Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

A Brief Guide to the Study of Islam: Anthropology and Soteriology

By Robert Hunt

© 2006 United Methodist Church - Central Conference of Central and Southern Europe

Table of Contents

I. Forward. 3

II. Introduction. 4

III. The Creatures of Allah. 6

IV. Human Nature 7

A. The Creation and Fall of Humankind. 8

B. Human Purpose 9

1. Ibadah. 10

2. Khalifa and Abd. 11

3. Ilm, Adl, Dawa, Jihad. 12

C. The Ideal Human. 13

D. Body, Soul, and Spirit 14

E. Predestination and Free Will 15

F. Human Social Realities 16

1. Pluralism. 17

2. Gender 18

3. The Family. 19

4. Morality and Political structures 20

5. Economic Justice 21

6. Ummah and Nation. 22

7. The Realization of Islam. 23

V. The End of Creation. 24

A. Death and the Grave 25

B. The Final Judgement 26

C. Salvation. 27

1. Sin and its Remedies 28

2. Intercession (shafa'a). 30

3. Cleanliness 31

D. Conclusion. 32

VI. Bibliography. 33

Notes 34

I. Forward

This brief paper is part of an overall introduction to Islamic beliefs. I have tried to indicate both relevant verses of the Quran, and technical terms, so that the interested reader can pursue further research on his or her own. A bibliography at the end indicates some of the English language works which will give a greater insight into these areas of Islamic belief.

Readers wishing to do further research should note that Arabic has been romanized in different ways in this century, and that some texts and reference works are keyed to the Persian or even Urdu equivalents of Arabic terms. Leaving aside the most extreme variations it should be noted that words in this paper beginning with "j" is often found with "dj", and that "q" is often rendered "k", and visa versa. Thusqadar may be found askadar , andJinn asDjinn. Names, such as Ash'ari, are sometimes written with "al" as a prefix, thusAl Ash'ari. Translations of the Quran (Koran ) sometimes have variations in the numbering of the chapters and verses. Normally if the verse being sought isn't found one should check the same verse, and its immediate neighbors, in the previous and subsequent chapter.

In this paper I have referred to God as God, whether in a Islamic or Christian context. The usual Islamic word for God, Allah, is used only when necessary to clearly distinguish a Muslim usage. As is always the case with translation a certain controversy surrounds the use of these terms. There are those who maintain that the English word "God" has theological overtones from Christian culture which do not make it an appropriate translation for the word "Allah". However, numerous English works by Muslim authors freely use God as the equivalent for Allah, and I have followed this pattern.

II. Introduction

Questions about human nature and destiny appeared among humans at almost the dawn of civilization, and may be definitive of humanity itself. However, the universality of these questions should not blind us to the fact that they have been formulated in very different ways by different cultures and different religions. In Christianity and Islam there is the shared assumption that both the nature and destiny of humanity are found in the purposes of God. Both Christianity and Islam place the question of humanity in its relationship to the one transcendent God at the center of religion. And both see that relationship as problematic. Yet profound differences arise between them.

For the Christian religious tradition that problematic relationship arises when humanity grasps for itself the prerogatives of God. The essence of idolatry is Godremade in a human image, or something even lower, and is rooted in humanity's rebellion against God's command. In the Christian tradition the sin of humanity is more than just specific acts, it is a fundamental characteristic of humanity after the Fall, dominating the whole life of a humanity powerless to overcome it or deny it its bitter fruits of death and evil. The first followers of Jesus were anxiously awaiting a Messiah, a Savior who could deliver them from sin. The salvation which they awaited was conditioned by an extensive tradition of Jewish reflection on sin, on Israel's history, on the position of the individual, the nation, and the world in relation to God, and on God's plan for human history. Christian theology was determined by the ways in which Jewish hopes were met, redefined, and extended by the person of Jesus and the content of his preaching. The followers of Jesus discovered that the destiny of humanity is to be restored to full humanness by the eradication of sin and the re-establishment of God as God in human life through faith in Jesus as the Christ. Both the pervasiveness of sin, and the comprehensiveness of the grace required to destroy it, are reflected in the Christian theology of atonement through God's sacrifice of the Son, and the eschatological images of the Kingdom of God found at the center of the message of Jesus Christ. Jesus as the sinless man capable of making and being the sacrifice on the cross is also the image of authentic humanity, the new Adam. While the New Testament authors looked forward to both a day of judgement and a new creation by God, they asserted that the possibility of freedom from sin and authentic human life were instituted by the atonement, and the sending of the Holy Spirit to the church, the Body of Christ. Any Christian understanding of anthropology reckons with Jesus as the new Adam, the crucifixion of Christ on the cross which conquers the human fear of sin and death, the Spirit of Christ which makes his followers holy, and the nature of faith which makes it possible for humans to enjoy these gifts of God's mercy. Any Christian soteriology is rooted in God's own sacrifice of his Son on the cross to pay the price of sin, the Christian hope for eternal life, the strength of the Holy Spirit to persevere in the face of evil and temptation, and the promised reign of God.

In Islam the essential problematic of the human relationship with God arises when the first humans, tempted by the Devil (Iblis ), grasp after the created order as the ultimate reality, choosing the fruit of the tree rather than the command of God. As a result humans are exiled to the earth, away from the Garden which was to be their home and away from their stature as the highest of all creatures. As a conscious choice this sin of choosing the created order is infidelity to God's command, making a person akafir . When reflected in the elevating of the created order to the status of God this is the sin ofshirk . The human condition which makes such infidelity possible is ignorance,jahiliyya , a condition which becomes pervasive in some times and places but which is never a necessary part of human nature. Infidelity, idolatry, and ignorance were the primary characteristics which Muhammed found in his own time and culture. The first revelations which Muhammed received placed the reality of Allah, and Allah's judgement upon those who were idolatrous and unfaithful, powerfully before those who heard them. They called on people to know, and acknowledge, the one God, and to abandon immorality in order to be saved at the judgement day and to attain the lost Paradise. This called for repentance, a change of heart. Yet in Islam the human heart, which is the seat of knowing rather than feeling, is always an isthmus,barzakh , which separates, but also potentially joins, the earthly and the divine.[1] The fulfillment of human destiny which Muhammed announced was a return to the Garden and the resumption of the status which God originally intended for humanity. This occurs first withIslam , humans submitting to the perfect and final revelation of Allah and Allah's will which came through Muhammed. Ultimately it is realized when Allah destroys the Earth (which is not intrinsically corrupt, but has simply served its purpose) and after the final judgement brings all of those who have been faithful back into the Garden (which was always the destiny of humankind.) While it is by Allah's grace alone that humans are continually reminded of their nature and destiny through the prophets, and are called into Islam, it is up to each individual to make the choices which will lead them ultimately back to the Garden. (25:70).

It is too much to say of course, that Christianity and Islam were determined by their cultural and human contexts. Their founders not only answered, but helped define, the question of the nature and destiny of humanity. Both claim that revelation provides not just the answer to a generic human question, but frames that question properly in the face of human ignorance or sin. So it is important, as we look for shared experiences and categories of theological reflection which allow authentic dialogue, to realize that our Christian questions are not necessarily generic human questions. This may mean that we have no ready answer for the central concerns of our neighbors in a pluralistic society. And it may mean that we will discover in dialogue dimensions of human existence before God that our own particular tradition of Christian theological reflection has passed by.

III. The Creatures of Allah

Islamic accounts of the created order recognize several realms, each of which can be defined in terms of relation to its creator. The first two of realms are that of inanimate and animate creatures. The inanimate realm is governed with absolute consistency by natural law, which is nothing other than God's will for inanimate creation. Animate creatures such as animals live, breed, act, and react according to the traits of their distinctive species, as these have been determined by God. While their actions may appear irregular because they live in relation to a changing environment, they have no ability to reflect on their actions and no free will. Whether one regards a mineral being slowly compressed into a new form in the bowels of the earth, or a tree budding, or a wolf hunting, one sees the same thing: a creature carrying out unreflectively God's will. (87:2-3, 20:49-50, 17:44) Philosophers would subsequently debate whether God's will was innate in the creature, or represented God's immediate creation of all events as well as things. In either case the creature's submission to God's will was total.

The third and by far most important realm is that of humans, who are distinguished from other creatures by their ability to consciously grasp God's will and then choose to implement it or not. Again, philosophers and theologians would debate the relation of human freedom to divine power. Yet Islam always agreed that humans were responsible for their actions, and for implementing God's will, in a way that set them apart from all other creatures.

The forth and fifth realm consist of spiritual creatures, thejinn and mala'ikah (angels). Unlike humans, who were created of clay animated when God breathed his spirit into them, the jinn are created of fire and the angels of light (21:19 onward, 35, 55:15). Like humans these creatures are created to worship God through submission to God's will. Both the Quran and Muslim theologians have traditionally regarded the jinn as like humans in their ability to choose submission to God. Thus they have had their prophets and religions, and can be subject to God's punishment or converted to Islam. Despite injunctions in the Quran and Hadith (the collected sayings attributed to Muhammed) against pursuing relations with the jinn, Muslims have always been fascinated with them. Legal scholars worked out complete guidelines to relations between jinn and humans, and their existence is accepted by all Muslims. [2] The situation of angels is more complex. The Quran suggests that they are utterly submissive to God's will, and possess no freedom of choice. (21:19, 20, 27, 46:6). Yet the Quran also tells of the rebellion of the angel Iblis (2:34, 15:31, etc.). These accounts are complicated by the fact that Iblis seems also to be characterized as a jinn in the Quran . Despite controversies among commentators over the status of Iblis in relation to the impeccability of angels, belief in angels as impeccable servants of Allah is a fundamental belief for Muslims. The Quran names and defines the roles of many of the angels, and Islamic theological tradition, not to mention folklore, has a highly developed and complex angelology.

IV. Human Nature

The first revelation to Muhammed contained the central theme of subsequent Muslim reflection on humanity. "Recite, O man, whom Allah created from a blood clot". Humans are creatures, this first and foremost, and they are recipients of revelation from their creator, Allah. From this basic beginning Islamic reflections on human nature can be said to derive from four sources: the stories about Adam and Eve as they are found in the Quran and Arab traditions contemporary with the Quran, the life of Muhammed as it came to be told in the Muslim community, various statements and terms found in the Quran and Hadith, and Greek philosophy as understood and developed in Muslim circles. These are not necessarily integrated into a coherent anthropology, but present rather a spectrum of ideas which theologians and ordinary Muslims draw on in expressing their own understanding of humanity. The story of Adam and his companion Hawa speak primarily to the issue of God's purpose for humankind and its destiny. These stories relate to soteriology by placing humanity in a temporal framework whose beginning, descent from the Garden to earth, is complimented by its end, the restoration of the faithful to the Garden. The stories of Muhammed not only flesh out the details of an exemplary human life, they address through the concept of Prophethood the spiritual mystery of how a finite creature can be immutably linked with the transcendent God. They give a concrete basis for reflection on the quality of humanity which makes it possible to conceive of an eternity of perfect obedience and communion with God. Finally the Muslim discovery of Greek philosophy provided a detailed view of the metaphysical world which would and could stimulate mystical reflection on the path to oneness with God that complimented the temporal account of human ends. As importantly it provided the basis for an Islamic psychology which explains the human in relation to the divine mind on one hand, and in relation to other animate creatures on the other.

A. The Creation and Fall of Humankind

The earliest Muslim understanding of the human nature was based on the Quran, especially in its account of the creation of Adam and Eve (Adam andHawa ), a story which was current in Arabia in several elaborated forms, both Jewish and Christian. The Quranic story is distinctive in several respects. Adam is created in order to consciously and willingly worships God, not because God needs worship, but because this gives Adam his unique identity. Adam was the highest of all creatures. He possessed the knowledge of all things in creation (and hence the ability to name them, which the angels lacked). In recognition of this the Quran says that God required the angels to bow down to Adam, precipitating the rebellion of Iblis. Adam is also the first of the prophets (nabi ), for he received the first revelation from God. Adam is called in the Qurankhalifah , or vice-regent, meaning that it belongs to him and his progeny to both use creation for their benefit and to develop it according to God's will (2:30).

In somehadith Adam is said to be made "in the image of God". This has been suggestive for Muslims, especially for mystics, of the spiritual journey each person should undertake. Orthodox Muslim commentators are clear in saying that unlike God Adam has no creative power, only the power to submit to or to disrupt God's created order. Perhaps most critically Adam and his progeny are characterized with the termfitrah , a word which suggests that their whole being is in accord with God's creative purpose. Although there are differences of opinion among Muslim commentators as to the spiritual and legal implications offitrah , all emphasize that humans are by nature capable of knowing and obeying the will of God. Indeed one Quranic verse (7:172), which also emphasizes human responsibility, states that God confronted all of the souls of all potential humans, and that they acknowledged Allah as their Creator, thus they have no excuse at the judgement for having failed to recognize him as such.

The story of the temptation of Adam and Eve in Paradise, and their subsequent eating of the forbidden fruit, is interpreted as a mistake (dhanb ) in the Islamic tradition (2:35, 7:1-ff). Significantly when the pair is confronted by Allah they say, "We have wronged ourselves." (7:23) It is Iblis who bears responsibility for their loss of Paradise, while they suffer the consequence of their mistake by being cast down to the Earth. This leads to their punishment, and equally to their repentance, and then a more mature understanding of Allah as the ultimate reality. The event defines what Muslims see as the fundamental human fault, which is forgetting Allah's command. But while this forgetfulness is regarded as a universal human tendency, it is not the definitive human trait. It is human nature, encouraged by Allah's manifold signs in creation and the near endless succession of prophets, to remember ( dhikr) that Allah has created everything and that every thing should bow before Allah.

B. Human Purpose

The wordIslam, which means "to submit", reveals the central purpose of human life, which is to submit to the revealed purposes of the creator. ThisIslam, along with faith and works of righteousness, are thedin , or religion in the broadest sense, of Muslims. While the exact meaning ofdin in the Quran is complex, and the subject of much discussion by commentators, more recent Muslim theologians have used it to mark the definitive difference betweenIslam and all other religions. They takedin to indicate the absolute fullness of God's purpose for humans in the world. ThusIslam isdin, a "way of life" which indicates everything from personal manners, to social interactions, to political systems, to international relations. It includes architecture and all of the arts as well, and ultimately embraces God's entire plan for the creation, so that it includes God's final judgement of humanity, one of the distinctive meanings of the worddin as found in the Quran.

While this full elaboration ofIslam asdin belongs to our era, in which Islam defines itself over against the retreat of Christianity into a form of private piety in the face of secularization, it is justified historically. Very early on Muslims saw every choice in every situation as an opportunity to either submit to God's plan or abandon it. They sought guidance in the most minute and greatest of human affairs in the Quran and the traditions of the prophet, and later in the ever expanding body offikh or Islamic law.[3]

While this traditional rules-based approach to Islam as a complete way of life continues to have a powerful attraction for Muslims, there has been a growing consensus thatijtihad , or the reasoning out of God's will in specific instances is necessary for any Muslim in a responsible decision making position. The challenge of ijtihad , as well as the desire to awaken Muslims to think more deeply about their religion, and the desire of Muslims to speak convincingly to a non-Muslim audience, have led to a great deal of modern discussion on the first principles of human responsibility in the Islamic din . 

1. Ibadah

The Quran teaches that humans were made foribadah , or conscious, intentional, worship of God (51:56).  This is the active means by which humans fulfill their divinely given vocation. Formally this means carrying out the daily prayers prescribed in the Quran, observing the fasting month, making the pilgrimage to Mecca, and paying thezakat tax. It was also extended in early Islam to include personal prayers and other acts of conventional worship. Islamic reflection on the broader obligations of human beings has stressed that all conscious action should be seen asibadah , and should be governed by reflection on God's laws, the intention to fulfill them, and action in bringing them to fulfillment.

2. Khalifa and Abd

A two termskhalifah andabd, or vice-regent and slave define two important understandings of the human relationship to the earth. This titlekhalifah was originally applied to Adam, as sovereign of the earth. It is taken by many Muslims as a broad description of humanity's specific relationship with the natural world. The Earth is given to humans for their free use according to the Quran. Yet the human's "highest achievement is to obey without question his Master's Will... so that the Divine Will may operate through him without impediment", so humans are alsoabd .[4] Islamic thinkers thus claim to have a tool for reflection on humans and the world which transcends a supposed western emphasis on domination and exploitation.

3. Ilm, Adl, Dawa, Jihad

Togetheribadah andkhalifa describe the human responsibility to God on one hand and the created order on the other. The Quran and Hadith also emphasize narrower goals of human life which in various ways have inspired Muslims. The search forilm, or knowledge, is enjoined on all humans according to their capacity, and is clearly the antidote to the ignorance which is humankind's most besetting shortcoming. This quest for knowledge is first directed to religious knowledge. Yet it also includes knowledge of the natural world - which is regarded as a sign of Allah - and of the human/social world in which humans must strive to implement God's will.Adl , or justice, is also enjoined upon Muslims as an essential sign of God's intention for creation.Da'wa , or striving to both extend Islam and strengthen it from within, is part of the human vice-regency which seeks to bring all creatures into conformity with Allah's plan.Jihad, or struggle to defend Islam, is likewise part of this human obligation. This short list of principals of human has been extended as Muslims have, at different times, tried to answer the particular challenges facing themselves or their societies. Whether it is through extensive lawmaking or articulation of fundamental principles, Islam strives to guide every aspect of human life in the world and hereafter.

C. The Ideal Human

Adam and Eve are the prototypes of humanity, and the stories of their creation and life in the garden are reminders to Muslims of the glory of humanity intended by God. However, the world of Adam and Eve, however fully elucidated in myth and story, is necessarily distant from the personal and social reality of Muslims. Both, the Quran and the Hadith, as well as numerous subsequent traditions, point to Muhammed himself as the exemplar of human life (33:21, 68:4) And literature about the prophets life,sirah , is the most widely read of Islamic literature and plays a key role in shaping Muslim understandings of the human ideal. Muslim writing about Muhammed rarely spares any superlative in speaking of the perfection of his qualities, and his life, emerging amid the ignorance and debasement of 7th century Arabic culture, is taken as a miraculous proof of his status as God's prophet.[5]

Among most orthodox Muslims Muhammed is the ideal in terms of behavior, receptivity to God's will, and knowledge. This does not necessarily imply, however, that he has a particular metaphysical status which distinguishes him from the rest of humanity. However, there are widely accepted traditions which go a step further and state the Muhammed was without sin, because God removed it all from his heart, a tradition which for many Muslims allows the claim that Muhammed is equal to Jesus as understood within Islam. Finally, among Sufis in particular, Muhammed is the "Prophetic Substance" incarnate, and thus the origin of all Islamic spirituality.[6] He isn't merely an example of total obedience in external behavior, he is the door to God, the "concrete and semi-sacramental presence that prefigures the state of salvation or of deliverance and that invites one not to legality or to the social virtues but to self-transcendence and transformation-hence to extinction and to a second birth."[7] This exalted understanding of Muhammed underscores the fact that in Islam prophethood, which is the abiding link between God and humanity, is central to any understanding of either humankind or salvation.

19thand early 20 thcentury Christian apologists to Islam recognized that the Muslim understanding of Muhammed was crucial to the Muslim reception of teaching about Jesus. In some cases Christians tried to sully the character of Muhammed, hoping to turn Muslims to the supposedly better example of Jesus. In other cases Christians recognized Muhammed's outstanding character, but insisted that his moral flaws disqualified him to be an example. A third approach was to leave aside details of Muhammed's life and simply to stress that his life, unlike that of Jesus, was not perfect, and thus he could not bear the burden of human sin. More recently Kenneth Craig and others have explored the idea that Christians should see Muhammed as a true prophet, and through the exploration of the meaning of prophethood find common ground for discussion between Christians and Muslims. It is certain that so long as the fundamental declaration of Islamic faith is articulated "there is no God but Allah, and Muhammed is his prophet", the person and character of Muhammed will be central not only to discussions of prophecy, but human nature as well.

D. Body, Soul, and Spirit

In the Quran Adam was created when God breathed his spirit (ruh ) into the dirt which he had fashioned into a human form. (15:29, 37:72, 32:9) Jesus was similarly conceived in Mary.(21:91, 66:12) This created anafs, the word used in the Quran for the human self or soul. This self is portrayed as transcending its bodily existence, and survives after the death of the body awaiting God's final judgement and its future in paradise of hell.

For most Muslims this understanding of their own humanity is sufficient, and it is the basis of all orthodox Muslim belief. In the history of Islam, however, both philosophical speculation and efforts to fully understand statements in the Quran about human life led to the development of more complex understandings of human nature. For mystics and others the Quranic suggestion of a link between the human soul and the Divine spirit was elaborated for the purpose of both better understanding human nature and the mystic pilgrimage into oneness with God. Thus thenafs and ruh of the human, representing the horizontal and vertical planes of human existence, can be regarded as competitors for the qalb or heart, wherein the possibility of good and evil lies. Greek philosophy also provided a resource for speculation. Aristotle's distinction between the nutritive, sensitive, and the rational aspects of the soul was used, for example, to help clarify the differences between plants, animals, and humans and jinn Neo-Platonic ideas of the emanation of the soul were used to clarify the understanding of nafs and ruh in terms of the emanation of the soul from Prime Mover or One Absolute Cause. The concept of the animal soul (passively obedient to natural impulses) could complement Quranic references to the "soul which commands", the "soul which blames", and the "soul at peace" to develop a theory of personality and personal decision making. [8] Al-Sharastani and al-Ghazzali succeeded in integrating Greek ideas with Quranic interpretation in such a way as to have a lasting impact on Islamic thought. However, the dominant Muslim position has been to identify ruh with nafs , seeing humans as sensible bodies interpenetrated by the soul, which is eternal and separable from the body after death. [9] More elaborate theories of the origin and place of the human soul or spirit have been confined primarily to Islamic mysticism and philosophy.

E. Predestination and Free Will

Like other religions, Islamic philosophy and theology have developed in response to both intrinsic internal questions, and questions posed by the external environment. Due to the apparent contradiction between the Quranic emphasis on Allah's omniscience and omnipotence and complete human responsibility in the face of God's judgement, the issue of human free will became one of the earliest sources of theological debate in Islam. This debate extended naturally into the eternal qualities of Allah, the eternal and changeless Allah's relationship to an apparently changing creation, the meaning of justice, and human psychology.

The relationship betweenqada' (Allah's will, knowledge, or decision) andqadar (its implementation) was central to the debate. The two extremes in the debate; the insistence on complete freedom of the human will (associated with theMutalizites or sometimesQadarians ), and theDjabriya insistence than humans had no part at all in their actions, were eventually excluded as heretical. The mediating view of al-Ash'ari, which came to be regarded as orthodox, maintained that humans bore responsibility for their actions despite the fact that they represent Allah'sqada' andqadar . This was by virtue of their having accepted or become conscious of these actions as their own (iktisab ).  For al-Ash'ari even this consciousness was created by God, but within orthodox Islam there was room for continued debate over how acceptance of God's fore-ordained will as one's own came about.

Some modern Islamic scholars downplay belief in predestination. Abdul Ala Mawdudi, who was one of the most influential Muslim teachers of this century, doesn't mention it as part of Islamic doctrine in his popular bookTowards Understanding Islam , and other modernist thinkers have revivedMutalizite arguments on for free will. But virtually all classical books on Islamic belief, and most modern presentations of Islamic doctrine, list belief in predestination according to the Ash'arite understanding as afundamental Islamic belief , as important as belief in God, the angels, the books of prophecy, the prophets, and the final judgement and life after death. 

In some modern Islamic movementsiktisab is regarded as almost a conversion experience, in which a person who thought he or she was acting freely finally submits to the reality of Allah's Lordship, and with this submits to God's revealed law as his or her way of life. It is common in Malaysia, for example, that a convert from nominal to committed Islam to say "I understood the qada' qadar of Allah". The questions which this raises about the psychological meaning of conversion within a deterministic system are no less vexing than those which led to the great Armenian - Calvinist debates in Christianity. Yet for those involved there seems to be a psychological satisfaction which defies armenian reasoning.

F. Human Social Realities

While the Quran vividly awakens its hearers to the reality of God's judgement on their lives, it does not foretell animminent end to the world. It has a wealth of material related to regulating family and social relations. Particularly in thesurahs revealed later in Muhammed's life it emphasizes the maintenance of Muslim families and the development of the Islamic community. Thesunnah (traditions concerning Muhammed's words and acts) greatly extended this teaching, and the subsequent development of Islamic law gave the Muslim community extensive guidance for the forming of human communities which lived within God's will. The details of that guidance are beyond the scope of this essay. More relevant to understanding modern Islam is the challenge which modernity and the globalization of certain social norms has posed to Muslims. Some Muslims have opted for seeking to maintain or recreate traditional Muslim lifestyles, and others have simply adopted to modern lifestyles while reducing Islam to a private religious orientation. The majority, however, have tried to both defend and re-evaluate Islamic teaching on authentic patterns of human life in a way which shows its value and relevance in a contemporary setting. In particular they have addressed contemporary issues of pluralism, gender roles, the family, the breakdown of morality, economic justice, and nationalism.[10]

1. Pluralism

A central claim of modern Muslims is that Islam's traditional approach to society acknowledged and valued religious, ethnic, and cultural pluralism, while maintaining the essential equality of all humans. (49:13, 5:48) The principle that there is no compulsion in religion (2:256) and the traditional tolerance of Muslim societies for religious minorities is often cited as evidence that Islamic principals should be the basis of a modern pluralistic society. However, these traditional values worked most effectively when different communities could maintain their integrity by isolating a relatively large part of their lives from the larger society. The intrusiveness of the modern state on every aspect of human life, and the globalization of economic and cultural forces seems to make this impossible. While some Muslims seek to use the fundamental value of pluralism to develop new social systems for a modern world, others argue that modernity itself is the problem. Rather than accepting it as inevitable, they believe Muslim should oppose it by re-instituting God's plan for social life as revealed in the Quran and Hadith. They invite non-Muslims to accept their efforts on the basis of what they present as Islam's essentially pluralist outlook.

2. Gender

In the face of criticism that Islamic teaching about gender roles is oppressive to women, modern Muslims have offered two answers. Some have simply affirmed that the traditional Islamic way is, when properly implemented, both fairer and better for women than modern standards for treatment of women. Others have sought to undermine traditionalist Islamic teaching and discover in the Quran and Hadith a basis for equality and justice which is superior to a modern understanding of gender and gender relations.

What sets both groups apart from non-Islamic discussions is the affirmation that relationships between men and women are determined by covenants of rights and responsibilities, and that the marriage covenant is the central realm of sexual relations. Islam, particularly seen in its historical context, is asserted to be revolutionary in the rights and protection offered to women through these covenants. Thus, for example, modern apologists for Islam (including many women) interpret Islamic requirements that women dress modestly not as evidence of male subjugation, but as a means by which women take a responsible attitude towards men's natural sexual urges. Similarly the respectful distance men are enjoined to keep from women outside their family gives women the freedom to be regarded as human beings rather than sex objects. It is precisely these values of mutual respect and responsibility, and these as the basis for developing human relations, which Muslims would like to see replace the emphasis on power as the key determinate of human relations in modern social analysis.[11]

3. The Family

Probably no issue troubles Muslims more than the breakdown of the family in modern world. In light of this they are astounded at the frequent western accusation that somehow Islam itself is inimical to stable family relations. As in gender relations, they assert that the Islamic provisions are based on rights and responsibilities which realistically meet universal human needs. Marriage itself is a contract in which both parties have specific obligations and rights, and thus there are provisions for maintaining the relationship when these cannot be met, or for breaking it off without either partner being left defenseless and destitute. The provision for polygamy, dowry, and divorce fit into this framework. Modernist Muslims also maintain that Islamic law is flexible enough to deal with changing circumstances. Thus polygamy was allowed as a means of bringing all women into the protective relationship of the family in earlier times, but is sufficiently restricted to prevent modern women from being abused by it. And indeed Muslim states such as Malaysia have greatly restricted polygamy on basically Islamic grounds.

The major emphasis of modern Muslim interpretations of marriage is that it should provide a secure environment for every member of the family. Muslims believe that Islamic teaching accomplishes this better than secular laws precisely because it acknowledges fundamental gender and generation differences, and insists on mutual responsibility among family members. The Islamic system is said to secure each individual in concentric networks of responsibility, beginning with the nuclear family and extending outward through the extended family, local community, and to the entireummah or Islamic society. This, Muslims would say, is superior to the Western system of autonomous individuals reliant on either themselves or the state. While the Islamic viewpoint is certainly open to debate at many levels, it cannot be denied that it has shown a strong appeal for many post-Christian Europeans and Americans, and has given Islamic minorities an enviable solidarity. [12]

4. Morality and Political structures

For Muslims morality is fundamentally submission to God's laws. The strength necessary to act morally comes from the knowledge of that law, and of the consequences for obedience and disobedience. The willful ignorance of modern people towards the existence of God and God's way for humans destroys the possibility for moral action. True religion generally (for Islam acknowledges that many religions reliably taught God's existence and ways) and Islam specifically are the only answer to this dilemma. Revelation is the only source of religion, and thus the Revelation of Muhammed, the last and most complete, is the way back to individual and social morality.

On these points there is universal assent among Muslims, in the face of any claims that morality emerges out of either enlightened self-interest, consensual agreements on social behavior, or innate human altruism. Muslims recognize the problem of competing claims stemming from different revelations, but argue that in such a case the last and fullest revelation must take precedence. At the same time Islam does recognize the role of both individual judgement (ra'y ) and consensus ( ijma ) in resolving moral problems not directly addressed by God's revelation. The great political issue for modern Islam is determining the line between God's clear revelation and the realm of human decision making, and to suggest public institutions in which a consensus can be reached.

5. Economic Justice

One of the great demands Allah makes in the Quran is foradl , justice, particularly in economic relations. Historically a great attraction of Islam was the uniformity and fairness of its laws regulating trade. These, with a certain flexibility added by legal devices calledhiyal , allowed Muslims to create the widest system of trade relations in the world prior to the age of European colonialism, and to enjoy unprecedented economic prosperity. Imperialism and colonialism, driven by European economic, social, and religious theories which in one way or another justified exploitation of conquered peoples, left much of the Muslim world deeply impoverished, even as they introduced rapid technological change and eventually democratic social theory. To many Muslims twentieth century economic structures have only deepened the poverty of the mass of Muslims, even if a tiny Muslim elite has grown rich on the exploitation of oil and other natural resources. While some Muslims have been attracted to socialism and Marxism as alternatives, the essentially secular and atheist foundations of both are unattractive to most Muslims. Not surprisingly there has been a major movement to re-discover and articulate the principles of Islamic economics in order to offer an alternative to the systems under which Muslims have suffered so terribly. Islamic economics is now a flourishing field of academic inquiry, and in many Muslim nations the government is publicly committed to putting Islamic economic institutions and structures in place. Describing either the principles of Islamic economics or its institutions goes beyond the scope of this essay. However, should Muslim nations gain the power to resist the force of global free-for-all capitalism, or close their doors to it in frustration, Islamic economic systems will become more significant in the future.

Table of Contents

Dedication 19

The Publisher’s preface 20

Introduction 21

(1) 21

(2) 21

(3) 21

(4) 22

(5) 22

(6) 22

(7) 23

(8) 23

(9) 23

(10) 24

(11) 24

(12) 24

(13) 25

(14) 25

(15) 26

(16) 26

(17) 26

(18) 27

(19) 27

Mecca the honored town 28

Other names of Mecca 28

1. Ummol Qura (mother of villages) 28

2. Al-Balad al-Ameen (the safe country) 28

3. Becca 28

4. The Inviolable House 28

Its locality 29

Mecca is the most beloved place to the Prophet 29

The Prophet glorifies the Kaaba 29

The Prophet puts the Rock in its place 30

The first who lived in Mecca 30

The cultural life 31

Dar an-Nadwa 31

Hilf al-Fudhool (alliance of virtues) 31

The religious life 31

Who denied the idols 32

1. Umru’ ul-Qayss 32

2. Ghawi bin Abdul Uzza 32

3. Zayd bin Umar 32

4. A nomad man 32

5. Khuza’a bin Abd 32

6. Abdurrahman 32

The belief of the Hashemites 33

The Prophet destroys the idols 33

The economic life 33

The social life 34

The Hashemites 34

The Umayyads 34

Great personalities and glories 36

Hashim 36

Abdul Muttalib 37

Abdul Muttalib’s faith 37

Entrusting the hospitality of the pilgrims to him 37

Restoring the well of Zamzam 38

Abdul Muttalib’s vision 38

Abdul Muttalib’s vow 39

His care for the Prophet 39

Towards the High Companion 40

Fatherhood, motherhood, and a shine 41

The father: Abdullah 41

To the heavens 41

The mother: Aaminah 41

Aaminah’s vision 42

The shining of light 42

His name 43

Signs and miracles 43

The Jews’ fear 43

His wet-nurses 43

With his foster-sisters 44

A rejected narration 44

His nursemaid 45

The death of Aaminah 45

A rejected narration 45

Abdul Muttalib’s death 46

Under Abu Talib’s care 46

The care of Abu Talib’s wife to Muhammad 46

With his uncle to Sham 47

With a priest 47

The battle of al-Fijar 48

Grazing of sheep 48

Disdaining from playing 49

Placing the Black Rock in its place 49

Trading with the capitals of Khadijah 49

His marriage to Khadijah 50

The Prophet adopts Ali 51

His characteristics 52

Willpower 52

High morality 52

A word by Imam Ali 53

Forbearance 54

Generosity 56

Modesty 57

Asceticism 58

Turning to Allah 59

His prayer 59

a. assigning the time of prayer 59

b. the caller (mu’azzin) 59

c. His care for congregational prayer 59

d. Regulating the rows of Muslims 60

e. His much praying 60

f. His weeping in his prayers 60

Coyness 60

Remembrance of Allah 61

His weeps when certain verses are recited before him 61

Compassion and mercifulness 61

Loyalty 62

Courage 63

The love to the poor 63

Disdaining of haughtiness 64

Patience 64

Justice 64

Cleanness 65

His fondness of perfumes 65

Sense of humor 65

Eloquence and rhetoric 66

Gravity 66

Prudent policy 66

In the cave of Hara’ 68

The revelation 68

With Khadijah 69

Khadijah and Ali’s faith 69

The Prophet’s prayer in the Kaaba 70

Circumambulating the Kaaba 70

Secret invitation 71

Publicity of the mission 72

Worry of Quraysh 72

Severe procedures 73

Mocking 73

Inciting the children to harm the Prophet 73

Accusing the Prophet of madness 73

1. Al-Waleed bin al-Mughirah 73

2. Al-Aas bin Wa’il 74

3. Al-Aswad bin Abd Yaghuth 74

4. Al-Harith 74

5. Al-Aswad bin al-Harith 74

1. Abu Jahl 74

2. Abu Lahab (the Prophet’s uncle) 75

3. Uqbah bin Abi Ma’eet 75

4. Al-Hakam bin Abil-Aas 75

5. Umayyah bin Khalaf 76

Accusing the Prophet of magic 76

Preventing praisers from coming to him 76

Preventing people from embracing Islam 76

Persecuting the believers 77

The Prophet asks Muslims to be steadfast 78

Abu Talib protects the Prophet 78

Quraysh ask Abu Talib to deliver them the Prophet 79

Abu Talib orders Ja’far to follow the Prophet 79

By Allah I won’t fail the Prophet 80

Abu Talib invites an-Najashi to Islam 80

Hamza becomes a Muslim 80

The first emigration to Abyssinia 81

The second emigration of Muslims 83

Umar turns a Muslim 83

Quraysh negotiates with the Prophet 84

As-Sahifah (document) 85

In the Shi’b (defile) of Abu Talib 86

The Prophet and the tribes 87

The Prophet’s supplication 88

The Night Journey and the Ascension 88

The Ascension 89

With the Exalted Creator 89

The goals of the Ascension 90

The influence of the Ascension in Mecca 90

The Ascension: spiritual or bodily? 91

Arguments 91

Farid Wajdi’s opinion 92

The year of sorrow: Abu Talib’s death 93

Abu Talib’s will 93

To immortality 94

Khadijah’s death 95

The gifts of Allah on her 96

To the Paradise 96

The first homage of al-Aqabah 97

Sending Mus’ab a deputy to Medina 97

The second homage of al-Aqabah 98

The Prophet meets with the Ansar 98

Fear of Quraysh 100

Muslims’ emigration to Medina 100

The Muhajireen in the hospitality of the Ansar 101

The method of the mission in Mecca 101

1. wisdom and good preaching 101

2. good saying 101

3. leniency and mercy 101

4. repelling evil with what is best 101

5. patience 102

6. warning the unbelievers against Allah’s punishment 102

7. giving good tidings to the believers to be in the Paradise 102

The invitation to Allah 102

The existence of Allah 103

The oneness of Allah 104

The power of Allah 104

The knowledge of Allah 104

The legislation of wudu’ and prayer 105

The kiblah 105

The Prophet’s miracles in Mecca 105

1. The Holy Qur'an 105

2. The miracle of the Tree 106

3. The split of the moon 107

The Meccan Suras 107

The Prophet’s emigration to Yathrib 108

Worry of Quraysh 108

The Prophet leaves Mecca 109

Imam Ali sleeps in the Prophet’s bed 109

The Prophet with Suraqah 110

Yathrib receives the Prophet 111

“The dawn has come to us 111

The population of Yathrib 112

Friday Prayer 112

The building of the mosque 113

The Prophet’s achievements in Medina 114

Brotherhood among Muslims 114

Building the Islamic civilization 114

Liberation of woman 114

Equality 115

1. Social equality 115

2. Equality before the law 116

3. equality in taxes 117

4. equality in employment 118

Individual responsibility 118

Annulling the racial segregation 118

The Islamic brotherhood 118

1. Mercifulness and sympathy 119

2. The spread of greeting 119

3. Mutual visiting 119

4. Satisfying the needs of people 119

5. Helping a Muslim 120

Factors of separation 120

1. Mocking and insulting each other 120

2. Backbiting 120

3. Talebearing 121

4. Irrelation 121

5. Non-cooperation 121

6. Harming and insulting 122

7. Frightening and terrorizing 122

8. Revilement 122

9. Watching of others’ slips and defects 122

10. Degrading a Muslim 123

11. Priding on lineages 123

Lights from the Islamic civilization 123

Freedom 123

1. The freedom of religion 123

2. The freedom of thought 124

3. Civil freedom 125

Governors and officials 125

The task of governors 125

The Prophet’s covenant to governors 126

The Prophet’s covenant to Mu’ath 126

Deposing of governors 127

The salaries of officials 128

The Prophet’s deputies 128

1. To Khosrau 129

2. To Caesar 129

3. To al-Muqawqas 131

Al-Muqawqas with a delegation from Thaqif 132

4. To Negus 133

5. To the King of Ghassan 134

6. To the king of Yamama 134

7. To the kings of Oman 135

8. To the people of Hajar 135

9. To al-Munthir bin al-Harith 135

His letters to the notables 136

Aktham bin Sayfi 136

Ziyad bin Jumhoor 136

The delegations to the Prophet 137

Education 138

Education of women 139

The house of hospitality 139

The Islamic economy 140

1. The encouraging of agriculture 140

2. The encouraging of labor 140

3. The forbidding of usury 140

4. The prohibition of cheating 141

5. The prohibition of monopoly 141

6. The watch of the market 141

7. Taxes 141

8. The zakat of monies 141

9. The Khums 141

10. The government’s responsibility 142

The change of the qibla to the Kaaba 142

The Prophet consults with his companions 142

The Prophet’s scribes 142

The Prophet’s seal 143

The political document 143

Examples from the Prophet’s supplications 147

The importance of Du’a (supplication) 147

The benefits of Du’a 147

Those whose du’a is responded to 147

1. The wronged 147

2. The father’s supplication for his children 148

3. One’s prayer for his brother 148

4. The prayer of one who is far away for another who is far away 148

5. The prayer of an afflicted believer 148

6. The supplication at affection 148

7. The supplication of one who is done good to 148

8. The Muslim’s prayer for his Muslim brother 148

9. Answered supplications 148

10. Supplications that are not rejected 149

Supplications that are not responded to 149

The best of du’as 149

1. Abundance of livelihood at old-age 149

2. The fear of Allah 149

3. Gratefulness and patience 149

4. Doing good 149

5. Bliss in this life 149

6. Good end 149

7. Protection 149

8. Resurrection with the poor 150

9. Reconciliation 150

10. Sound faith and life 150

11. Help at dying 150

12. Forgiveness 150

13. Best qualities 150

14. Fear of Allah 150

15. Seeking soundness 150

16. More knowledge 151

17. Good qualities 151

18. Faith 151

19. Blessing of morning 151

20. The fear of Allah 151

21. Good deeds 151

22. The increase in good 151

23. Self-control 151

24. Guardians of Muslims 151

25. Seeking goodness 151

26. Soundness against diseases 151

27. Safety from bad qualities 152

29. A cunning friend 152

30. Knowledge and labor 152

31. Debt 152

32. Enticement 152

33. Abomination 152

34. Bad day 152

35. At travel 152

Supplications the Prophet taught to Ali 152

Fourth supplication 155

Supplications the Prophet taught to Fatima 157

First supplication 157

Educational recommendations 160

The Prophet’s recommendations to Imam Ali 160

The Prophet’s recommendation to Fatima 162

The Prophet’s recommendation to Qays 163

The Prophet’s recommendation to Ibn Mas’ud 163

The Prophet’s recommendation to Abu Tharr 173

Another recommendation to Abu Tharr 183

The Prophet’s recommendation to Mu’ath bin Jabal 183

His recommendation to Salman al-Farisi 184

His recommendation to al-Fadhl bin al-Abbas 184

A recommendation to Khalid bin Zayd 184

His recommendation to Harmalah 184

His recommendation to Abu Umayyah 185

His recommendation to some man 185

His recommendation to another man 185

His recommendations to some other men 186

Preachments and advices 188

1. Warning against the love of this life 188

2. Good deed 188

3. Noble attributes 188

4. Fancy and wishes 189

5. The most afflicted people 189

6. The deeds that take to the Paradise and to the Fire 189

7. After this life is either the Paradise or the Fire 189

8. Devotedness to Allah 189

9. Remembering death 190

10. With death 190

11. Hastening to goodness 190

12. This life is of crookedness 190

13. The love of this life 191

14. Consolement and preachment 191

15. Desertion of the life 191

16. With the angel of death 192

From the Prophet’s sermons 193

1. His speech in Mecca 193

2. His speech in Medina 193

3. The Friday Sermon in Medina 193

4. His speech in al-Khayf 194

5. His speech on warning against this life 195

6. His speech in the Farwell Hajj 195

7. His speech in the Ghadeer of Khum 196

8. His speech on receiving the month of Ramadan 197

9. His speech in his last illness 199

Wonderful maxims and teachings 200

Good morals 200

Gaiety 200

Reason 200

Foolishness 201

Knowledge 201

The reward of scholars 202

The punishment of scholars who quit their knowledge 202

The nation’s rightness is by its scholars and leaders 202

Jurisprudents are trustees of the messengers 202

Learning knowledge 202

The death of a scholar 203

Knowledge is a treasure 203

The fatwa with no knowledge 203

Knowledge for pride 203

Teaching kindly 203

Dispraising of ignorance 203

Thinking deeply on affairs 204

Kinship and pardon 204

Praising of benevolence 204

Virtues 204

Generosity 205

Doing good 205

Charity 205

Bad and prohibited features 205

Hypocrisy 205

Treason 205

Betrayal of trust 205

False testimony 206

Oppression 206

Rejoicing at others’ distress 206

Haughtiness 206

Talebearing 206

Envy 206

Evil plotting 207

Lying 207

Stinginess 207

Pride 207

Injustice 207

Impudence 207

Double-faced 208

Uncertainty 208

Supporting of falsehood 208

Praising the disobedient 208

Terrifying a Muslim 208

Praiseworthy attributes 208

Five qualities 208

Four qualities 208

Satisfaction 208

Economics 209

Obedience of Allah 209

Seeking forgiveness 209

The inviolability of a believer 209

Pardoning 209

Hating the sinners 209

The most beloved people to the Prophet 209

Wisdom 210

Reciting the Qur'an 210

Leniency 210

The advantage of fasting 210

Prayer 210

Comfort in food 210

Economic in food 210

Honoring old people 210

Trust of meetings 211

Consultation 211

Unity 211

The jihad for the sake of Allah 211

Short maxims 212

The battle of Badr 233

The trade of Abu Sufyan 233

The march of Muslims 233

The battle 236

The results of battle 237

1. The prevalence of Islam 237

2. The fear of Quraysh 237

3. The sorrow of Quraysh 237

4. The delight of Muslims 238

The battle of Uhud 239

The leadership of Abu Sufyan 239

The Prophet consults with his companions 239

The war 240

The Prophet and his companions 241

The murder of Hamza 241

The Prophet’s sorrow 241

The martyrdom of Mus’ab 242

The rout of the polytheists 242

The defeat of Muslims 242

The struggle of Umm Imarah 243

Villains try to kill the Prophet 244

Danger surrounds the Prophet 244

1. Anas bin an-Nadhr 245

2. Thabit bin ad-Dahdaha 245

3. Abu Dujanah 245

4. Ziyad bin Imarah 246

5. Abu Talha 246

6. Amr bin al-Jamuh 246

8. Aasim bin Umar bin Qatadah 246

9. Al-Usayrim 247

10. Mukhayreeq 247

The end of the war 247

The Prophet marches with his army to fight Abu Sufyan 248

The results of the battle of Uhud 248

1. The joy of Quraysh 248

2. The delight of the polytheists and the Jews 249

3. Deeming Muslims weak 249

The event of al-Khandaq (trench) 250

The role of the Jews 250

Digging the trench 250

The Prophet with Nu’aym 251

The crossing of the trench 252

Bani Quraydhah and the conquest of Khaybar 254

The march of the Muslim army 254

The delegation of Abu Lubabah 255

The arbitration of Sa’d 255

The conquest of Khaybar 255

A poisoned ewe 257

The faith of al-Hajjaj bin Ilat 257

Expeditions 259

The expeditions 259

1. The expedition against the Banu Sulaym 259

2. The expedition of as-Suwayq 259

4. The expedition of Buwat 259

5. The expedition of al-Asheera (the tribe) 260

6. The expedition of the Bani Qaynuqa’ 260

7. The expedition of Qarqarat al-Kudr 261

8. The expedition of Thee Amarr 261

10. The expedition of Dawmat al-Jandal 262

11. The expedition of the Bani al-Mustaliq 262

12. The expedition of Mu’tah 263

13. The expedition of Wadi al-Qura (the valley of villages) 264

14. The conquest of Mecca 264

The truce of al-Hudaybiyyah 264

The Prophet determines to conquer Mecca 265

The Prophet’s favor to Abu Sufyan 267

The Prophet enters Mecca 268

The Prophet’s sermon 269

Men and women’s homage to the Prophet 270

15. The expedition of Hunayn 271

The defeat of the polytheists 271

16. The expedition of at-Ta’if 273

17. The expedition of Tabuk 273

Imam Ali and the Sura of Bara’ah 275

Imam Ali and the conquest of Yemen 276

The battles and the expeditions of the Prophet 276

The battalions 277

1. The battalion of Zayd bin Haritha 277

2. The battalion of Khalid 277

3. The battalion of Abdullah bin Rawaha 278

4. The battalion of Basheer bin Sa’d 278

5. The battalion of Abu Hadrad 278

6. The battalion of Amr bin al-Aas 278

7. The battalion of Zayd bin Harithah 279

The signs of the departure 280

The farewell Hajj 281

The conference of Ghadeer Khum 282

The homage to Imam Ali 283

The Prophet and the caliphate 284

The Prophet chooses Ali for the caliphate 284

The immortal disaster 288

The army of Usamah 288

The calamity of Thursday 289

Fatima’s distress 291

The Prophet recommends of his family 292

The Prophet’s recommendation about his two grandsons 292

To the High Paradise 292

Preparing the holy corpse for burial 293

The prayer over the holy corpse 294

The burial 294

Endnotes 296

Introduction 296

Mecca the honored town 296

Great personalities and glories 296

Fatherhood, motherhood, and a shine 297

His characteristics 298

In the cave of Hara’ 300

Publicity of the mission 300

The Prophet’s emigration to Yathrib 303

Examples from the Prophet’s supplications 306

Educational recommendations 308

Preachments and advices 310

From the Prophet’s sermons 310

Wonderful maxims and teachings 311

Short maxims 313

The battle of Badr 313

The battle of Uhud 313

The event of al-Khandaq (trench) 314

Bani Quraydhah and the conquest of Khaybar 314

Expeditions 315

The battalions 316

The signs of the departure 316

The immortal disaster 316