the Prophet while they were trembling because of hunger. “I am very touched for what I see,” said the Prophet who walked with them to their house. There, he saw Fatima standing in her place of prayer while her belly was stuck to her back and her eyes were deep-set. He was affected by such a view. In the meantime, the Archangel Gabriel descended and said: “Muhammad, enjoy it. Allah may please you in connection to your household.” He then recited the Sura5 .

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 58 (as quoted from al- Faqih).

2. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; 1/607 (as quoted from Ilal ush-Sharayi). Jirana is a place between Mecca and Ta’if.

3. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; part 1 page 194 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 9 page 538 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from Sayyid A. Sharafuddin’s al-Kalimat ul-Gharraa; page 29.

Stinginess

Stinginess stands for the abstention from giving in situations of generosity. It is the opposite of generosity and among the mean features that cause humility, hatred, and disgrace. Islam has censured and warned the Muslims strongly against stinginess:

“It is you who are asked to spend for the cause of Allah, but some of you behave in a niggardly way. Whoever behaves miserly does so against his own soul. Allah is Self-sufficient and you are poor (47:38).”

“The stingy ones who try to make others stingy or those who hide the favors that Allah has bestowed on them. We have prepared a humiliating torment for the disbelievers (4:37).”

“Those who are avaricious of the favors that Allah has given them should not think that this is good for them. Avarice is evil and whatever they are avaricious about will be tied to their necks on the Day of Judgment (3:180).”

Imam as-Sadiq narrated on the authority of his fathers that Amirul-Mu'minin (a) once heard a man saying that stinginess is less forgivable than wronging. The Imam commented: “No, this is a lie. A wrong man may repent, seek Allah’s forgiveness, and correct his mistakes. But when one behaves in a stingy mood, he will not defray the zakat and almsgiving, will not regard his relatives, will not receive the guests hospitably, and will not spend his fortune in the cause of Allah and in the fields of charity. Paradise is forbidden for the stingy1 .”

“I wonder at the stingy who speeds towards the very destitution from which he wants to run away and misses the very ease of life which he covets. Consequently, he passes his life like the destitute, but will have to render an account in the next world like the rich2 .”

Disadvantages of Stinginess

Stinginess causes malice and hatred of the close as well as the foreigners. The closest individuals of the stingy may hope were he dead, because he deprives them of his fortune and they expect greedily to inherit him. Besides, the stingy is the most tiring: he exerts all efforts for collecting fortunes, but he does not enjoy them, because he very soon leaves all the fortunes to the heirs. Hence, “he passes his life in this world like the destitute, but will have to render an account in the next world like the rich.”

Forms of Stinginess

All forms of stinginess are abominable; yet, there is a variance among them. The most sinful form of stinginess is the refusal to defray the financial obligations that God has imposed upon Muslims for organizing their economical lives. Thus, the defects of stinginess vary among persons and states. For example, the stinginess of the wealthy is worse than that of the poor, and to behave stingily with the dependents, relatives, friends, and guests is uglier than it is with the foreigners.

Treatment of Stinginess

The advantages and disadvantages of stinginess should be kept in mind, because this may decrease the vehemence of stinginess. If this is not useful, the stingy should prompt himself to openhandedness for the desire of gaining good reputation. If a man feels at ease with openhandedness, he will discipline himself with sincerity and will like for himself to spend in the cause of God.

There are definite motives of stinginess. The treatment, then, is related to such motives. To stop these motives is to remove the effects.

The strongest motive of stinginess is fear of poverty, which is one of the evil inspirations of the Devil so as to prevent generosity. By its wise and unparalleled style, the holy Quran decides that stinginess is useless, but it brings about bankruptcy and deprivation:

“It is you who are asked to spend for the cause of Allah, but some of you behave in a niggardly way. Whoever behaves miserly does so against his own soul. Allah is Self-sufficient and you are poor (47:38).”

The holy Quran also decides that everything that is given or spent out of generosity will not go in vain; yet, God the All-generous will compensate for it:

“Whatever thing you spend, He exceeds it with reward, and He is the best of Sustainers. (34:39)”

The holy Quran continues to enjoin openhandedness, confirming that he who spends for God’s sake is lending God who will repay him many folds out of His extensive kindness:

“Spending money for the cause of Allah is as the seed from which seven ears may grow, each bearing one hundred grains. Allah gives in multiples to those whom He wants. Allah is Munificent and All- knowing. (2:261)”

The holy Quran addresses a horrible threat against those whom are enslaved by stinginess:

“Those who horde gold and silver and do not spend (anything out of it) for the cause of Allah, should know that their recompense will be a painful torment on the Day of Judgment and that their treasures will be heated by the fire of hell and pressed against their foreheads, sides and back with this remark: “These are your own treasures which you hoarded for yourselves. See for yourselves what they feel like.” (9:34-5)”

Among the other incentives of stinginess is fathers’ excessive care for the future of their sons. Such fathers will not spend their fortunes so as to save them for their sons, believing that such fortunes will protect their sons from poverty. Such an emotion, which is deep-rooted in man’s mentality, cannot be harmful or excessive if it is moderate, reasonable, and away from negligence and exaggeration. Nevertheless, it is unfit for people of reason to feel such an emotion so exaggeratively. The holy Quran warns fathers against the prevalence of this emotion over them so that they will not be seduced by the love for their sons:

“Know that your possessions and children are a temptation for you and that Allah has the greatest reward for the righteous ones. (8:28)”

The best word in this regard is the following missive of Amirul-Mu'minin (a):

“So then, the worldly collection, which is between your hands, was possessed before you and will be possessed by others after you. You are only hording for one of two men: a man who will use that fortune in the acts of obedience to Allah, and this fortune that you suffered unhappiness until you collected it will be the source of happiness for such an individual. The other man is that who will use the fortune that you collected in the fields of disobedience to Allah, and your hording will cause him unhappiness. None of these two men is worthy of being preferred to yourself or being burdened on your back; therefore, you should hope Allah’s mercy for the past and hope Allah’s sustenance for the remaining3 .”

Regarding God’s saying,

“That is how God will show them their regrettable deeds (2:167),”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “The intendeds in the previous Verse are those who do not spend their fortunes in the ways of Allah and then die to leave them to others who will use them either in fields of obedience or disobedience to Allah. If the heirs use these fortunes in fields of obedience to Allah, those who collected them stingily will see them accounted with the good deeds of those heirs and, therefore, they will feel regretful for them. If the heirs use such fortunes in the fields of disobedience to Allah, the collectors will be regarded as assistants of those disobedient heirs4 .”

There are groups of people who love money maniacally for its being money, without considering it as the means to a pleasure in this world or the world to come. Such groups find their pleasures only in hording money and, then, they behave towards it extremely stingily.

This sort of love is considered as mania that causes unhappiness and perdition. Money is not the purpose; yet, it is only the means used for livelihood and the Hereafter. Money that is used for any other means is useless:

“Since wealth does not necessarily guarantee everlasting happiness, then why do you not show kindness to the orphans, or urge one another to feed the destitute? Why do you take away the inheritance of others indiscriminately and why do you have an excessive love of riches?

When the earth is crushed into small pieces and (when you find yourself) in the presence of your Lord and the rows and rows of angels, your greed for riches will certainly be of no avail to you. On that day, hell will be brought closer and the human being will come to his senses, but this will be of no avail to him. He will say,"Would that I had done some good deeds for this life." On that day, the punishment of Allah and His detention will be unparalleled. And His bonds will be such as none other can bind. (89: 17-26)”

“In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent the Merciful: Woe to every slanderer and backbiter who collects and hoards wealth, thinking that his property will make him live forever. By no means! They will be thrown into hutamah. Would that you knew what hutamah is! It is a fierce fire created by Allah to penetrate into the hearts. It will engulf them in its long columns of flames. (104)”

Amirul-Mu'minin (a) said: “This world is only termination, suffering, raids, and lessons. As a form of its termination is that, you see that the bows of time are strung, its arrows are put to use, its spears are not missing the target, and its wounds are incurable. It hits the healthy with ailment and hits the alive with death.

As a form of the suffering of this world is, that man gathers while he will not have what he gathers and builds but he will not reside in what he builds. Then he leaves to Allah without being able to carry the wealth or use his building. As a form of the raids of this world is that, you imminently see the lucky change into unlucky and the unlucky change into lucky. Between the two, there is nothing more than the luxury that vanished and the misery that befell. As a form of the lessons of this world is that a man becomes very near to achieve his expectation but suddenly death captures him5 .”

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 69 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

2. Quoted from Nahj ul-Balagha.

3. Quoted from Nahj ul-Balagha.

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 69 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

5. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; part 1 page 467.

Chastity

Chastity is the abstention from whatever is unallowable and unsuitable, such as excessive food and carnal appetites. It is among the noblest traits and highest features that indicate elevation of faith, self-honoring, and dignity:

The Prophet (S) said: “The two hollow things the stomach and the genitals, are the main reasons beyond my umma’s1 being in Hell2 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “The best worship in the sight of Allah is the chastity of the stomach and the genitals3 .”

A man said to Imam al-Baqir (a) that his practices of worship were weak and his prayers and days of fasting were few; however, he hope he would eat and copulate only in legal ways. The Imam answered: “No jihad is better than the chastity of the stomach and the genitals4 .”

Reality of Chastity

Chastity does not mean to deprive oneself of the legal desires of food and sex. It only represents the moderation in the use of such desires. As a matter of fact, negligence and excess are always harmful to humankind. The excessive desires for food and sex cause gross dangers to which we will refer in our discussion of gluttony. Shortage in such desires also causes deprivation of the life enjoyments and legal pleasures. It also causes bodily weakness as well as feebleness of energies and morale.

The Sought Moderation

It is difficult to identify the moderation in the desires for food and sex because of the different needs and energies of individuals. Moderation of an individual may be considered as exaggeration or shortage for another. The relative moderation is to have only the quantity that is sufficient, away from greed and fill. The best criterion in this regard is that which was stated by Amirul- Mu'minin:

“Son! May I instruct you four words after which you will no longer need medicine? Do not eat unless you are hungry. Stop eating while you are still hungry. Chew food deliberately. Before sleeping, go to toilet. You will not need medicine if you follow.”

“In the holy Quran, there is a Verse gathering the whole matter of medicine. It is:

“Eat and drink but do not be excessive.” (7:31) 5

Advantages of Chastity

Chastity achieves happiness on both levels of individuals and communities. It beautifies man, raises him above gluttony, guards him against flattery to the mean ones, and enjoins him to gain the means of living and desires of life through legal ways.

Notes

1. Umma stands for the Islamic community.

2. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 2 page 183 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 65 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 2 page 184 (as quoted from al-Barqi’s al-Mahasin. In al-Kafi, there is a similar narration).

5. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; 2/79 (as quoted from ar- Rawandi’s ad-Dawaat).

Gluttony

Gluttony is the opposite of chastity. It stands for the excessive desires for food and sex. It is a mean tendency indicating self-feebleness, greedy nature, and slavery of instincts.

Amirul-Mu'minin (a) said: “He who wants to survive, yet no one will survive forever, should ease his back from the burdens of debts-, have the food as early as possible, and reduce copulation with women1 .”

Once, Amirul-Mu'minin (a) ate some dates, drank water, and then beat on his stomach with his hand and said: “Away with him who lets his stomach cause him to be in Hell.” He then recited the poetic verse:

Whenever you respond to the desires of your stomach and genitals, they both will give nothing but the extreme dispraise2 .

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Gluttony is the source of every malady except fever, which appears to the body3 .”

“The sated stomach overdoes4 .”

“Allah hates the overeating5 .”

Abu al-Hasan (a) said: “If people have moderate food, their bodies will be healthy6 .”

Disadvantages of Gluttony

It is not unacceptable to say that gluttony, charms of the falsities of life, and attraction of luxury and lavish expenditure have been the main elements of retardation. All these elements have taken the nations into corruption. Overeating, for example, has many bad results. Modern medicine has proved that most of the diseases, curls, lines on the skins that deform the attractive lineaments of men and women, accumulation of fats, deepness of eyes, exhausting powers, and ailed mentalities the reason of all these defects is the continuous gluttony and the fatty foods. It has been also proved that overeating exhausts the stomach and creates various sorts of healthy troubles, such as arteriosclerosis, angina pectoris, hypertension, and diabetes.

The sexual gluttony also causes similar defects, such as impotence of the public health, disappearance of nervous power, and vanishing of vitality.

Treatment of Gluttony

• It is necessary for the overeater to keep in mind the advantages of chastity and ponder over the disadvantages of gluttony.

• It is necessary for the overeater to try his best to train himself on moderate food. The protective and remedial constitution of health is the moderation of food and the avoidance of overeating. This constitution is summarized in the holy Verse:

“Eat and drink but do not be excessive.” (7:31)

The treatment of the sexual gluttony is as follows:

• Keeping in mind the dangers of sexual excess and moral and material corruptions.

• Striving the simulative of sexual desires, such as looking at the beauties of women, mixing of the sexes, excessive sexual imagination, and daydreams.

Notes

1. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 14 page 545 (as quoted from Tibb ul-Ayimma).

2. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; vol. 1 page 27.

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al-Faqih).

5. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

6. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; 14/876 (as quoted from al- Barqi’s al-Mahasin).

Faithfulness and Breach

Faithfulness is the fulfillment of the deposited rights. It is the opposite of breach and one of the noblest traits and most dignified qualities that achieve admiration and success.

The opposite of faithfulness is breach, which stands for the seizure and usurpation of rights. It is one of the meanest qualities and nastiest manners that cause indignity, failure, and disappointment.

Therefore, reports and traditions urged faithfulness and warned against breach:

“Allah commands you to return that which had been entrusted to you to the rightful owners. Be just when passing judgment among people. Allah's advice is the most noble. (4:58)”

“Believers, do not be dishonest to Allah and the Messengers or knowingly abuse your trust. (8:27)”

The Prophet (S) said: “My umma will be kept in goodness so long as they do not breach the trusts of each other, keep on fulfilling their trusts, and defray the zakat; otherwise, they will be inflicted with famine and harsh years of draught1 .”

“The fulfillment of the trusts brings sustenance, while treachery causes poverty2 .”

“He who breaches the trust is not one of us.”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Do not be deceived by their very much offering of prayers and observance of fasting. In fact, prayers and fasting have become habits that they feel desolate if they omit them. You should test them by their truthfulness and fulfillment of trusts3 .”

“Abide by God-fearing and fulfillment of the trusts of them who deposit things with you. If the killer of Ali Ibn Abi Talib deposits with me a trust, I will surely keep it for him4 .”

Advantages of Faithfulness and Disadvantages of Breach

Faithfulness plays a great role in the lives of nations. It is the system of their deeds, the support of their affairs, the title of their nobility, and the way to their moral and material development. The faithful individuals win the others’ admiration, trust, love, and confidence. Besides, such individuals will win shares in people’s fortunes and profits.

This fact is applicable to all nations whose lives cannot advance without the surroundings of confidence. Through faithfulness, the Arabs could control the reins of economy and keys of industry and commerce that brought abundant profits. Unfortunately, Muslims, thereafter, neglected faithfulness; therefore, they failed and were disappointed.

Thus, breach of trusts is one of the major reasons of failure. It is a serious factor causing mutual mistrust, enmity, and fear. Such factor results in social corruption, loose of ties, waste of interests, and dissipation of energies.

Forms of Breach

There are many forms of breach that vary in the scope of its cruelty, crimes, and results. The evilest form is treason that is committed by the thinkers and writers who violate the sacred facts of science by means of distortion and misrepresentation. The divulgement of Muslims’ secrets is another form of breach. A third one is the breach of the deposits. To confiscate such deposits is surely a double crime of breach, larceny, and usurpation. There are many other repulsive forms of breach that injure both the individuals and communities, such as trickery, cheating, deficient measurements, fraud, and dishonesty.

Notes

1. Quoted from as-Saduq’s Thawab ul-A’mal.

2. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 10 page 112 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 82 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 10 page 112 (as quoted from al- Kafi and Tahdhib).

Fraternity

Spiritual Fraternity

The pre-Islamic era was a stage of tragedies in the various mental and material fields. Moral dissolution and disorder were the most horrible tragedies that caused people to practice natures of beasts, law of jungle, disagreement, fighting, killing, usurpation, and declamation of revenge and retaliation.

When the dawn of Islam rose to spread its lights over humankind, it could, through its immortal principles and unparalleled constitution, stop these tragedies and cut off these combats. Then, it changed these ignorant herds into “the best nation that ever existed among humanity1 .”

Faith replaced atheism, order replaced disorder, knowledge replaced ignorance, peace replaced war, and mercy replaced retaliation.

Thus, these concepts faded away and were replaced by the new Islamic principles. The Prophet (S) began to establish that ideal nation whose individuals were unique in order, morals, and perfection. As they progressed under the pennon of the holy Quran and the leadership of the Prophet (S), Muslims flew in the horizons of generosity until they could achieve the principle of fraternity in such a method that could not be achieved by any other code. Moreover, the ties of belief became stronger than those of kinship, and, likewise, the bonds of faith exalted over the tribal and national bonds. Muslims, hence, became a united nation of compact lineup, high edifice, and fluttering pennon:

“People, we have created you all male and female and have made you nations and tribes so that you would recognize each other. The most honorable among you in the sight of Allah is the most pious of you. Allah is All-knowing and All-aware (49:13).”

The holy Quran went on implanting the concepts of spiritual fraternity in the mentalities through numerous Verses compacted by a remarkable and wise style.

The Quran, once, legislates fraternity as a law that should be applied by Muslims:

“Believers are each other's brothers. Restore peace among your brothers. Have fear of Allah so that perhaps you will receive mercy (49:10).”

On another occasion, the Quran confirms the law of fraternity and warns against factors of disagreement, reminding of the grace of the Islamic fraternity and harmony after long periods of disagreement and fighting:

“All of you united hold fast to the rope of Allah, and recall how He favored you when your hostility to each other had torn you apart. He united your hearts in one faith and through His grace you became brothers (3:103).”

In abstract, Islam has exerted all efforts for strengthening the spiritual fraternity among Muslims and protecting it against trends of disagreement and separation through the constitution of the social ties.

As a model, we provide the following:

 The Islamic constitution of the social ties took Muslims’ emotions and feelings far above the slavery of the tribal sectarianism to guide them to the noblest aim; namely, the obedience to God and the seeking of His satisfaction. Love, hate, giving, deprivation, support, and disappointment all these should be for the sake of God. Such being the case, the handles of fraternity will become firmer and Muslims will become the like of the well-established building each part of which strengthens the other.

The Prophet (S) said: “The mutual love of the believers that is intended sincerely for the sake of Allah is one of the greatest classes of faith. He who loves, hates, gives, deprives all for the sake of Allah is surely one of the choices of Allah2 .”

Imam as-Sajjad (a) said: “When Allah will gather the past and the late generations on the Day of Resurrection, a caller that everybody will hear will cry out on those who loved each other for the sake of Allah. A few people will stand up. They will be sent to Paradise without being rendered to judgment. In their way to Paradise, the angels will meet and ask them. ‘We are going to our abodes in Paradise without being rendered to judgment,’ they will answer. As the angels ask them about their class, they will answer, ‘We loved each other for the sake of Allah.’ As the angels ask them about their deeds due to which they have gained such a rank, they will answer, ‘We loved and hated for the sake of Allah.’ The angels then will say: Very well is the reward of the doers of charity3 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “If you want to know whether you are to the good or not, you should test your heart: if it loves the people of obedience to Allah and hates the people of disobedient to Him, you are then to the good and Allah loves you. If your heart hates the people of the obedience to Allah and loves the people of the disobedience to Him, you are then not to the good and Allah hates you. Certainly, man will be attached to the one whom he loved4 .”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “On the Day of Resurrection, those who love each other purely for the sake of Allah will be on luminous stages; the light of their faces, bodies, stages, and everything will be shining so that shining will be their distinctive feature and everybody will point to them and say those loved each other for the sake of Allah5 .”

“He who does not love or hate for the sake of the religion is not Muslim6 .”

The Islamic constitution of the social ties enjoined Muslims to adhere to the factors of coalition, dignity, and luxury, such as exhorting each other to the right, helping each other in fields of piety, supporting each other for the achievement of justice, and joining the forces in the economical fields of life. According to the Islamic Sharia, all Muslims are one family whose matters of happiness and unhappiness are the same. The constitution of such a family is:

“Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah and those with him are stern to the disbelievers yet kind among themselves. (48:29)”

And the slogan is the saying of the Prophet (S):

“He who begins his day without caring for the affairs of the Muslims is not a Muslim.”

The Islamic constitution of the social ties warned Muslims against all factors of separation, hostility, obscenity, backbiting, tale bearing, breach, and cheating as well as all other matters that arouse seditions and rancor. The Muslims’ principal in this point is the Prophet’s saying:

“The true believer is only he whom Muslims can trust in regard with their estates and souls. The true Muslim is only he whom Muslims are saved from his hand physical harm- and tongue- verbal harm-. The true Muhajir7 emigrant- is that who deserts the sins8 .”

 The Islamic constitution of the social ties granted the opportunities of improving friendly relations between Muslims, such as exchanging visits, frequenting religious circles, and witnessing Islamic gatherings such as collective prayers, hajj9 , and the like.

Notes

1. Quoted from the holy Quran; 3:110.

2. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 89 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

3. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 1 page 283 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 90 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 89 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

6. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 90 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

7. Muhajirs: The emigrants. The early Muslims of Mecca who had to flee their homeland to Medina.

8. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 99 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

9. Hajj is the pilgrimage to the Sacred Mosque at Mecca undertaken in the twelfth month of the Hijri year and constituting one of the religious duties of Islam.