Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

4.5. A THING DOES NOT EXIST UNLESS IT BECOMES NECESSARY

There is no doubt that the contingent, which is indifferent to both existence and non-existence, depends for its existence on that which is called the ‘cause,’ without which it cannot exist. Does the existence of the contingent depend on being necessitated by its cause, which makes it accidentally necessary, or does it come into existence by merely emerging out of the state of indifference (to existence and non-existence) without reaching the limit of necessity? The same question can be framed in regard to its non-existence. The ‘theory of preponderance’ (awlawiyyah) upholds the latter view. Its proponents classify ‘preponderance’ into essential and accidental. The former is said to be what is required by the quiddity and essence of a contingent. They further divide each of these kinds into that which is sufficient to actualize the contingent and that which is insufficient.

However, the idea of preponderance with all its divisions is a false notion.

As to ‘essential preponderance,’ the quiddity of a thing prior to its existence is a vacuity having no entity, so as to require any preponderance, sufficient or insufficient, in favour of its existence. In other words, quiddity as such is neither existent nor non-existent, nor is it anything else. As to accidental preponderance, which derives from the cause, it cannot bring the contingent out of its state of indifference as long as it does not reach the point of necessity. By itself it cannot determine the contingent’s existence or non-existence,’ and the question as to why this has actualized instead of that remains open, which proves that the cause is not yet complete.

To sum up, preponderance lies solely in the cause necessitating the existence or non-existence of the effect, in the sense that when the cause determines its existence its non-existence is impossible, and when the cause necessitates non-existence of the contingent, its existence does not become necessary. Hence a thing - that is a contingent - does not exist unless necessitated.

Conclusion

The aforementioned necessity is one that the contingent derives from its cause. It has another necessity attending its existence or non-existence. This necessity is called ‘necessity imposed by the predicate’ [i.e. existence or non-existence, in the present case].

Thus a contingent is bracketed by two kinds of necessity: prior and attendant.

الفصل السادس في معاني الإمكان

الإمكان المبحوث عنه هاهنا هو لا ضرورة الوجود و العدم بالنسبة إلى الماهية المأخوذة من حيث هي, و هو المسمى ب “الإمكان الخاص” و “الخاصي”.

و قد يستعمل الإمكان بمعنى سلب الضرورة عن الجانب المخالف, سواء كان الجانب الموافق ضروريا أو غير ضروري; فيقال: الشي‏ء الفلاني ممكن أي ليس بممتنع; و هو المستعمل في لسان العامة, أعم من الإمكان الخاص; و لذا يسمى “إمكانا عاميا” و “عاما”.

و قد يستعمل في معنى أخص من ذلك, و هو سلب الضرورات الذاتية و الوصفية و الوقتية; كقولنا: الإنسان كاتب بالإمكان, حيث إن الإنسانية لا تقتضي ضرورة الكتابة, و لم يؤخذ في الموضوع وصف يوجب الضرورة, و لا وقت كذلك; و تحقق الإمكان بهذا المعنى في القضية بحسب الاعتبار العقلي, بمقايسة المحمول إلى الموضوع, لا ينافي ثبوت الضرورة بحسب الخارج بثبوت العلة; و يسمى “الإمكان الأخص”.

و قد يستعمل بمعنى سلب الضرورة من الجهات الثلاث و الضرورة بشرط المحمول أيضا كقولنا “زيد كاتب غدا بالإمكان” و يختص بالأمور المستقبلة التي لم تتحقق بعد حتى يثبت فيها الضرورة بشرط المحمول و هذا الإمكان إنما يثبت بحسب الظن و الغفلة عن أن كل حادث مستقبل إما واجب أو ممتنع لانتهائه إلى علل موجبة مفروغ عنها و يسمى “الإمكان الاستقبالي”.

و قد يستعمل الإمكان بمعنيين آخرين:

أحدهما: ما يسمى الإمكان الوقوعي, و هو كون الشي‏ء بحيث لا يلزم من فرض وقوعه محال, أي ليس ممتنعا بالذات أو بالغير; و هو سلب الامتناع عن الجانب الموافق, كما أن الإمكان العام سلب الضرورة عن الجانب المخالف.

و ثانيهما: الإمكان الاستعدادي, و هو, كما ذكروه, نفس الاستعداد ذاتاً, و غيره اعتبارًا, فإن تهيؤ الشي‏ء لأن يصير شيئا آخر, له نسبة إلى الشي‏ء المستعِدّ, و نسبة إلى الشي‏ء المستعَدّ له; فبالاعتبار الأول يسمى “استعدادا” فيقال مثلا: النطفة لها استعداد أن تصير إنسانا; و بالاعتبار الثاني يسمى “الإمكان الاستعدادي” فيقال: الإنسان يمكن أن يوجد في النطفة.

و الفرق بينه و بين الإمكان الذاتي: أن الإمكان الذاتي, كما سيجي‏ء, اعتبار تحليلي عقلي يلحق الماهية المأخوذة من حيث هي, و الإمكان الاستعدادي صفة وجودية تلحق الماهية الموجودة فالإمكان الذاتي يلحق الماهية الإنسانية المأخوذة من حيث هي و الإمكان الاستعدادي يلحق النطفة الواقعة في مجرى تكون الإنسان.

و لذا كان الإمكان الاستعدادي قابلا للشدة و الضعف, فإمكان تحقق الإنسانية في العلقة أقوى منه في النطفة; بخلاف الإمكان الذاتي فلا شدة و لا ضعف فيه.

و لذا أيضا كان الإمكان الاستعدادي, يقبل الزوال عن الممكن, فإن الاستعداد يزول بعد تحقق المستعد له بالفعل; بخلاف الإمكان الذاتي فإنه لازم الماهية, هو معها حيثما تحققت.

و لذا أيضا كان الإمكان الاستعدادي, و محله المادة بالمعنى الأعم, يتعين معه الممكن المستعد له, كالإنسانية التي تستعد لها المادة; بخلاف الإمكان الذاتي الذي في الماهية, فإنه لا يتعين معه لها الوجود أو العدم.

و الفرق بين الإمكان الاستعدادي و الوقوعي: أن الاستعدادي إنما يكون في الماديات و الوقوعي أعم موردا.

4.6. SOME OTHER MEANINGS OF IMKÂN

The imkân discussed above is in the sense of non-necessity of existence or non-existence in relation to quiddity when taken as such. It is called al-imkân al-khâshsh or al-khâshshî (special possibility).

(i) However, the word imkân is also used in the sense of negation of necessity in relation to the contrary of something, irrespective of whether it be necessary or not. For example, when it is said that such and such a thing is possible, what is meant is that it is not impossible. In this common usage, imkân has a wider meaning than contingency. Hence it is called imkân âmm or âmmî (general possibility).

(ii) The word imkân is also used in a narrower sense than that of contingency to mean absence of the threefold logical necessities (darûrah). essential (dzâtiyyah), attributive (wasfiyyah) and time-bound (waqtiyyah). For instance, in the statement, ‘Man may be a writer,’ being human does not necessarily require the ability to write; nor is there a quality that may entail that such a necessity is subsumed in the subject, nor is any particular time associated with it that may entail such a necessity. Possibility, in this sense, arises in a proposition on account of a conceptual consideration wherein the predicate is related to the subject; it does not negate the actualization of necessity in the external world due to the actualization of the cause. Possibility in this sense is called al- imkân al-akhashsh (more special possibility).

(iii) Imkân is also used in the sense of absence of necessity imposed by predication and the absence of the three kinds of necessity mentioned above, as in the statement ‘Zayd may be a writer tomorrow.’ It pertains to circumstances pertaining to the future that have not yet occurred so that necessity imposed by the predicate may apply to them. This kind of possibility derives from conjecture and from inattention to the fact that every future event is either necessary or impossible because of its dependence on the presence or absence of its causes. This kind of possibility is called al- imkân al-istiqbâlî (future possibility).’

(iv) The word imkân is also used in two other senses. One of them is the so-called al-imkan al-wuqû’î (possibility of occurrence), which applies to a thing the assumption of whose occurrence does not entail an impossibility. That is, it is neither impossible in itself nor by virtue of something else. It involves a negation of impossibility in regard to the affirmative side of the proposition (e.g. in the proposition ‘A’s existence is possible,’ impossibility is negated in regard to A’s existence), whereas ‘general possibility’ involves a negation of necessity in regard to the converse side. (In the above proposition, the negation of necessity will be in regard to A’s non-existence.)

(v) The second is imkân al-isti’dâdî (potential), which, as mentioned by metaphysicians, is essentially a thing’s potential (e.g., the seed’s potential to become a tree), differing from it only in respect of consideration. The potential of a thing for becoming another thing can be considered in two ways: (i) in relation to the thing possessing that potential and (ii) in relation to that which it has the potential to become. In the first case, it is called ‘potential.’ Hence one may, for instance, say, ‘The embryo has the potential

to become a human being.’ In the second, it is called ‘possibility by virtue of potential (al-imkân al-isti’dâdî).’ Hence, in the above example, one may say, ‘It is possible for a human being to come forth from the embryo.’

Following are some points of difference between this kind of possibility and essential contingency (al-imkân al-dzâtî), which will be discussed in the next section:

(i) Essential contingency is a rational analytic concept (i’tibâr tahlîlî ‘aqlî) associated with quiddity qua quiddity, whereas ‘possibility by virtue of potential’ is an existential quality associated with an existing quiddity. Hence essential contingency is associated with man’s quiddity conceived as such, whereas possibility by virtue of potential is associated with the embryo in the process of becoming a human being.

(ii) Accordingly, possibility by virtue of potential is subject to various degrees of strength and weakness, as this possibility is greater in a developed foetus than one in the early stages, unlike essential contingency, which does not vary.

(iii) Also, possibility by virtue of potential can disappear with the disappearance of the potential after the thing actually becomes what it had the potential for, unlike essential contingency, which clings to quiddity and remains with it even when it is actualized.

(iv) Furthermore, possibility by virtue of potential is found in ‘matter,’ in its most general sense. This possibility determines the end product of the potential, like the human form determined by the potential of the matter (in the form of the embryo). On the contrary, essential contingency, which is associated with quiddity, does not determine its existence or non-existence.

The difference between ‘possibility by virtue of potential’ and ‘possibility of occurrence’ is that the former relates solely to material beings, while the latter applies to material as well as immaterial things.

الفصل السابع في أن الإمكان اعتبار عقلي, و أنه لازم للماهية

أما أنه اعتبار عقلي, فلأنه يلحق الماهية المأخوذة عقلا مع قطع النظر عن الوجود و العدم, و الماهية المأخوذة كذلك اعتبارية بلا ريب, فما يلحق بها بهذا الاعتبار كذلك بلا ريب; و هذا الاعتبار العقلي لا ينافي كونها بحسب نفس الأمر إما موجودة أو معدومة, و لازمه كونها محفوفة بوجوبين أو امتناعين.

و أما كونه لازما للماهية, فلأنا إذا تصورنا الماهية من حيث هي, مع قطع النظر عن كل ما سواها, لم نجد معها ضرورة وجود أو عدم, و ليس الإمكان إلا سلب الضرورتين, فهي بذاتها ممكنة. و أصل الإمكان و إن كان هذين السلبين, لكن العقل يضع لازم هذين السلبين, و هو استواء النسبة, مكانهما; فيعود الإمكان معنى ثبوتيا, و إن كان مجموع السلبين منفيا.

4.7. CONTINGENCY IS ESSENTIAL TO QUIDDITY

Contingency is a conceptual construct (i’tibâr ‘aqlî), for it is associated with quiddity as conceived by the intellect without taking existence or non-existence into account. Quiddity conceived in this manner is undoubtedly a conceptual construct; hence that which is associated with it is also undoubtedly a mental construct. However, being a conceptual construct does not preclude quiddity’s existence or non-existence in actual fact, nor does being bracketed by two necessities or impossibilities.

As to contingency being inseparable from quiddity, when we conceive quiddity as such without taking into account anything else, we do not find in it either the logical necessity of existence or that of non-existence. Contingency is nothing except negation of the two necessities. Hence quiddity is contingent in its essence. Although there are two negations involved here, the intellect substitutes them with their implication - that is, equality of relation to existence and non-existence - and thus contingency becomes a positive concept (ma‘nâ tsubûtiyyan) despite the negative import of the two negations.

الفصل الثامن في حاجة الممكن إلى العلة و ما هي علة احتياجه إليها؟

حاجة الممكن إلى العلة من الضروريات الأولية, التي مجرد تصور موضوعها و محمولها كاف في التصديق بها; فإن من تصور الماهية الممكنة المتساوية النسبة إلى الوجود و العدم, و تصور توقف خروجها من حد الاستواء إلى أحد الجانبين على أمر آخر يخرجها منه إليه لم يلبث أن يصدق به.

و هل علة حاجة الممكن إلى العلة هي الإمكان, أو الحدوث؟ الحق هو الأول, و به قالت الحكماء.

و استدل عليه بأن الماهية باعتبار وجودها ضرورية الوجود, و باعتبار عدمها ضرورية العدم, و هاتان الضرورتان بشرط المحمول, و ليس الحدوث إلا ترتب إحدى الضرورتين على الأخرى, فإنه كون وجود الشي‏ء بعد عدمه, و معلوم أن الضرورة مناط الغنى عن السبب و ارتفاع الحاجة, فما لم تعتبر الماهية بإمكانها لم يرتفع الوجوب, و لم تحصل الحاجة إلى العلة.

برهان آخر: إن الماهية لا توجد إلا عن إيجاد من العلة, و إيجاد العلة لها متوقف على وجوب الماهية المتوقف على إيجاب العلة, و قد تبين مما تقدم و إيجاب العلة متوقف على حاجة الماهية إليها و حاجة الماهية إليها متوقفة على إمكانها; إذ لو لم تمكن بأن وجبت أو امتنعت استغنت عن العلة بالضرورة; فلحاجتها توقف ما على الإمكان بالضرورة; و لو توقفت مع ذلك على حدوثها, و هو وجودها بعد العدم, سواء كان الحدوث علة و الإمكان شرطا, أو عدمه مانعا, أو كان الحدوث جزء علة و الجزء الآخر هو الإمكان, أو كان الحدوث شرطا, أو عدمه الواقع في مرتبته مانعا, فعلى أي حال يلزم تقدم الشي‏ء على نفسه بمراتب. و كذا لو كان وجوبها أو إيجاب العلة لها هو علة الحاجة بوجه.

فلم يبق إلا أن يكون الإمكان وحده علة للحاجة, إذ ليس في هذه السلسلة المتصلة المترتبة عقلا قبل الحاجة إلا الماهية و إمكانها.

و بذلك يندفع ما احتج به بعض القائلين بأن علة الحاجة إلى العلة هو الحدوث دون الإمكان, من أنه لو كان الإمكان هو العلة دون الحدوث, جاز أن يوجد القديم الزماني, و هو الذي لا أول لوجوده و لا آخر له; و معلوم أن فرض دوام وجوده يغنيه عن العلة, إذ لا سبيل للعدم إليه حتى يحتاج إلى ارتفاعه.

وجه الاندفاع: أن المفروض أن ذاته هو المنشأ لحاجته, و الذات محفوظة مع الوجود الدائم, فله على فرض دوام الوجود حاجة دائمة في ذاته, و إن كان مع شرط الوجود له بنحو الضرورة بشرط المحمول مستغنيا عن العلة, بمعنى ارتفاع حاجته بها.

و أيضا سيجي‏ء: أن وجود المعلول سواء كان حادثا أو قديما, وجود رابط, متعلق الذات بعلته, غير مستقل دونها; فالحاجة إلى العلة ذاتية ملازمة له.

4.8. THE CONTINGENT’S NEED FOR A CAUSE

The contingent’s need for a cause is one of the primary self-evident propositions, wherein the mere conception of the subject and the predicate is sufficient to affirm its validity. For if one were to conceive the contingent quiddity, which is equally related to existence and non-existence, and its dependence on something else for drawing it from this state of equality toward one of the two sides, one would affirm its need for a cause.

However, what is it that makes the contingent require a cause? Is it contingency, or is it coming into existence after being non-existent (hudûts)? The truth is that it is contingency, and this is the view of the philosophers.

An argument in favour of this view is that quiddity is necessarily existent when considered in relation to its existence, and necessarily non-existent when considered in relation to its non-existence, each of these necessities being conditioned by predicate; hudûts is nothing except one of these necessities followed by the other, for hudûts means a thing’s coming into existence after being non-existent. It is obvious that necessity is the criterion for the absence of need for a cause. Hence so long as quiddity is not conceived with its contingency, necessity does not disappear and the need for a cause does not actualize.

Another argument is that a quiddity does not come into existence unless brought into existence by the cause. Its being brought into existence by the cause depends on the quiddity’s existence becoming necessary, which again depends on its being necessitated by the cause. From what was said earlier, it becomes clear that the cause’s making its existence necessary depends on the quiddity’s need for it and the quiddity’s need for it depends on its contingency. For were it not contingent, and were it necessary or impossible, of necessity it would not need any cause. Hence its need depends necessarily on its contingency. Moreover, if it were to depend as well on its hudûts, i.e., its coming into existence after non-existence, that would entail a thing being prior to itself. To explain, irrespective of whether we consider hudûts as the cause and contingency as a condition; hudûts as the cause and non-existence of contingency as an obstacle; whether hudûts is considered as forming a part of the cause with contingency as the other part; whether we consider contingency as the cause and hudûts as a condition, or contingency; or something else, as the cause and the non-existence of hudûts as an obstacle, every one of these cases necessitates a thing preceding itself by several stages. The same is true of the case when its necessity or the cause’s necessitating it is assumed to be the reason for its need for a cause.

Hence there remains no alternative except to consider contingency as the sole ground of its need, for in this interlinked sequence there is no rational stage prior to the need except that of quiddity and its contingency.

On this basis, the argument offered by some theologians that the ground of the need for cause is huduth and not contingency, stands refuted. Their argument is that if the need for cause were due to contingency, the existence of entities without a beginning or end in time (al-qadîm al-zamânî) would be admissible. The assumption of their eternal existence exempts them from

the need for a cause, for it is never non-existent so as to be brought into existence by a cause.

The answer to this objection is as follows. The assumption is that it is a thing’s essence that is the source of the need for a cause, and it retains this essence throughout its eternal existence. If it is assumed to exist eternally, then its need for a cause, which inheres in its essence, will be eternal, though given the condition of existence by way of necessity conditioned by the predicate (al-darûrah bi syarth al-mahmûl) it would not require a cause in the sense of removal of the need for it.

Moreover, as will be discussed later on, the existence of an effect (wujûd al-ma’lûl), irrespective of whether it is eternal or comes into existence after being non-existent, is a relative existence (wujûd râbith) essentially dependent on its cause with no independence of its own. Hence the need for a cause is essential to it and inseparable from it.

الفصل التاسع الممكن محتاج إلى علته بقاء كما أنه محتاج إليها حدوثا

و ذلك: لأن علة حاجته إلى العلة إمكانه اللازم لماهيته, و هي محفوظة معه في حال البقاء, كما أنها محفوظة معه في حال الحدوث, فهو محتاج إلى العلة حدوثا و بقاء, مستفيض في الحالين جميعا.

برهان آخر: أن وجود المعلول -كما تكررت الإشارة إليه و سيجي‏ء بيانه- وجود رابط, متعلق الذات بالعلة, متقوم بها غير مستقل دونها; فحاله في الحاجة إلى العلة حدوثا و بقاء واحد و الحاجة ملازمة.

و قد استدلوا: على استغناء الممكن عن العلة في حال البقاء بأمثلة عامية; كمثال البناء و البناء, حيث إن البناء يحتاج في وجوده إلى البناء, حتى إذا بناه استغنى عنه في بقائه.

و ردّ: بأن البناء ليس علة موجدة للبناء: بل حركات يده علل مُعِدّة لحدوث الاجتماع بين أجزاء البناء; و اجتماع الأجزاء علة لحدوث شكل البناء, ثم اليبوسة علة لبقائه مدة يعتد بها.

خاتمة

قد تبين من الأبحاث السابقة: أن الوجوب و الإمكان و الامتناع كيفيات ثلاث لنسب القضايا; و أن الوجوب و الإمكان أمران وجوديان, لمطابقة القضايا الموجهة بهما للخارج مطابقة تامة بما لها من الجهة; فهما موجودان لكن بوجود موضوعهما لا بوجود منحاز مستقل, فهما كسائر المعاني الفلسفية, من الوحدة و الكثرة, و القدم و الحدوث, و القوة و الفعل, و غيرها, أوصاف وجودية موجودة للموجود المطلق, بمعنى كون الاتصاف بها في الخارج و عروضها في الذهن; و هي المسماة ب “المعقولات الثانية” باصطلاح الفلسفة.

و ذهب بعضهم إلى كون الوجوب و الإمكان موجودين في الخارج بوجود منحاز مستقل. و لا يعبؤ به. هذا في الوجوب و الإمكان, و أما الامتناع فهو أمر عدمي بلا ريب.

هذا كله بالنظر إلى اعتبار العقل الماهيات و المفاهيم موضوعات للأحكام; و أما بالنظر إلى كون الوجود هو الموضوع لها حقيقة لأصالته, فالوجوب: كون الوجود في نهاية الشدة قائما بنفسه مستقلا في ذاته على الإطلاق كما تقدمت الإشارة إليه; و الإمكان: كونه متعلق النفس بغيره متقوم الذات بسواه, كوجود الماهيات, فالوجوب و الإمكان وصفان قائمان بالوجود غير خارجين من ذات موضوعهما.

4.9. THE CONTINGENT NEEDS A CAUSE EVEN IN CONTINUANCE

The reason for the contingent’s need for a cause is contingency, which is inseparable from quiddity, and thac need remains with it in the state of continuance in the same way that it accompanies it while coming into existence (hudûts). Hence it needs the cause for coming into existence as well as for continuance, being dependent on it in both the states.

Another proof of it is that the existence of the effect, as mentioned repeatedly earlier and as will be explained further later on, is a relative existence, essentially dependent on the cause and subsisting through it, having no independence of its own. Hence its state of need for the cause is the same in coming into existence as well as continuance, being inseparable from it.

Those who consider the contingent’s need for a cause to lie in its hudûts have argued by advancing such commonplace analogies as that of a building and its builder, suggesting that the building needs the builder for coming into existence, but once it is built it does not need him for continuing to exist.

But the fact is that the builder is not the creative cause of the building. Rather the movements of his hands are the preparatory causes for bringing together the parts of the building. The bringing together of the parts is the cause for the coming into existence of the building’s form. Thereafter its continuance for any considerable period of time depends on its rigidity and resistance to destructive elements such as moisture, etc.

Conclusion

It becomes clear from the above discussions that necessity, contingency and impossibility are threefold modes for propositions and that necessity and contingency are existential features. That is because modal propositions completely correspond to external reality in respect of their mode. Hence the two are existent but their existence is implicit in their subject, not something separate and independent. Therefore, they are like other philosophical concepts such as unity and multiplicity, qidam and hudûts, potentiality and actuality, and so on, which are existential attributes that relate to absolute existence, in the sense that the attribution is there in external reality and their predication occurs in the mind. They are called ‘secondary’ intelligibles or concepts (ma‘qûlât al-tsâniyyah) in the terminology of philosophy.

Some thinkers have held that necessity and contingency exist externally as separate and independent existents. No serious notice need be taken of this opinion. This was concerning necessity and contingency; as to impossibility, there is no doubt that it is derives from non-existence.

The entire discussion above was from the viewpoint of the intellect’s consideration of quiddities and concepts as subjects in judgements. However, from the viewpoint of existence with its fundamental reality being the subject, necessity means: the being of existence at its ultimate strength, self-subsisting, and absolutely independent in itself, as pointed out earlier. Also contingency means: the essential dependence of an existent on something else that sustains it, as in the case of quiddities. Hence necessity

and contingency are two qualities that depend on existence, and they are not extraneous to the essence of their subjects.

المرحلة الخامسة في الماهية و أحكامها

و فيها ثمانية فصول

CHAPTER FIVE: Quiddity and Its Properties

8 Units

الفصل الأول الماهية من حيث هي ليست إلا هي

الماهية و هي ما يقال في جواب ما هو لما كانت تقبل الاتصاف بأنها موجودة أو معدومة أو واحدة أو كثيرة أو كلية أو فرد و كذا سائر الصفات المتقابلة كانت في حد ذاتها مسلوبة عنها الصفات المتقابلة.

فالماهية من حيث هي ليست إلا هي لا موجودة و لا لا موجودة و لا شيئا آخر و هذا معنى قولهم إن النقيضين يرتفعان عن مرتبة الماهية يريدون به أن شيئا من النقيضين غير مأخوذ في الماهية و إن كانت في الواقع غير خالية عن أحدهما بالضرورة.

فماهية الإنسان و هي الحيوان الناطق مثلا و إن كانت إما موجودة و إما معدومة لا يجتمعان و لا يرتفعان لكن شيئا من الوجود و العدم غير مأخوذ فيها فللإنسان معنى و لكل من الوجود و العدم معنى آخر و كذا الصفات العارضة حتى عوارض الماهية فلماهية الإنسان مثلا معنى و للإمكان العارض لها معنى آخر و للأربعة مثلا معنى و للزوجية العارضة لها معنى آخر.

و محصل القول إن الماهية يحمل عليها بالحمل الأولى نفسها و يسلب عنها بحسب هذا الحمل ما وراء ذلك.

5.1. QUIDDITY QUA ITSELF IS NOTHING BUT ITSELF

The quiddity of a thing is that which is mentioned in answer to the question, ‘What is it?’ As it is capable of accepting such attributes as ‘existent’ or ‘non-existent,’ ‘one’ or ‘many,’ ‘universal’ or ‘particular,’ and yields to other such opposite descriptions, it is devoid of all opposite attributes in the definition of its essence.

Therefore, quiddity qua itself is nothing but itself. It is neither existent nor non-existent, nor is it anything else. Hence the statement of the philosophers: “Both the contradictories are negated at the plane of quiddity.” It means that nothing pertaining to any of the contradictories is subsumed in the concept of quiddity, though in the external world of necessity, quiddity cannot be devoid of either of them.

Thus the quiddity of man, for instance, is ‘rational animal,’ and it is either existent or non-existent. These two attributes cannot be affirmed or negated of it simultaneously. However, the notion of existent or non-existent is not subsumed in the concept of ‘man,’ and hence ‘man’ has a meaning that is different from that of ‘existence’ or ‘non-existence.’ The same applies to accidental characteristics, even those that are predicable of quiddity. Hence the quiddity of ‘man,’ for instance, is one concept, and contingency, with which it is characterized, is another concept. ‘Four,’ for instance, is a concept different from that of ‘evenness,’ with which the former is characterized.

That which can be concluded from the above statements is that quiddity is predicated of itself with primary predication (al-haml al-awwalî ; as in the statement, ‘Man is a rational animal’) and in respect of this predication everything else is negated of it.

الفصل الثاني في اعتبارات الماهية و ما يلحق بها من المسائل

للماهية بالإضافة إلى ما عداها مما يتصور لحوقه بها ثلاث اعتبارات إما أن تعتبر بشرط شي‏ء أو بشرط لا أو لا بشرطي شي‏ء و القسمة حاصرة

أما الأول فإن تؤخذ بما هي مقارنة لما يلحق بها من الخصوصيات فتصدق على المجموع كالإنسان المأخوذ مع خصوصيات زيد فيصدق عليه.

و أما الثاني فإن يشترط معها أن لا يكون معها غيرها و هذا يتصور على قسمين أحدهما أن يقصر النظر في ذاتها و أنها ليست إلا هي و هو المراد من كون الماهية بشرط لا في مباحث الماهية كما تقدم و ثانيهما أن تؤخذ الماهية وحدها بحيث لو قارنها أي مفهوم مفروض كان زائدا عليها غير داخل فيها فتكون إذا قارنها جزء من المجموع مادة له غير محمولة عليه.

و أما الثالث فأن لا يشترط معها شي‏ء بل تؤخذ مطلقة مع تجويز أن يقارنها شي‏ء أو لا يقارنها.

فالقسم الأول هو الماهية بشرط شي‏ء و تسمى المخلوطة و القسم الثاني هو الماهية بشرط لا و تسمى المجردة و القسم الثالث هو الماهية لا بشرط و تسمى المطلقة.

و الماهية التي هي المقسم للأقسام الثلاثة هي الكلي الطبيعي و هي التي تعرضها الكلية في الذهن فتقبل الانطباق على كثيرين و هي موجودة في الخارج لوجود قسمين من أقسامها أعني المخلوطة و المطلقة فيه و المقسم محفوظ في أقسامه موجود بوجودها.

و الموجود منها في كل فرد غير الموجود منها في فرد آخر بالعدد و لو كان واحدا موجودا بوحدته في جميع الأفراد لكان الواحد كثيرا بعينه و هو محال و كان الواحد بالعدد متصفا بصفات متقابلة و هو محال.

5.2. DIFFERENT CONSIDERATIONS (I’TIBARAT) OF QUIDDITY

Quiddity can be considered in three different ways in relation to anything else that may be conceived as being associated with it. It may be considered either as being conditioned by something (bi syarthi shay’); with a negative condition (bi syarthi lâ, i.e. with the condition of being dissociated from something); or conceived in a non-conditioned manner (lâ bi syarth). This division is exhaustive.

In the first consideration it is taken along with some associated qualities so that it corresponds to the aggregate of them, such as where the quiddity of ‘man’ in combination with the attributes of a particular individual Zayd corresponds to him.

In the second consideration, there is a condition that it is not to be accompanied with anything else. There are two aspects to this consideration. In the first, one’s view is confined to quiddity qua itself and as nothing but itself. It was in this negatively conditioned sense (al-mahiyyah bi syarthi lâ) that we dealt with quiddity in the preceding chapter. In the second consideration, quiddity is taken alone, in the sense that any other assumed concept accompanying it would be extraneous and additional to it, whereupon quiddity would be part of the whole and ‘matter’ for it and incapable of being predicated of it (i.e. the whole).

In the third consideration, no condition accompanies quiddity, and it is taken in an absolute manner, wherein something may or may not accompany it.

In the first consideration, quiddity is called ‘mixed’ quiddity (makhlûthah), or ‘quiddity conditioned by something.’ In the second, it is called ‘divested quiddity’ or ‘negatively conditioned quiddity’ (mujarradah). In the third, it is called ‘absolute quiddity’ or ‘non-conditioned quiddity’ (muthlaqah). The quiddity of which these three kinds are sub-classes is the ‘natural universal’ (al-kullî al-thabî’i), which possesses universality in the mind and is capable of corresponding to a multiplicity of things. It exists in the external world, for two of its divisions, that is, ‘mixed’ and ‘absolute,’ exist there, and a class is preserved in its sub-classes and exists where its sub-classes are found.

However, its existence in any individual to which it corresponds is not numerically other than its existence in other individuals. For if something that is one were to exist despite its unity, in all individuals, what is one would be many, and what is numerically one would possess opposite qualities, both of which are impossible.

الفصل الثالث في معنى الذاتي و العرضي

المعاني المعتبرة في الماهيات المأخوذة في حدودها و هي التي ترتفع الماهية بارتفاعها تسمى الذاتيات و ما وراء ذلك عرضيات محمولة فإن توقف انتزاعها و حملها على انضمام سميت محمولات بالضميمة كانتزاع الحار و حملها على الجسم من انضمام الحرارة إليه و إلا فالخارج المحمول كالعالي و السافل.

و الذاتي يميز من غيره بوجوه من خواصه :

منها أن الذاتيات بينة لا تحتاج في ثبوتها لذي الذاتي إلى وسط

و منها أنها غنية عن السبب بمعنى أنها لا تحتاج إلى سبب وراء سبب ذي الذاتي فعله وجود الماهية بعينها علة أجزائها الذاتية.

و منها أن الأجزاء الذاتية متقدمة على ذي الذاتي.

و الإشكال في تقدم الأجزاء على الكل بأن الأجزاء هي الكل بعينه فكيف تتقدم على نفسها مندفع بأن الاعتبار مختلف فالأجزاء بالأسر متقدمة على الأجزاء بوصف الاجتماع و الكلية على أنها إنما سميت أجزاء لكون الواحد منها جزءا من الحد و إلا فالواحد منها عين الكل أعني ذي الذاتي.

5.3. THE MEANING OF ‘ESSENTIAL’ AND ‘ACCIDENTAL’

The concepts which enter into the definition of a certain quiddity, without which the quiddity cannot be conceived, are called its ‘essential parts’ or ‘essentials’ (al-dzâtiyyât, i.e. its genus and differentia). Any besides these are ‘accidental qualities’ (‘aradiyyât), which may be predicated of it. If their abstraction from a subject and their predication depends on their union with the subject, they are called ‘predicates by way of union’ (mahmulât bi al-dhamîmah), such as when ‘hotness’ is abstracted from a hot body and predicated of it by relating hotness to it. Otherwise they are called ‘extraneous to the subject’ (al-khârij al-mahmûl), such as ‘high’ and ‘low.’

There are certain properties that distinguish the ‘essentials’ from whatever is not such.

One of these properties is that the ‘essentials’ are self-evident and do not require any intermediary terms in order to be affirmed of that to which they belong.

A second property is that they do not require any cause (sabab), in the sense that they need no cause in addition to the cause of that to which they pertain. Hence the cause of a quiddity’s existence is itself the cause of its essentials.

A third property is that the essentials are prior to that to which they belong.

An objection has been set forth to the priority of the essentials. It says, “The parts are the same as the whole; how can they be prior to themselves?” It is refuted on the ground that the difference is that of consideration (i’tibâr); hence the parts taken individually are prior to parts when taken collectively and as making the whole. Moreover, they have been named ‘parts’ because each one of them is a part of the definition; otherwise, each of them is identical with the whole, of which it is an essential part.

الفصل الرابع في الجنس و الفصل و النوع و بعض ما يلحق بذلك

الماهية التامة التي لها آثار خاصة حقيقية من حيث تمامها تسمى نوعا كالإنسان و الفرس.

ثم إنا نجد بعض المعاني الذاتية التي في الأنواع يشترك فيه أكثر من نوع واحد كالحيوان المشترك بين الإنسان و الفرس و غيرهما كما أن فيها ما يختص بنوع كالناطق المختص بالإنسان و يسمى المشترك فيه جنسا و المختص فصلا و ينقسم الجنس و الفصل إلى قريب و بعيد و أيضا ينقسم الجنس و النوع إلى عال و متوسط و سافل و قد فصل ذلك في المنطق

ثم إنا إذا أخذنا ماهية الحيوان مثلا و هي مشترك فيها أكثر من نوع و عقلناها: بأنها جسم نام حساس متحرك بالإرادة جاز أن نعقلها وحدها بحيث يكون كل ما يقارنها من المفاهيم زائدا عليها خارجا من ذاتها و تكون هي مباينة للمجموع غير محمولة عليه كما أنها غير محمولة على المقارن الزائد كانت الماهية المفروضة مادة بالنسبة إلى ما يقارنها و علة مادية للمجموع و جاز أن نعقلها مقيسة إلى عدة من الأنواع كان نعقل ماهية الحيوان بأنها الحيوان الذي هو إما إنسان و إما فرس و إما بقر و إما غنم فتكون ماهية ناقصة غير محصلة حتى ينضم إليها فصل أحد تلك الأنواع فيحصلها نوعا تاما فتكون هي ذلك النوع بعينه و تسمى الماهية المأخوذة بهذا الاعتبار جنسا و الذي يحصله فصلا.

و الاعتباران في الجزء المشترك جاريان بعينهما في الجزء المختص و يسمى بالاعتبار الأول صورة و يكون جزءا لا يحمل على الكل و لا على الجزء الآخر و بالاعتبار الثاني فصلا يحصل الجنس و يتمم النوع و يحمل عليه حملا أوليا.

و يظهر مما تقدم أولا أن الجنس هو النوع مبهما و أن الفصل هو النوع محصلا و النوع هو الماهية التامة من غير نظر إلى إبهام أو تحصيل.

و ثانيا أن كلا من الجنس و الفصل محمول على النوع حملا أوليا و أما النسبة بينهما أنفسهما فالجنس عرض عام بالنسبة إلى الفصل و الفصل خاصة بالنسبة إليه.

و ثالثا أن من الممتنع أن يتحقق جنسان في مرتبة واحدة و كذا فصلان في مرتبة واحدة لنوع لاستلزام ذلك كون نوع واحد نوعين.

و رابعا أن الجنس و المادة متحدان ذاتا مختلفان اعتبارا فالمادة إذا أخذت لا بشرط كانت جنسا كما أن الجنس إذا أخذ بشرط لا كان مادة و كذا الصورة فصل إذا أخذت لا بشرط كما أن الفصل صورة إذا أخذ بشرط لا.

و اعلم أن المادة في الجواهر المادية موجودة في الخارج على ما سيأتي و أما الأعراض فهي بسيطة غير مركبة في الخارج ما به الاشتراك فيها عين ما به الامتياز و إنما العقل يجد فيها مشتركات و مختصات فيعتبرها أجناسا و فصولا ثم يعتبرها بشرط لا فتصير مواد و صورا عقلية.

Generosity

Generosity is the opposite of stinginess. It stands for offering money, food, or any other lawful gaining out of one’s free will. It is in fact the worthiest nature. As a sign of the unprecedented virtue of generosity is that you see every precious and appreciable thing is described as generous. For example, God says:

“This is a generous Quran (56:77).”

“A generous messenger came to them (44:17).” “And corn-fields and generous mansions (44:26).”

The The Ahlul-Bayt (a) therefore praised generosity laudably:

Imam as-Sadiq related that the Prophet (S) said:

“The best men in view of faith is the most openhanded1 .”

“The generous is close to Allah, close to people, and close to Paradise. The stingy is remote from Allah, remote from people, and close to Hell2 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “A generous young man who is plunging in sins is favorable, in the sight of Allah, to a niggardly old man who plunges in worship3 .”

“Spend and be sure that Allah will recompense you. Any male or female servant of Allah who behaves stingily in a field that pleases Allah will surely spend many folds in a field that displeases Him4 .”

Advantages of Generosity

A society cannot feel happy or tranquil unless its individuals feel the spirit of mutual sympathy and harmonize with each other in feelings and senses. Such being the case, the society will be just like a compact building. Mutual sympathy has a bright picture that shines with beauty and brilliance. Undoubtedly, the noblest, most beautiful, and most everlasting picture of mutual sympathy is the feelings of the wealthy individuals for the poor. Such feelings will surely ease the pains of poverty.

By the application of this noble humane principal, (namely, the principals of mutual sympathy) the poor will bear the feelings of amicability towards the wealthy, and this will help the community live happily.

From this cause, the Islamic Sharia has called for openhandedness and sympathy with the poor, and condemned the societies whose individuals suffer starvation and deprivation without finding any one who extends the hand of help towards them. It has also regarded the wealthy who do not help the poor as being very far-off Islam.

The Prophet (S) said: “He who begins his day without caring for the affairs of the Muslims is not a Muslim.”

“He who passes a night satiated while his neighbor is hungry has never believed in me. On the Day of Resurrection, Allah shall not look at the inhabitants of a village one of whose individuals is hungry5 .”

Fields of Generosity

Virtues of generosity vary according to its fields. The noblest virtue of generosity, however, is carrying out the obligations of the Sharia, such as the zakat6 , khums7 , and the like.

The Prophet (S) said: “The most generous is he who fulfills that which Allah has deemed obligatory upon him8 .”

Then comes the second criterion of generosity, which is the settlement of the dependents’ needs. In addition to its being obligatory in the sight of both the Sharia and traditions, this matter is very important because, naturally, a man’s family members are the worthiest of his charity and kindness.

Some individuals may behave abnormally in this regard. They may ignore this genuine natural principal and go on conferring generously on the strangers for seeking reputation, while they behave stingily with their family members who, such being the case, will live in neediness and suffer poverty. Such irregular behaviors are originated from meanness and foolishness.

Imam al-Kadhim (a) said: “Man’s dependents are his prisoners. Anyone upon whom Allah confers with graces should be generous towards his prisoners. If he does not, he will soon be deprived of these graces9 .”

Imam ar-Rida (a) said: “Man should save the requirements of his family members’ lives, so that they will not hope were he dead10 .”

It is a big mistake to deprive the relatives of such emotions and pour them on the foreigners, because such behavior is regarded as barefaced disgrace that arouses the relatives’ hatred and deprives of their sympathy. The true generous should begin with the nearest and the most beneficiary in his endowments, such as friends, neighbors, and people of virtue, because such classes are worthier of being treated generously.

Incentives of Generosity

The incentives of generosity vary according to individuals and reasons of openhandedness. The noblest incentive in this regard is that which is offered for the sake of God. The incentive may be the desire for gaining praise and glory and, in this case, the generous is regarded as the merchant who bargains with his generosity. The incentive may, also, be the desire for gaining something or being saved from a fearful harm. These two matters encourage generosity.

Love plays the greatest role in the encouragement on openhandedness for attracting and drawing the emotions of the beloved.

It is worth mentioning that the results and fruits of generosity will not be sweet unless it is freed from the reproachful reminding of the favor, the blemishes of procrastination, and the appearances of exaggeration.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Favors are worthless unless they are disregarded, veiled, and provided immediately. If you disregard your favors, you will surely revere the one to whom you have done that favor. If you cover up the favors that you do, you will surely accomplish your deeds. If you offer your favor as soon as possible, you will surely give it pleasantly; otherwise, you will destroy and give unpleasantly11 .”

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 67 (quoted from al-Kafi

2. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 3 (quoted from al- Imama wat-Tabssira).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 68 (quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 68 (quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from al-Kafi.

6. Zakat is the obligatory payment made annually under Islamic law on certain kinds of property and used for charitable and religious objects.

7. Khums is obligatory payment of one-fifth of the wealth made once under Islamic laws.

8. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 67 (as quoted from al- Faqih).

9. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 61 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

10. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 61 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

11. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; 16 quoted from Kitab ul- Ahsara; 116 and Ilal ush-Sharaayi.

Altruism

Altruism is the noblest concept of generosity. Not everyone can adorn himself with this trait, because it is dedicated to the few ideal persons whom are characterized by openhandedness and who attained the climax of generosity as they gave liberally while they are in urgent need. They therefore preferred charity to the settlement of their needs. The holy Quran praises the virtues of such persons:

“They give preference to them over themselves - even concerning the things that they themselves urgently need (59:9).”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “The best almsgiving is that which is given by the needy. Allah says:“They give preference to them over themselves - even concerning the things that they themselves urgently need (59:9) 1 .”

The Prophet (S) was the highest example of altruism: Jabir Ibn Abdullah said: The Prophet (S) had never refused anyone’s request.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) narrated: In al-Jirana, the Prophet (S) distributed the treasury among people. He gave every single individual who asked from him. As people crowded around him, they pushed him until he had to lean on a tree that scratched his back. People kept on pushing him until they took him away from that tree and his garment was hanged to one of its branches. He was shouting: “People, let me have my garment! By Allah I swear, even if I have treasures as many as the trees of Tuhama, I will distribute among you. You shall never find me coward or stingy2 .”

The Prophet (S) used to prefer the poor to himself. He used to give them his food while he suffered hunger to the degree that he, once, tied the stone of hunger on his stomach so as to share the pains of hunger with the poor.

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “The Prophet (S) had never eaten his fill for three consecutive days since Allah gave him the Divine Mission3 .”

The The Ahlul-Bayt (a) were copies of the Prophet in the fields of generosity and altruism.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) narrated: Ali was the most similar to the Prophet. He used to eat bread with oil and serve people with bread and meat4.

The following holy Verse was revealed for Ali and his family:

“They feed the destitute, orphans, and captives for the love of Allah, saying: We only feed you for the sake of Allah and we do not want any reward or thanks from you (76:9).”

The disciples of The Ahlul-Bayt have unanimously agreed that the previous holy Verse was revealed for Ali, Fatima, al-Hasan, and al-Hussein (a). Moreover, a good deal of ulema of other sects have also asserted so.

Interpreting Sura of al-Insan, az-Zamakhshari records the following narration in his book titled Tafsir ul- Keshaf:

Ibn Abbas narrated:

The Prophet (S), with some of his companions, visited al-Hasan and al-Hussein who were sick. They suggested that Imam Ali should vow a three-day fasting if they would recover their health. The Imam, as well as their mother Fatima and Fudda their bondwoman implemented that suggestion. When al- Hasan and al-Hussein were healed, the group fasted. The Imam had no food at that time; therefore, he had to borrow three measures of barley from Shimon the Jew. In the first day, Fatima (a) milled and baked one of these measures. In the very time of breaking fast, a poor man knocked their door and said: “Peace be upon you; the family of Muhammad. I am a poor Muslim. Serve me with food and God may serve you from the food of Paradise.” The Imam gave him his share. The others pursued him and gave their shares. They passed that night without eating anything.

On the second day of their fasting, an orphan complaining hunger knocked their door in the time of breaking fast. They offered their shares and passed the second night without having anything except water.

On the third day and in the very time of breaking fast, a prisoner complaining hunger knocked their door asking for some food. They all offered him their shares before having anything of it.

On the fourth day, Imam Ali took al-Hasan and al- Hussein to the Prophet while they were trembling because of hunger. “I am very touched for what I see,” said the Prophet who walked with them to their house. There, he saw Fatima standing in her place of prayer while her belly was stuck to her back and her eyes were deep-set. He was affected by such a view. In the meantime, the Archangel Gabriel descended and said: “Muhammad, enjoy it. Allah may please you in connection to your household.” He then recited the Sura5 .

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 58 (as quoted from al- Faqih).

2. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; 1/607 (as quoted from Ilal ush-Sharayi). Jirana is a place between Mecca and Ta’if.

3. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; part 1 page 194 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 9 page 538 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from Sayyid A. Sharafuddin’s al-Kalimat ul-Gharraa; page 29.

Stinginess

Stinginess stands for the abstention from giving in situations of generosity. It is the opposite of generosity and among the mean features that cause humility, hatred, and disgrace. Islam has censured and warned the Muslims strongly against stinginess:

“It is you who are asked to spend for the cause of Allah, but some of you behave in a niggardly way. Whoever behaves miserly does so against his own soul. Allah is Self-sufficient and you are poor (47:38).”

“The stingy ones who try to make others stingy or those who hide the favors that Allah has bestowed on them. We have prepared a humiliating torment for the disbelievers (4:37).”

“Those who are avaricious of the favors that Allah has given them should not think that this is good for them. Avarice is evil and whatever they are avaricious about will be tied to their necks on the Day of Judgment (3:180).”

Imam as-Sadiq narrated on the authority of his fathers that Amirul-Mu'minin (a) once heard a man saying that stinginess is less forgivable than wronging. The Imam commented: “No, this is a lie. A wrong man may repent, seek Allah’s forgiveness, and correct his mistakes. But when one behaves in a stingy mood, he will not defray the zakat and almsgiving, will not regard his relatives, will not receive the guests hospitably, and will not spend his fortune in the cause of Allah and in the fields of charity. Paradise is forbidden for the stingy1 .”

“I wonder at the stingy who speeds towards the very destitution from which he wants to run away and misses the very ease of life which he covets. Consequently, he passes his life like the destitute, but will have to render an account in the next world like the rich2 .”

Disadvantages of Stinginess

Stinginess causes malice and hatred of the close as well as the foreigners. The closest individuals of the stingy may hope were he dead, because he deprives them of his fortune and they expect greedily to inherit him. Besides, the stingy is the most tiring: he exerts all efforts for collecting fortunes, but he does not enjoy them, because he very soon leaves all the fortunes to the heirs. Hence, “he passes his life in this world like the destitute, but will have to render an account in the next world like the rich.”

Forms of Stinginess

All forms of stinginess are abominable; yet, there is a variance among them. The most sinful form of stinginess is the refusal to defray the financial obligations that God has imposed upon Muslims for organizing their economical lives. Thus, the defects of stinginess vary among persons and states. For example, the stinginess of the wealthy is worse than that of the poor, and to behave stingily with the dependents, relatives, friends, and guests is uglier than it is with the foreigners.

Treatment of Stinginess

The advantages and disadvantages of stinginess should be kept in mind, because this may decrease the vehemence of stinginess. If this is not useful, the stingy should prompt himself to openhandedness for the desire of gaining good reputation. If a man feels at ease with openhandedness, he will discipline himself with sincerity and will like for himself to spend in the cause of God.

There are definite motives of stinginess. The treatment, then, is related to such motives. To stop these motives is to remove the effects.

The strongest motive of stinginess is fear of poverty, which is one of the evil inspirations of the Devil so as to prevent generosity. By its wise and unparalleled style, the holy Quran decides that stinginess is useless, but it brings about bankruptcy and deprivation:

“It is you who are asked to spend for the cause of Allah, but some of you behave in a niggardly way. Whoever behaves miserly does so against his own soul. Allah is Self-sufficient and you are poor (47:38).”

The holy Quran also decides that everything that is given or spent out of generosity will not go in vain; yet, God the All-generous will compensate for it:

“Whatever thing you spend, He exceeds it with reward, and He is the best of Sustainers. (34:39)”

The holy Quran continues to enjoin openhandedness, confirming that he who spends for God’s sake is lending God who will repay him many folds out of His extensive kindness:

“Spending money for the cause of Allah is as the seed from which seven ears may grow, each bearing one hundred grains. Allah gives in multiples to those whom He wants. Allah is Munificent and All- knowing. (2:261)”

The holy Quran addresses a horrible threat against those whom are enslaved by stinginess:

“Those who horde gold and silver and do not spend (anything out of it) for the cause of Allah, should know that their recompense will be a painful torment on the Day of Judgment and that their treasures will be heated by the fire of hell and pressed against their foreheads, sides and back with this remark: “These are your own treasures which you hoarded for yourselves. See for yourselves what they feel like.” (9:34-5)”

Among the other incentives of stinginess is fathers’ excessive care for the future of their sons. Such fathers will not spend their fortunes so as to save them for their sons, believing that such fortunes will protect their sons from poverty. Such an emotion, which is deep-rooted in man’s mentality, cannot be harmful or excessive if it is moderate, reasonable, and away from negligence and exaggeration. Nevertheless, it is unfit for people of reason to feel such an emotion so exaggeratively. The holy Quran warns fathers against the prevalence of this emotion over them so that they will not be seduced by the love for their sons:

“Know that your possessions and children are a temptation for you and that Allah has the greatest reward for the righteous ones. (8:28)”

The best word in this regard is the following missive of Amirul-Mu'minin (a):

“So then, the worldly collection, which is between your hands, was possessed before you and will be possessed by others after you. You are only hording for one of two men: a man who will use that fortune in the acts of obedience to Allah, and this fortune that you suffered unhappiness until you collected it will be the source of happiness for such an individual. The other man is that who will use the fortune that you collected in the fields of disobedience to Allah, and your hording will cause him unhappiness. None of these two men is worthy of being preferred to yourself or being burdened on your back; therefore, you should hope Allah’s mercy for the past and hope Allah’s sustenance for the remaining3 .”

Regarding God’s saying,

“That is how God will show them their regrettable deeds (2:167),”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “The intendeds in the previous Verse are those who do not spend their fortunes in the ways of Allah and then die to leave them to others who will use them either in fields of obedience or disobedience to Allah. If the heirs use these fortunes in fields of obedience to Allah, those who collected them stingily will see them accounted with the good deeds of those heirs and, therefore, they will feel regretful for them. If the heirs use such fortunes in the fields of disobedience to Allah, the collectors will be regarded as assistants of those disobedient heirs4 .”

There are groups of people who love money maniacally for its being money, without considering it as the means to a pleasure in this world or the world to come. Such groups find their pleasures only in hording money and, then, they behave towards it extremely stingily.

This sort of love is considered as mania that causes unhappiness and perdition. Money is not the purpose; yet, it is only the means used for livelihood and the Hereafter. Money that is used for any other means is useless:

“Since wealth does not necessarily guarantee everlasting happiness, then why do you not show kindness to the orphans, or urge one another to feed the destitute? Why do you take away the inheritance of others indiscriminately and why do you have an excessive love of riches?

When the earth is crushed into small pieces and (when you find yourself) in the presence of your Lord and the rows and rows of angels, your greed for riches will certainly be of no avail to you. On that day, hell will be brought closer and the human being will come to his senses, but this will be of no avail to him. He will say,"Would that I had done some good deeds for this life." On that day, the punishment of Allah and His detention will be unparalleled. And His bonds will be such as none other can bind. (89: 17-26)”

“In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent the Merciful: Woe to every slanderer and backbiter who collects and hoards wealth, thinking that his property will make him live forever. By no means! They will be thrown into hutamah. Would that you knew what hutamah is! It is a fierce fire created by Allah to penetrate into the hearts. It will engulf them in its long columns of flames. (104)”

Amirul-Mu'minin (a) said: “This world is only termination, suffering, raids, and lessons. As a form of its termination is that, you see that the bows of time are strung, its arrows are put to use, its spears are not missing the target, and its wounds are incurable. It hits the healthy with ailment and hits the alive with death.

As a form of the suffering of this world is, that man gathers while he will not have what he gathers and builds but he will not reside in what he builds. Then he leaves to Allah without being able to carry the wealth or use his building. As a form of the raids of this world is that, you imminently see the lucky change into unlucky and the unlucky change into lucky. Between the two, there is nothing more than the luxury that vanished and the misery that befell. As a form of the lessons of this world is that a man becomes very near to achieve his expectation but suddenly death captures him5 .”

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 69 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

2. Quoted from Nahj ul-Balagha.

3. Quoted from Nahj ul-Balagha.

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 69 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

5. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; part 1 page 467.

Chastity

Chastity is the abstention from whatever is unallowable and unsuitable, such as excessive food and carnal appetites. It is among the noblest traits and highest features that indicate elevation of faith, self-honoring, and dignity:

The Prophet (S) said: “The two hollow things the stomach and the genitals, are the main reasons beyond my umma’s1 being in Hell2 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “The best worship in the sight of Allah is the chastity of the stomach and the genitals3 .”

A man said to Imam al-Baqir (a) that his practices of worship were weak and his prayers and days of fasting were few; however, he hope he would eat and copulate only in legal ways. The Imam answered: “No jihad is better than the chastity of the stomach and the genitals4 .”

Reality of Chastity

Chastity does not mean to deprive oneself of the legal desires of food and sex. It only represents the moderation in the use of such desires. As a matter of fact, negligence and excess are always harmful to humankind. The excessive desires for food and sex cause gross dangers to which we will refer in our discussion of gluttony. Shortage in such desires also causes deprivation of the life enjoyments and legal pleasures. It also causes bodily weakness as well as feebleness of energies and morale.

The Sought Moderation

It is difficult to identify the moderation in the desires for food and sex because of the different needs and energies of individuals. Moderation of an individual may be considered as exaggeration or shortage for another. The relative moderation is to have only the quantity that is sufficient, away from greed and fill. The best criterion in this regard is that which was stated by Amirul- Mu'minin:

“Son! May I instruct you four words after which you will no longer need medicine? Do not eat unless you are hungry. Stop eating while you are still hungry. Chew food deliberately. Before sleeping, go to toilet. You will not need medicine if you follow.”

“In the holy Quran, there is a Verse gathering the whole matter of medicine. It is:

“Eat and drink but do not be excessive.” (7:31) 5

Advantages of Chastity

Chastity achieves happiness on both levels of individuals and communities. It beautifies man, raises him above gluttony, guards him against flattery to the mean ones, and enjoins him to gain the means of living and desires of life through legal ways.

Notes

1. Umma stands for the Islamic community.

2. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 2 page 183 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 65 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 2 page 184 (as quoted from al-Barqi’s al-Mahasin. In al-Kafi, there is a similar narration).

5. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; 2/79 (as quoted from ar- Rawandi’s ad-Dawaat).

Gluttony

Gluttony is the opposite of chastity. It stands for the excessive desires for food and sex. It is a mean tendency indicating self-feebleness, greedy nature, and slavery of instincts.

Amirul-Mu'minin (a) said: “He who wants to survive, yet no one will survive forever, should ease his back from the burdens of debts-, have the food as early as possible, and reduce copulation with women1 .”

Once, Amirul-Mu'minin (a) ate some dates, drank water, and then beat on his stomach with his hand and said: “Away with him who lets his stomach cause him to be in Hell.” He then recited the poetic verse:

Whenever you respond to the desires of your stomach and genitals, they both will give nothing but the extreme dispraise2 .

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Gluttony is the source of every malady except fever, which appears to the body3 .”

“The sated stomach overdoes4 .”

“Allah hates the overeating5 .”

Abu al-Hasan (a) said: “If people have moderate food, their bodies will be healthy6 .”

Disadvantages of Gluttony

It is not unacceptable to say that gluttony, charms of the falsities of life, and attraction of luxury and lavish expenditure have been the main elements of retardation. All these elements have taken the nations into corruption. Overeating, for example, has many bad results. Modern medicine has proved that most of the diseases, curls, lines on the skins that deform the attractive lineaments of men and women, accumulation of fats, deepness of eyes, exhausting powers, and ailed mentalities the reason of all these defects is the continuous gluttony and the fatty foods. It has been also proved that overeating exhausts the stomach and creates various sorts of healthy troubles, such as arteriosclerosis, angina pectoris, hypertension, and diabetes.

The sexual gluttony also causes similar defects, such as impotence of the public health, disappearance of nervous power, and vanishing of vitality.

Treatment of Gluttony

• It is necessary for the overeater to keep in mind the advantages of chastity and ponder over the disadvantages of gluttony.

• It is necessary for the overeater to try his best to train himself on moderate food. The protective and remedial constitution of health is the moderation of food and the avoidance of overeating. This constitution is summarized in the holy Verse:

“Eat and drink but do not be excessive.” (7:31)

The treatment of the sexual gluttony is as follows:

• Keeping in mind the dangers of sexual excess and moral and material corruptions.

• Striving the simulative of sexual desires, such as looking at the beauties of women, mixing of the sexes, excessive sexual imagination, and daydreams.

Notes

1. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 14 page 545 (as quoted from Tibb ul-Ayimma).

2. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; vol. 1 page 27.

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al-Faqih).

5. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

6. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; 14/876 (as quoted from al- Barqi’s al-Mahasin).

Faithfulness and Breach

Faithfulness is the fulfillment of the deposited rights. It is the opposite of breach and one of the noblest traits and most dignified qualities that achieve admiration and success.

The opposite of faithfulness is breach, which stands for the seizure and usurpation of rights. It is one of the meanest qualities and nastiest manners that cause indignity, failure, and disappointment.

Therefore, reports and traditions urged faithfulness and warned against breach:

“Allah commands you to return that which had been entrusted to you to the rightful owners. Be just when passing judgment among people. Allah's advice is the most noble. (4:58)”

“Believers, do not be dishonest to Allah and the Messengers or knowingly abuse your trust. (8:27)”

The Prophet (S) said: “My umma will be kept in goodness so long as they do not breach the trusts of each other, keep on fulfilling their trusts, and defray the zakat; otherwise, they will be inflicted with famine and harsh years of draught1 .”

“The fulfillment of the trusts brings sustenance, while treachery causes poverty2 .”

“He who breaches the trust is not one of us.”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Do not be deceived by their very much offering of prayers and observance of fasting. In fact, prayers and fasting have become habits that they feel desolate if they omit them. You should test them by their truthfulness and fulfillment of trusts3 .”

“Abide by God-fearing and fulfillment of the trusts of them who deposit things with you. If the killer of Ali Ibn Abi Talib deposits with me a trust, I will surely keep it for him4 .”

Advantages of Faithfulness and Disadvantages of Breach

Faithfulness plays a great role in the lives of nations. It is the system of their deeds, the support of their affairs, the title of their nobility, and the way to their moral and material development. The faithful individuals win the others’ admiration, trust, love, and confidence. Besides, such individuals will win shares in people’s fortunes and profits.

This fact is applicable to all nations whose lives cannot advance without the surroundings of confidence. Through faithfulness, the Arabs could control the reins of economy and keys of industry and commerce that brought abundant profits. Unfortunately, Muslims, thereafter, neglected faithfulness; therefore, they failed and were disappointed.

Thus, breach of trusts is one of the major reasons of failure. It is a serious factor causing mutual mistrust, enmity, and fear. Such factor results in social corruption, loose of ties, waste of interests, and dissipation of energies.

Forms of Breach

There are many forms of breach that vary in the scope of its cruelty, crimes, and results. The evilest form is treason that is committed by the thinkers and writers who violate the sacred facts of science by means of distortion and misrepresentation. The divulgement of Muslims’ secrets is another form of breach. A third one is the breach of the deposits. To confiscate such deposits is surely a double crime of breach, larceny, and usurpation. There are many other repulsive forms of breach that injure both the individuals and communities, such as trickery, cheating, deficient measurements, fraud, and dishonesty.

Notes

1. Quoted from as-Saduq’s Thawab ul-A’mal.

2. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 10 page 112 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 82 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 10 page 112 (as quoted from al- Kafi and Tahdhib).

Fraternity

Spiritual Fraternity

The pre-Islamic era was a stage of tragedies in the various mental and material fields. Moral dissolution and disorder were the most horrible tragedies that caused people to practice natures of beasts, law of jungle, disagreement, fighting, killing, usurpation, and declamation of revenge and retaliation.

When the dawn of Islam rose to spread its lights over humankind, it could, through its immortal principles and unparalleled constitution, stop these tragedies and cut off these combats. Then, it changed these ignorant herds into “the best nation that ever existed among humanity1 .”

Faith replaced atheism, order replaced disorder, knowledge replaced ignorance, peace replaced war, and mercy replaced retaliation.

Thus, these concepts faded away and were replaced by the new Islamic principles. The Prophet (S) began to establish that ideal nation whose individuals were unique in order, morals, and perfection. As they progressed under the pennon of the holy Quran and the leadership of the Prophet (S), Muslims flew in the horizons of generosity until they could achieve the principle of fraternity in such a method that could not be achieved by any other code. Moreover, the ties of belief became stronger than those of kinship, and, likewise, the bonds of faith exalted over the tribal and national bonds. Muslims, hence, became a united nation of compact lineup, high edifice, and fluttering pennon:

“People, we have created you all male and female and have made you nations and tribes so that you would recognize each other. The most honorable among you in the sight of Allah is the most pious of you. Allah is All-knowing and All-aware (49:13).”

The holy Quran went on implanting the concepts of spiritual fraternity in the mentalities through numerous Verses compacted by a remarkable and wise style.

The Quran, once, legislates fraternity as a law that should be applied by Muslims:

“Believers are each other's brothers. Restore peace among your brothers. Have fear of Allah so that perhaps you will receive mercy (49:10).”

On another occasion, the Quran confirms the law of fraternity and warns against factors of disagreement, reminding of the grace of the Islamic fraternity and harmony after long periods of disagreement and fighting:

“All of you united hold fast to the rope of Allah, and recall how He favored you when your hostility to each other had torn you apart. He united your hearts in one faith and through His grace you became brothers (3:103).”

In abstract, Islam has exerted all efforts for strengthening the spiritual fraternity among Muslims and protecting it against trends of disagreement and separation through the constitution of the social ties.

As a model, we provide the following:

 The Islamic constitution of the social ties took Muslims’ emotions and feelings far above the slavery of the tribal sectarianism to guide them to the noblest aim; namely, the obedience to God and the seeking of His satisfaction. Love, hate, giving, deprivation, support, and disappointment all these should be for the sake of God. Such being the case, the handles of fraternity will become firmer and Muslims will become the like of the well-established building each part of which strengthens the other.

The Prophet (S) said: “The mutual love of the believers that is intended sincerely for the sake of Allah is one of the greatest classes of faith. He who loves, hates, gives, deprives all for the sake of Allah is surely one of the choices of Allah2 .”

Imam as-Sajjad (a) said: “When Allah will gather the past and the late generations on the Day of Resurrection, a caller that everybody will hear will cry out on those who loved each other for the sake of Allah. A few people will stand up. They will be sent to Paradise without being rendered to judgment. In their way to Paradise, the angels will meet and ask them. ‘We are going to our abodes in Paradise without being rendered to judgment,’ they will answer. As the angels ask them about their class, they will answer, ‘We loved each other for the sake of Allah.’ As the angels ask them about their deeds due to which they have gained such a rank, they will answer, ‘We loved and hated for the sake of Allah.’ The angels then will say: Very well is the reward of the doers of charity3 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “If you want to know whether you are to the good or not, you should test your heart: if it loves the people of obedience to Allah and hates the people of disobedient to Him, you are then to the good and Allah loves you. If your heart hates the people of the obedience to Allah and loves the people of the disobedience to Him, you are then not to the good and Allah hates you. Certainly, man will be attached to the one whom he loved4 .”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “On the Day of Resurrection, those who love each other purely for the sake of Allah will be on luminous stages; the light of their faces, bodies, stages, and everything will be shining so that shining will be their distinctive feature and everybody will point to them and say those loved each other for the sake of Allah5 .”

“He who does not love or hate for the sake of the religion is not Muslim6 .”

The Islamic constitution of the social ties enjoined Muslims to adhere to the factors of coalition, dignity, and luxury, such as exhorting each other to the right, helping each other in fields of piety, supporting each other for the achievement of justice, and joining the forces in the economical fields of life. According to the Islamic Sharia, all Muslims are one family whose matters of happiness and unhappiness are the same. The constitution of such a family is:

“Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah and those with him are stern to the disbelievers yet kind among themselves. (48:29)”

And the slogan is the saying of the Prophet (S):

“He who begins his day without caring for the affairs of the Muslims is not a Muslim.”

The Islamic constitution of the social ties warned Muslims against all factors of separation, hostility, obscenity, backbiting, tale bearing, breach, and cheating as well as all other matters that arouse seditions and rancor. The Muslims’ principal in this point is the Prophet’s saying:

“The true believer is only he whom Muslims can trust in regard with their estates and souls. The true Muslim is only he whom Muslims are saved from his hand physical harm- and tongue- verbal harm-. The true Muhajir7 emigrant- is that who deserts the sins8 .”

 The Islamic constitution of the social ties granted the opportunities of improving friendly relations between Muslims, such as exchanging visits, frequenting religious circles, and witnessing Islamic gatherings such as collective prayers, hajj9 , and the like.

Notes

1. Quoted from the holy Quran; 3:110.

2. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 89 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

3. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 1 page 283 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 90 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 89 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

6. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 90 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

7. Muhajirs: The emigrants. The early Muslims of Mecca who had to flee their homeland to Medina.

8. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 99 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

9. Hajj is the pilgrimage to the Sacred Mosque at Mecca undertaken in the twelfth month of the Hijri year and constituting one of the religious duties of Islam.

Generosity

Generosity is the opposite of stinginess. It stands for offering money, food, or any other lawful gaining out of one’s free will. It is in fact the worthiest nature. As a sign of the unprecedented virtue of generosity is that you see every precious and appreciable thing is described as generous. For example, God says:

“This is a generous Quran (56:77).”

“A generous messenger came to them (44:17).” “And corn-fields and generous mansions (44:26).”

The The Ahlul-Bayt (a) therefore praised generosity laudably:

Imam as-Sadiq related that the Prophet (S) said:

“The best men in view of faith is the most openhanded1 .”

“The generous is close to Allah, close to people, and close to Paradise. The stingy is remote from Allah, remote from people, and close to Hell2 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “A generous young man who is plunging in sins is favorable, in the sight of Allah, to a niggardly old man who plunges in worship3 .”

“Spend and be sure that Allah will recompense you. Any male or female servant of Allah who behaves stingily in a field that pleases Allah will surely spend many folds in a field that displeases Him4 .”

Advantages of Generosity

A society cannot feel happy or tranquil unless its individuals feel the spirit of mutual sympathy and harmonize with each other in feelings and senses. Such being the case, the society will be just like a compact building. Mutual sympathy has a bright picture that shines with beauty and brilliance. Undoubtedly, the noblest, most beautiful, and most everlasting picture of mutual sympathy is the feelings of the wealthy individuals for the poor. Such feelings will surely ease the pains of poverty.

By the application of this noble humane principal, (namely, the principals of mutual sympathy) the poor will bear the feelings of amicability towards the wealthy, and this will help the community live happily.

From this cause, the Islamic Sharia has called for openhandedness and sympathy with the poor, and condemned the societies whose individuals suffer starvation and deprivation without finding any one who extends the hand of help towards them. It has also regarded the wealthy who do not help the poor as being very far-off Islam.

The Prophet (S) said: “He who begins his day without caring for the affairs of the Muslims is not a Muslim.”

“He who passes a night satiated while his neighbor is hungry has never believed in me. On the Day of Resurrection, Allah shall not look at the inhabitants of a village one of whose individuals is hungry5 .”

Fields of Generosity

Virtues of generosity vary according to its fields. The noblest virtue of generosity, however, is carrying out the obligations of the Sharia, such as the zakat6 , khums7 , and the like.

The Prophet (S) said: “The most generous is he who fulfills that which Allah has deemed obligatory upon him8 .”

Then comes the second criterion of generosity, which is the settlement of the dependents’ needs. In addition to its being obligatory in the sight of both the Sharia and traditions, this matter is very important because, naturally, a man’s family members are the worthiest of his charity and kindness.

Some individuals may behave abnormally in this regard. They may ignore this genuine natural principal and go on conferring generously on the strangers for seeking reputation, while they behave stingily with their family members who, such being the case, will live in neediness and suffer poverty. Such irregular behaviors are originated from meanness and foolishness.

Imam al-Kadhim (a) said: “Man’s dependents are his prisoners. Anyone upon whom Allah confers with graces should be generous towards his prisoners. If he does not, he will soon be deprived of these graces9 .”

Imam ar-Rida (a) said: “Man should save the requirements of his family members’ lives, so that they will not hope were he dead10 .”

It is a big mistake to deprive the relatives of such emotions and pour them on the foreigners, because such behavior is regarded as barefaced disgrace that arouses the relatives’ hatred and deprives of their sympathy. The true generous should begin with the nearest and the most beneficiary in his endowments, such as friends, neighbors, and people of virtue, because such classes are worthier of being treated generously.

Incentives of Generosity

The incentives of generosity vary according to individuals and reasons of openhandedness. The noblest incentive in this regard is that which is offered for the sake of God. The incentive may be the desire for gaining praise and glory and, in this case, the generous is regarded as the merchant who bargains with his generosity. The incentive may, also, be the desire for gaining something or being saved from a fearful harm. These two matters encourage generosity.

Love plays the greatest role in the encouragement on openhandedness for attracting and drawing the emotions of the beloved.

It is worth mentioning that the results and fruits of generosity will not be sweet unless it is freed from the reproachful reminding of the favor, the blemishes of procrastination, and the appearances of exaggeration.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Favors are worthless unless they are disregarded, veiled, and provided immediately. If you disregard your favors, you will surely revere the one to whom you have done that favor. If you cover up the favors that you do, you will surely accomplish your deeds. If you offer your favor as soon as possible, you will surely give it pleasantly; otherwise, you will destroy and give unpleasantly11 .”

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 67 (quoted from al-Kafi

2. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 3 (quoted from al- Imama wat-Tabssira).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 68 (quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 68 (quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from al-Kafi.

6. Zakat is the obligatory payment made annually under Islamic law on certain kinds of property and used for charitable and religious objects.

7. Khums is obligatory payment of one-fifth of the wealth made once under Islamic laws.

8. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 67 (as quoted from al- Faqih).

9. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 61 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

10. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 61 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

11. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; 16 quoted from Kitab ul- Ahsara; 116 and Ilal ush-Sharaayi.

Altruism

Altruism is the noblest concept of generosity. Not everyone can adorn himself with this trait, because it is dedicated to the few ideal persons whom are characterized by openhandedness and who attained the climax of generosity as they gave liberally while they are in urgent need. They therefore preferred charity to the settlement of their needs. The holy Quran praises the virtues of such persons:

“They give preference to them over themselves - even concerning the things that they themselves urgently need (59:9).”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “The best almsgiving is that which is given by the needy. Allah says:“They give preference to them over themselves - even concerning the things that they themselves urgently need (59:9) 1 .”

The Prophet (S) was the highest example of altruism: Jabir Ibn Abdullah said: The Prophet (S) had never refused anyone’s request.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) narrated: In al-Jirana, the Prophet (S) distributed the treasury among people. He gave every single individual who asked from him. As people crowded around him, they pushed him until he had to lean on a tree that scratched his back. People kept on pushing him until they took him away from that tree and his garment was hanged to one of its branches. He was shouting: “People, let me have my garment! By Allah I swear, even if I have treasures as many as the trees of Tuhama, I will distribute among you. You shall never find me coward or stingy2 .”

The Prophet (S) used to prefer the poor to himself. He used to give them his food while he suffered hunger to the degree that he, once, tied the stone of hunger on his stomach so as to share the pains of hunger with the poor.

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “The Prophet (S) had never eaten his fill for three consecutive days since Allah gave him the Divine Mission3 .”

The The Ahlul-Bayt (a) were copies of the Prophet in the fields of generosity and altruism.

Imam as-Sadiq (a) narrated: Ali was the most similar to the Prophet. He used to eat bread with oil and serve people with bread and meat4.

The following holy Verse was revealed for Ali and his family:

“They feed the destitute, orphans, and captives for the love of Allah, saying: We only feed you for the sake of Allah and we do not want any reward or thanks from you (76:9).”

The disciples of The Ahlul-Bayt have unanimously agreed that the previous holy Verse was revealed for Ali, Fatima, al-Hasan, and al-Hussein (a). Moreover, a good deal of ulema of other sects have also asserted so.

Interpreting Sura of al-Insan, az-Zamakhshari records the following narration in his book titled Tafsir ul- Keshaf:

Ibn Abbas narrated:

The Prophet (S), with some of his companions, visited al-Hasan and al-Hussein who were sick. They suggested that Imam Ali should vow a three-day fasting if they would recover their health. The Imam, as well as their mother Fatima and Fudda their bondwoman implemented that suggestion. When al- Hasan and al-Hussein were healed, the group fasted. The Imam had no food at that time; therefore, he had to borrow three measures of barley from Shimon the Jew. In the first day, Fatima (a) milled and baked one of these measures. In the very time of breaking fast, a poor man knocked their door and said: “Peace be upon you; the family of Muhammad. I am a poor Muslim. Serve me with food and God may serve you from the food of Paradise.” The Imam gave him his share. The others pursued him and gave their shares. They passed that night without eating anything.

On the second day of their fasting, an orphan complaining hunger knocked their door in the time of breaking fast. They offered their shares and passed the second night without having anything except water.

On the third day and in the very time of breaking fast, a prisoner complaining hunger knocked their door asking for some food. They all offered him their shares before having anything of it.

On the fourth day, Imam Ali took al-Hasan and al- Hussein to the Prophet while they were trembling because of hunger. “I am very touched for what I see,” said the Prophet who walked with them to their house. There, he saw Fatima standing in her place of prayer while her belly was stuck to her back and her eyes were deep-set. He was affected by such a view. In the meantime, the Archangel Gabriel descended and said: “Muhammad, enjoy it. Allah may please you in connection to your household.” He then recited the Sura5 .

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 58 (as quoted from al- Faqih).

2. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; 1/607 (as quoted from Ilal ush-Sharayi). Jirana is a place between Mecca and Ta’if.

3. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; part 1 page 194 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 9 page 538 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from Sayyid A. Sharafuddin’s al-Kalimat ul-Gharraa; page 29.

Stinginess

Stinginess stands for the abstention from giving in situations of generosity. It is the opposite of generosity and among the mean features that cause humility, hatred, and disgrace. Islam has censured and warned the Muslims strongly against stinginess:

“It is you who are asked to spend for the cause of Allah, but some of you behave in a niggardly way. Whoever behaves miserly does so against his own soul. Allah is Self-sufficient and you are poor (47:38).”

“The stingy ones who try to make others stingy or those who hide the favors that Allah has bestowed on them. We have prepared a humiliating torment for the disbelievers (4:37).”

“Those who are avaricious of the favors that Allah has given them should not think that this is good for them. Avarice is evil and whatever they are avaricious about will be tied to their necks on the Day of Judgment (3:180).”

Imam as-Sadiq narrated on the authority of his fathers that Amirul-Mu'minin (a) once heard a man saying that stinginess is less forgivable than wronging. The Imam commented: “No, this is a lie. A wrong man may repent, seek Allah’s forgiveness, and correct his mistakes. But when one behaves in a stingy mood, he will not defray the zakat and almsgiving, will not regard his relatives, will not receive the guests hospitably, and will not spend his fortune in the cause of Allah and in the fields of charity. Paradise is forbidden for the stingy1 .”

“I wonder at the stingy who speeds towards the very destitution from which he wants to run away and misses the very ease of life which he covets. Consequently, he passes his life like the destitute, but will have to render an account in the next world like the rich2 .”

Disadvantages of Stinginess

Stinginess causes malice and hatred of the close as well as the foreigners. The closest individuals of the stingy may hope were he dead, because he deprives them of his fortune and they expect greedily to inherit him. Besides, the stingy is the most tiring: he exerts all efforts for collecting fortunes, but he does not enjoy them, because he very soon leaves all the fortunes to the heirs. Hence, “he passes his life in this world like the destitute, but will have to render an account in the next world like the rich.”

Forms of Stinginess

All forms of stinginess are abominable; yet, there is a variance among them. The most sinful form of stinginess is the refusal to defray the financial obligations that God has imposed upon Muslims for organizing their economical lives. Thus, the defects of stinginess vary among persons and states. For example, the stinginess of the wealthy is worse than that of the poor, and to behave stingily with the dependents, relatives, friends, and guests is uglier than it is with the foreigners.

Treatment of Stinginess

The advantages and disadvantages of stinginess should be kept in mind, because this may decrease the vehemence of stinginess. If this is not useful, the stingy should prompt himself to openhandedness for the desire of gaining good reputation. If a man feels at ease with openhandedness, he will discipline himself with sincerity and will like for himself to spend in the cause of God.

There are definite motives of stinginess. The treatment, then, is related to such motives. To stop these motives is to remove the effects.

The strongest motive of stinginess is fear of poverty, which is one of the evil inspirations of the Devil so as to prevent generosity. By its wise and unparalleled style, the holy Quran decides that stinginess is useless, but it brings about bankruptcy and deprivation:

“It is you who are asked to spend for the cause of Allah, but some of you behave in a niggardly way. Whoever behaves miserly does so against his own soul. Allah is Self-sufficient and you are poor (47:38).”

The holy Quran also decides that everything that is given or spent out of generosity will not go in vain; yet, God the All-generous will compensate for it:

“Whatever thing you spend, He exceeds it with reward, and He is the best of Sustainers. (34:39)”

The holy Quran continues to enjoin openhandedness, confirming that he who spends for God’s sake is lending God who will repay him many folds out of His extensive kindness:

“Spending money for the cause of Allah is as the seed from which seven ears may grow, each bearing one hundred grains. Allah gives in multiples to those whom He wants. Allah is Munificent and All- knowing. (2:261)”

The holy Quran addresses a horrible threat against those whom are enslaved by stinginess:

“Those who horde gold and silver and do not spend (anything out of it) for the cause of Allah, should know that their recompense will be a painful torment on the Day of Judgment and that their treasures will be heated by the fire of hell and pressed against their foreheads, sides and back with this remark: “These are your own treasures which you hoarded for yourselves. See for yourselves what they feel like.” (9:34-5)”

Among the other incentives of stinginess is fathers’ excessive care for the future of their sons. Such fathers will not spend their fortunes so as to save them for their sons, believing that such fortunes will protect their sons from poverty. Such an emotion, which is deep-rooted in man’s mentality, cannot be harmful or excessive if it is moderate, reasonable, and away from negligence and exaggeration. Nevertheless, it is unfit for people of reason to feel such an emotion so exaggeratively. The holy Quran warns fathers against the prevalence of this emotion over them so that they will not be seduced by the love for their sons:

“Know that your possessions and children are a temptation for you and that Allah has the greatest reward for the righteous ones. (8:28)”

The best word in this regard is the following missive of Amirul-Mu'minin (a):

“So then, the worldly collection, which is between your hands, was possessed before you and will be possessed by others after you. You are only hording for one of two men: a man who will use that fortune in the acts of obedience to Allah, and this fortune that you suffered unhappiness until you collected it will be the source of happiness for such an individual. The other man is that who will use the fortune that you collected in the fields of disobedience to Allah, and your hording will cause him unhappiness. None of these two men is worthy of being preferred to yourself or being burdened on your back; therefore, you should hope Allah’s mercy for the past and hope Allah’s sustenance for the remaining3 .”

Regarding God’s saying,

“That is how God will show them their regrettable deeds (2:167),”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “The intendeds in the previous Verse are those who do not spend their fortunes in the ways of Allah and then die to leave them to others who will use them either in fields of obedience or disobedience to Allah. If the heirs use these fortunes in fields of obedience to Allah, those who collected them stingily will see them accounted with the good deeds of those heirs and, therefore, they will feel regretful for them. If the heirs use such fortunes in the fields of disobedience to Allah, the collectors will be regarded as assistants of those disobedient heirs4 .”

There are groups of people who love money maniacally for its being money, without considering it as the means to a pleasure in this world or the world to come. Such groups find their pleasures only in hording money and, then, they behave towards it extremely stingily.

This sort of love is considered as mania that causes unhappiness and perdition. Money is not the purpose; yet, it is only the means used for livelihood and the Hereafter. Money that is used for any other means is useless:

“Since wealth does not necessarily guarantee everlasting happiness, then why do you not show kindness to the orphans, or urge one another to feed the destitute? Why do you take away the inheritance of others indiscriminately and why do you have an excessive love of riches?

When the earth is crushed into small pieces and (when you find yourself) in the presence of your Lord and the rows and rows of angels, your greed for riches will certainly be of no avail to you. On that day, hell will be brought closer and the human being will come to his senses, but this will be of no avail to him. He will say,"Would that I had done some good deeds for this life." On that day, the punishment of Allah and His detention will be unparalleled. And His bonds will be such as none other can bind. (89: 17-26)”

“In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent the Merciful: Woe to every slanderer and backbiter who collects and hoards wealth, thinking that his property will make him live forever. By no means! They will be thrown into hutamah. Would that you knew what hutamah is! It is a fierce fire created by Allah to penetrate into the hearts. It will engulf them in its long columns of flames. (104)”

Amirul-Mu'minin (a) said: “This world is only termination, suffering, raids, and lessons. As a form of its termination is that, you see that the bows of time are strung, its arrows are put to use, its spears are not missing the target, and its wounds are incurable. It hits the healthy with ailment and hits the alive with death.

As a form of the suffering of this world is, that man gathers while he will not have what he gathers and builds but he will not reside in what he builds. Then he leaves to Allah without being able to carry the wealth or use his building. As a form of the raids of this world is that, you imminently see the lucky change into unlucky and the unlucky change into lucky. Between the two, there is nothing more than the luxury that vanished and the misery that befell. As a form of the lessons of this world is that a man becomes very near to achieve his expectation but suddenly death captures him5 .”

Notes

1. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 69 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

2. Quoted from Nahj ul-Balagha.

3. Quoted from Nahj ul-Balagha.

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 6 page 69 (as quoted from al-Kafi and al-Faqih).

5. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; part 1 page 467.

Chastity

Chastity is the abstention from whatever is unallowable and unsuitable, such as excessive food and carnal appetites. It is among the noblest traits and highest features that indicate elevation of faith, self-honoring, and dignity:

The Prophet (S) said: “The two hollow things the stomach and the genitals, are the main reasons beyond my umma’s1 being in Hell2 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “The best worship in the sight of Allah is the chastity of the stomach and the genitals3 .”

A man said to Imam al-Baqir (a) that his practices of worship were weak and his prayers and days of fasting were few; however, he hope he would eat and copulate only in legal ways. The Imam answered: “No jihad is better than the chastity of the stomach and the genitals4 .”

Reality of Chastity

Chastity does not mean to deprive oneself of the legal desires of food and sex. It only represents the moderation in the use of such desires. As a matter of fact, negligence and excess are always harmful to humankind. The excessive desires for food and sex cause gross dangers to which we will refer in our discussion of gluttony. Shortage in such desires also causes deprivation of the life enjoyments and legal pleasures. It also causes bodily weakness as well as feebleness of energies and morale.

The Sought Moderation

It is difficult to identify the moderation in the desires for food and sex because of the different needs and energies of individuals. Moderation of an individual may be considered as exaggeration or shortage for another. The relative moderation is to have only the quantity that is sufficient, away from greed and fill. The best criterion in this regard is that which was stated by Amirul- Mu'minin:

“Son! May I instruct you four words after which you will no longer need medicine? Do not eat unless you are hungry. Stop eating while you are still hungry. Chew food deliberately. Before sleeping, go to toilet. You will not need medicine if you follow.”

“In the holy Quran, there is a Verse gathering the whole matter of medicine. It is:

“Eat and drink but do not be excessive.” (7:31) 5

Advantages of Chastity

Chastity achieves happiness on both levels of individuals and communities. It beautifies man, raises him above gluttony, guards him against flattery to the mean ones, and enjoins him to gain the means of living and desires of life through legal ways.

Notes

1. Umma stands for the Islamic community.

2. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 2 page 183 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 65 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 2 page 184 (as quoted from al-Barqi’s al-Mahasin. In al-Kafi, there is a similar narration).

5. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; 2/79 (as quoted from ar- Rawandi’s ad-Dawaat).

Gluttony

Gluttony is the opposite of chastity. It stands for the excessive desires for food and sex. It is a mean tendency indicating self-feebleness, greedy nature, and slavery of instincts.

Amirul-Mu'minin (a) said: “He who wants to survive, yet no one will survive forever, should ease his back from the burdens of debts-, have the food as early as possible, and reduce copulation with women1 .”

Once, Amirul-Mu'minin (a) ate some dates, drank water, and then beat on his stomach with his hand and said: “Away with him who lets his stomach cause him to be in Hell.” He then recited the poetic verse:

Whenever you respond to the desires of your stomach and genitals, they both will give nothing but the extreme dispraise2 .

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Gluttony is the source of every malady except fever, which appears to the body3 .”

“The sated stomach overdoes4 .”

“Allah hates the overeating5 .”

Abu al-Hasan (a) said: “If people have moderate food, their bodies will be healthy6 .”

Disadvantages of Gluttony

It is not unacceptable to say that gluttony, charms of the falsities of life, and attraction of luxury and lavish expenditure have been the main elements of retardation. All these elements have taken the nations into corruption. Overeating, for example, has many bad results. Modern medicine has proved that most of the diseases, curls, lines on the skins that deform the attractive lineaments of men and women, accumulation of fats, deepness of eyes, exhausting powers, and ailed mentalities the reason of all these defects is the continuous gluttony and the fatty foods. It has been also proved that overeating exhausts the stomach and creates various sorts of healthy troubles, such as arteriosclerosis, angina pectoris, hypertension, and diabetes.

The sexual gluttony also causes similar defects, such as impotence of the public health, disappearance of nervous power, and vanishing of vitality.

Treatment of Gluttony

• It is necessary for the overeater to keep in mind the advantages of chastity and ponder over the disadvantages of gluttony.

• It is necessary for the overeater to try his best to train himself on moderate food. The protective and remedial constitution of health is the moderation of food and the avoidance of overeating. This constitution is summarized in the holy Verse:

“Eat and drink but do not be excessive.” (7:31)

The treatment of the sexual gluttony is as follows:

• Keeping in mind the dangers of sexual excess and moral and material corruptions.

• Striving the simulative of sexual desires, such as looking at the beauties of women, mixing of the sexes, excessive sexual imagination, and daydreams.

Notes

1. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 14 page 545 (as quoted from Tibb ul-Ayimma).

2. Quoted from Safinat ul-Bihar; vol. 1 page 27.

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al-Faqih).

5. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 11 page 67 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

6. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; 14/876 (as quoted from al- Barqi’s al-Mahasin).

Faithfulness and Breach

Faithfulness is the fulfillment of the deposited rights. It is the opposite of breach and one of the noblest traits and most dignified qualities that achieve admiration and success.

The opposite of faithfulness is breach, which stands for the seizure and usurpation of rights. It is one of the meanest qualities and nastiest manners that cause indignity, failure, and disappointment.

Therefore, reports and traditions urged faithfulness and warned against breach:

“Allah commands you to return that which had been entrusted to you to the rightful owners. Be just when passing judgment among people. Allah's advice is the most noble. (4:58)”

“Believers, do not be dishonest to Allah and the Messengers or knowingly abuse your trust. (8:27)”

The Prophet (S) said: “My umma will be kept in goodness so long as they do not breach the trusts of each other, keep on fulfilling their trusts, and defray the zakat; otherwise, they will be inflicted with famine and harsh years of draught1 .”

“The fulfillment of the trusts brings sustenance, while treachery causes poverty2 .”

“He who breaches the trust is not one of us.”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “Do not be deceived by their very much offering of prayers and observance of fasting. In fact, prayers and fasting have become habits that they feel desolate if they omit them. You should test them by their truthfulness and fulfillment of trusts3 .”

“Abide by God-fearing and fulfillment of the trusts of them who deposit things with you. If the killer of Ali Ibn Abi Talib deposits with me a trust, I will surely keep it for him4 .”

Advantages of Faithfulness and Disadvantages of Breach

Faithfulness plays a great role in the lives of nations. It is the system of their deeds, the support of their affairs, the title of their nobility, and the way to their moral and material development. The faithful individuals win the others’ admiration, trust, love, and confidence. Besides, such individuals will win shares in people’s fortunes and profits.

This fact is applicable to all nations whose lives cannot advance without the surroundings of confidence. Through faithfulness, the Arabs could control the reins of economy and keys of industry and commerce that brought abundant profits. Unfortunately, Muslims, thereafter, neglected faithfulness; therefore, they failed and were disappointed.

Thus, breach of trusts is one of the major reasons of failure. It is a serious factor causing mutual mistrust, enmity, and fear. Such factor results in social corruption, loose of ties, waste of interests, and dissipation of energies.

Forms of Breach

There are many forms of breach that vary in the scope of its cruelty, crimes, and results. The evilest form is treason that is committed by the thinkers and writers who violate the sacred facts of science by means of distortion and misrepresentation. The divulgement of Muslims’ secrets is another form of breach. A third one is the breach of the deposits. To confiscate such deposits is surely a double crime of breach, larceny, and usurpation. There are many other repulsive forms of breach that injure both the individuals and communities, such as trickery, cheating, deficient measurements, fraud, and dishonesty.

Notes

1. Quoted from as-Saduq’s Thawab ul-A’mal.

2. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 10 page 112 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

3. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 82 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 10 page 112 (as quoted from al- Kafi and Tahdhib).

Fraternity

Spiritual Fraternity

The pre-Islamic era was a stage of tragedies in the various mental and material fields. Moral dissolution and disorder were the most horrible tragedies that caused people to practice natures of beasts, law of jungle, disagreement, fighting, killing, usurpation, and declamation of revenge and retaliation.

When the dawn of Islam rose to spread its lights over humankind, it could, through its immortal principles and unparalleled constitution, stop these tragedies and cut off these combats. Then, it changed these ignorant herds into “the best nation that ever existed among humanity1 .”

Faith replaced atheism, order replaced disorder, knowledge replaced ignorance, peace replaced war, and mercy replaced retaliation.

Thus, these concepts faded away and were replaced by the new Islamic principles. The Prophet (S) began to establish that ideal nation whose individuals were unique in order, morals, and perfection. As they progressed under the pennon of the holy Quran and the leadership of the Prophet (S), Muslims flew in the horizons of generosity until they could achieve the principle of fraternity in such a method that could not be achieved by any other code. Moreover, the ties of belief became stronger than those of kinship, and, likewise, the bonds of faith exalted over the tribal and national bonds. Muslims, hence, became a united nation of compact lineup, high edifice, and fluttering pennon:

“People, we have created you all male and female and have made you nations and tribes so that you would recognize each other. The most honorable among you in the sight of Allah is the most pious of you. Allah is All-knowing and All-aware (49:13).”

The holy Quran went on implanting the concepts of spiritual fraternity in the mentalities through numerous Verses compacted by a remarkable and wise style.

The Quran, once, legislates fraternity as a law that should be applied by Muslims:

“Believers are each other's brothers. Restore peace among your brothers. Have fear of Allah so that perhaps you will receive mercy (49:10).”

On another occasion, the Quran confirms the law of fraternity and warns against factors of disagreement, reminding of the grace of the Islamic fraternity and harmony after long periods of disagreement and fighting:

“All of you united hold fast to the rope of Allah, and recall how He favored you when your hostility to each other had torn you apart. He united your hearts in one faith and through His grace you became brothers (3:103).”

In abstract, Islam has exerted all efforts for strengthening the spiritual fraternity among Muslims and protecting it against trends of disagreement and separation through the constitution of the social ties.

As a model, we provide the following:

 The Islamic constitution of the social ties took Muslims’ emotions and feelings far above the slavery of the tribal sectarianism to guide them to the noblest aim; namely, the obedience to God and the seeking of His satisfaction. Love, hate, giving, deprivation, support, and disappointment all these should be for the sake of God. Such being the case, the handles of fraternity will become firmer and Muslims will become the like of the well-established building each part of which strengthens the other.

The Prophet (S) said: “The mutual love of the believers that is intended sincerely for the sake of Allah is one of the greatest classes of faith. He who loves, hates, gives, deprives all for the sake of Allah is surely one of the choices of Allah2 .”

Imam as-Sajjad (a) said: “When Allah will gather the past and the late generations on the Day of Resurrection, a caller that everybody will hear will cry out on those who loved each other for the sake of Allah. A few people will stand up. They will be sent to Paradise without being rendered to judgment. In their way to Paradise, the angels will meet and ask them. ‘We are going to our abodes in Paradise without being rendered to judgment,’ they will answer. As the angels ask them about their class, they will answer, ‘We loved each other for the sake of Allah.’ As the angels ask them about their deeds due to which they have gained such a rank, they will answer, ‘We loved and hated for the sake of Allah.’ The angels then will say: Very well is the reward of the doers of charity3 .”

Imam al-Baqir (a) said: “If you want to know whether you are to the good or not, you should test your heart: if it loves the people of obedience to Allah and hates the people of disobedient to Him, you are then to the good and Allah loves you. If your heart hates the people of the obedience to Allah and loves the people of the disobedience to Him, you are then not to the good and Allah hates you. Certainly, man will be attached to the one whom he loved4 .”

Imam as-Sadiq (a) said: “On the Day of Resurrection, those who love each other purely for the sake of Allah will be on luminous stages; the light of their faces, bodies, stages, and everything will be shining so that shining will be their distinctive feature and everybody will point to them and say those loved each other for the sake of Allah5 .”

“He who does not love or hate for the sake of the religion is not Muslim6 .”

The Islamic constitution of the social ties enjoined Muslims to adhere to the factors of coalition, dignity, and luxury, such as exhorting each other to the right, helping each other in fields of piety, supporting each other for the achievement of justice, and joining the forces in the economical fields of life. According to the Islamic Sharia, all Muslims are one family whose matters of happiness and unhappiness are the same. The constitution of such a family is:

“Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah and those with him are stern to the disbelievers yet kind among themselves. (48:29)”

And the slogan is the saying of the Prophet (S):

“He who begins his day without caring for the affairs of the Muslims is not a Muslim.”

The Islamic constitution of the social ties warned Muslims against all factors of separation, hostility, obscenity, backbiting, tale bearing, breach, and cheating as well as all other matters that arouse seditions and rancor. The Muslims’ principal in this point is the Prophet’s saying:

“The true believer is only he whom Muslims can trust in regard with their estates and souls. The true Muslim is only he whom Muslims are saved from his hand physical harm- and tongue- verbal harm-. The true Muhajir7 emigrant- is that who deserts the sins8 .”

 The Islamic constitution of the social ties granted the opportunities of improving friendly relations between Muslims, such as exchanging visits, frequenting religious circles, and witnessing Islamic gatherings such as collective prayers, hajj9 , and the like.

Notes

1. Quoted from the holy Quran; 3:110.

2. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 89 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

3. Quoted from Bihar ul-Anwar; vol. 15 part 1 page 283 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

4. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 90 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

5. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 89 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

6. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 90 (as quoted from al-Kafi).

7. Muhajirs: The emigrants. The early Muslims of Mecca who had to flee their homeland to Medina.

8. Quoted from al-Wafi; part 3 page 99 (as quoted from al- Kafi).

9. Hajj is the pilgrimage to the Sacred Mosque at Mecca undertaken in the twelfth month of the Hijri year and constituting one of the religious duties of Islam.