A Commentary on Theistic Arguments

A Commentary on Theistic Arguments27%

A Commentary on Theistic Arguments Author:
Translator: Hassan Allahyari
Publisher: Ansariyan Publications – Qum
Category: Monotheism
ISBN: 964-438-362-1

A Commentary on Theistic Arguments
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A Commentary on Theistic Arguments

A Commentary on Theistic Arguments

Author:
Publisher: Ansariyan Publications – Qum
ISBN: 964-438-362-1
English

This book is corrected and edited by Al-Hassanain (p) Institue for Islamic Heritage and Thought


1

Chapter Seven: The Demonstration of the Veracious

The Demonstration of the Veracious in Ibn Sīnā’s Works

Derived from the Noble Qur’ān, the title of “the demonstration of the veracious”(burhān al-siddīqīn) was used for the first time by Ibn Sīnā in the appellation of a theistic argument he had originated. Ibn Sīnā’s argument did not trace effects, such as motion or hudūth, as inferential mediates to the Necessary; rather, after refutation of sophism and acknowledging that there is a reality, it reached the optimal conclusion of the Necessary’s existence from the mere consideration of existence. In the view of the argument’s unique features - that it does not need a mediate and proceeds from the mere entertainment of external existence through a rational division that existence is either necessary or contingent, and if contingent, it requires the Necessary - it was given the elaborate title of the demonstration of the veracious.

Ibn Sīnā constructs this brilliant demonstration(burhān) in the fourth of chapter of Al-Ishārāt wa al-Tanbihāt. Says he with respect to his argument’s features and appellation,

Consider how our proof of the First and His unity and His exaltedness from all ills did not need the conception of anything but the essence of existence and how it did not need to regard His creation and His deeds. Notwithstanding, they are His proofs, but this gateway is nobler and more trustworthy. That is, when we consider existence, existence qua existence attests to the Necessary, and then His existence attests to His attributes. With regard to the other path, it has been indicated in the Divine Book, “Soon will we show them Our signs in the horizons and in their souls until it becomes manifest unto them that He is the Real.”[142] Indeed, such a method of knowledge of the Almighty God belongs to a certain group of people. The Qur’ān then says,“Is not sufficient for thy Lord that He is a witness over all things.”[ 143] This rule is exclusive for the veracious, who, argue from Him to Him, not from others to Him.[144]

The last fragment of the verse, that is, “He is a witness over all things,” on the account of which Ibn Sīnā quotes the verse, means that God is manifest in everything so much so that even if you want to know yourself, you first witness God and then yourself. The tradition narrated from Imam Ja‛far al-Sādiq, peace be with him, which says “A creature does not discern anything but through Allah, and cognition of Allah cannot be attained but through Allah,”[145] has the very same meaning.

The Demonstration of the Veracious in Transcendent Wisdom

Although in many respects Ibn Sīnā’s argument - which is the main argument of the majority of philosophers and mutakellimūn after him - is superior to other traditional arguments, it relies upon a number of premises that lengthen the course of deduction. For this reason Sadr al-Muta’allihīn(Mullā Sadrā) tried to shorten its premises, and articulated another version of the demonstration of the veracious. In the prologue of his argument, with words similar to that of Ibn Sīnā in Al-Ishārāt wa al-Tanbihāt, Sadr al-Muta’allihīn says, “People other than the veracious, in order to attain the cognition of God and His attributes, elicit things other than Him. For instance, the majority of philosophers evoke contingency, physicists use motion, and the mutakellimūn employ hudūth of the world.”[146] And in Al-Asfār he says,

The ways towards God are many, for He is the Possessor of multiple excellences and aspects. “And for every one is a direction to which he turneth.”[147] Nonetheless, some paths are more reliable, nobler, and have more illumination than the other ones; and the strongest and noblest of these demonstrations is the one in which the middle term is not, in fact, something other than Him. Therefore, a path as such to the destination is the destination itself; and this is the path of the veracious, who attest to the Almighty by witnessing Him, and then they attest to His attributes by witnessing His Essence, and attest to His actions by witnessing His attributes, attribute after attribute and action after action. People other than them, for instance, the mutakallemūn, the physicists, and so forth, prove the Almighty and His attributes by the entertainment of things other than Him - such as contingency of quiddities, hudūth of the world, motion of physical bodies, and so forth. Although these are also proofs of His Essence and evidence of His attributes, the articulated path is stronger and nobler, and in the Divine book the former path has been indicated by the Almighty’s saying: “Soon will We show them Our signs in the horizons and in their souls until it becomes manifest unto them that He is the Real,” and to the latter path by His saying: “Is not sufficient for thy Lord that He is a Witness over all things.[148]

Sadr al-Muta’allihīn then presents a new demonstration, which he regards an instance of the path of the veracious. In this argument, Sadr al-Muta’allihīn does not make use of quiddity, quidditative contingency, motion, or hudūth. This demonstration considers reality of existence and its exclusive rules and is founded on a few philosophical principles such as principality(asāla) , simplicity(basāta) , and gradation(tashkīk) of existence.

After him, other theosophers tried to shorten some of its premises. For instance, by making use of contingency of impoverishment(al-imkān al-faqrī) , the Divine sage al-Sabzawārī omitted some of its premises.[149] Nevertheless, despite all these efforts, the impoverishment and need of finite beings of inferior levels of gradational reality of existence(al-haqīqa al-mushakkeka lil-wujūd) were relied upon, which disallowed a direct and intermediary-free discernment of the Almighty Necessary.

The demonstration of the veracious, as attested by the verse, is an argument the inference of which is not based on any non-necessary mediate(al-hadd al-wasat) ; and therefore, without proceeding from any premise, it presents the existence of the Necessary as the first ontological proposition. Many luminaries of Gnosticism(‛irfān) throughout the history of Islamic thought have tried to conduct an argument as such. The Divine sage Mirzā Mahdī al-Āshtiyānī, in his commentary on Sharh al-Mandhūma, mentions nineteen arguments organized for this purpose, some of which formulated by the Gnostics[150] . The demonstrations set by the Gnostics are greatly different from one another, but they are not devoid of inconsistency. These arguments - regardless of the criticisms applicable to each one in particular - are open to one common criticism, namely, the failure to make distinction between notion(mafhūm) and extension(misdāq) .

The Demonstration of the Veracious in ‛Allāmah Tabātabā’i’s Works

In his commentary on Al-Asfār, and in the fifth volume of Usūl-i-Falsafa wa Rawish-i-Ri'alizm, ‛Allāmah Tabātabā’ī, may Allah sanctify his tomb, constructs a demonstration for the affirmation of the Necessary. This demonstration does not depend on any philosophic principles and proceeds from the mere entertainment of eternal necessity of absolute existence to the Necessary’s existence as the first proposition of human knowledge.[151] In view of having these unique features, the late ‛Allāmah’s proof is well worthy to be adorned with the elegant title of the demonstration of the veracious.

In order to be the first proposition of human knowledge, it is imperative to have independence from all propositional premises(al-mabādī al-tasdīqiyya) . However, such independence is not inconsistent with reliance upon certain conceptual fundamentals(al-mabādī al-tasawuriyya) .

The chief conceptual fundamentals relied upon in the demonstration of the veracious are the notions of existence, essential necessity(al-dharūra al-dhātiyya) , and eternal necessity(al-dharūra al-azaliyya) . These are common and axiomatic notions and the definitions, which have been suggested to describe them, are lexical definitions(al-ta‛ārīf al-lafdhiyya) , which merely draw attention towards their purported meanings.

Another point worth mentioning before expounding the demonstration is that the objective of the demonstration of the veracious is to prove the Divine Essence. It is not concerned with proving His attributes and actions.

The Almighty God is a reality Who has eternal necessity. Eternal necessity is other than essential necessity(al-dharūra al-dhātiyya) , attributive necessity(al-dharūra al-wasfiyya) , conditional necessity(al-dharūra al-shartiyya) , and other similar sorts of necessities. In attributive and conditional necessities, the affirmation of a predicate for its subject is necessary provided the pertinent attribute or condition is secured. Likewise, in essential necessity, affirmation of a predicate for its subject is restricted to the continuance of the existence of the subject; in other words, the predicate is affirmed for the subject as long as the subject is existent.

Eternal necessity is instantiated when the affirmation of the predicate for its subject is not restricted by any condition or attribute, and not even by the continuance of subject’s existence. Therefore, in eternal necessity, the predicate is affirmed for the subject in every state.

God’s eternal necessity means that His reality is not stipulated by any condition and His Essence has reality in every state, and therefore, His reality is beyond the restrictions of attributes, conditions, and time. This is what is meant when it is stated that the notion of reality is abstracted from the Divine Essence qua His absoluteness(al-haithiyya al-itlāqiyya) , not qua delimitation(al-haithiyya al-taqyīdiyya) or qua causation(al-haithiyya al-ta‛līliyya) .

The demonstration of the veracious, in fact, does not intend to prove a reality, which is unknown and must be proved in a discursive fashion. It proves the primariness(al-awwaliyya) of human knowledge with respect to a proposition, which narrates the eternal necessity of God, the Glorified. If the demonstration were designed to prove a reality who has eternal necessity, its conclusion would not be the first ontological proposition, because every demonstration proceeds from certain premises to a conclusion, and given that the premises are antecedent(muqaddam) to the conclusion, the premises - the truth of which substantiate the existence of the Deity - would be propositional premises for the conclusion.

As necessary attributes of primary and self-evident propositions, primariness(awwaliyya) and self-evidence(badāha) are not included in them as their integral parts. For this reason, though such propositions are never subject to doubt - because doubt as such entails skepticism(shakkākiyya) about every branch of knowledge and takes away the epistemic relevance of proving or denying anything - nevertheless, it is possible to have doubt or to be inattentive towards their primariness and self-evidence. In such a case, the proof of a given proposition’s primariness or self-evidence draws attention to the proposition’s foremost position in human knowledge and establishes the impossibility of unawareness and ignorance with regard to it.

The demonstration of the veracious claims that the existence of a reality that has eternal necessity is primary(awwalī) and it is impossible not to know Him; and that the boundary of philosophy and sophistry is the acceptance of that reality.

Sophism is the negation of reality, and philosophy is its acceptance. Just as the invalidity of sophistry is primary, so is the truth of reality beyond doubt. A sophist is a person who negates reality, and a philosopher acknowledges reality and investigates how does reality manifest itself and how is it represented in concepts.

According to the proponents of principality of existence, it is the notion of existence that represents reality. The proponents of principality of quiddity, however, view reality as the actual extension of quiddities. In other sections of philosophy, unity(wahda) , multiplicity(kathra) , life(hayāt) , power(qudra) , and other qualities of the Real are discussed. Therefore, the very first philosophical proposition is the acknowledgement of reality, and one who negates this proposition has abandoned the method of reason and dialogue, and practical admonishment is the only way of healing him.

The point towards which ‛Allāmah Tabātabā’ī draws attention is that the proposition “There is a reality,” and the proposition “Sophistry is void,” have eternal necessity. That is, the modality of these propositions is not attributive, conditional, or essential necessity. Acceptance of this claim, like acceptance of reality, needs mere drawing of one’s attention(tanbīh) . In other words, just as the entertainment of the concept of reality is sufficient to acknowledge its truth, the conception of the notion of eternal necessity of reality is sufficient for accepting its validity.

A human being cannot accept sophistry in any situation or condition, since situations and conditions are realities, which attest to the invalidity of sophistry, which is the negation of reality.

Should reality be annihilated in a specific condition - in a beginning, or an end, or in any particular supposition - then only two situations are conceivable. The first is that its annihilation is not real, and an equivocal or false claim has been made that reality is annihilated. In this case, reality is preserved and it has not been annihilated. The second is that its annihilation is true; that is, reality has really been annihilated. In this supposition, again, the affirmation of the basic reality is acknowledged, since the supposition asserts that reality has really been destroyed; therefore, as a real phenomenon, the destruction of reality reflects the real presence of reality. Therefore, the falsehood of sophistry and veridicality of reality is well secured in every perceivable supposition; and a single instance of reality’s destruction is inconceivable.

A proposition, which negates reality, is a proposition, that neither its veridicality can be related in any supposition, nor its falsehood could ever be doubted. That is, its utterance always presupposes its own falsity. On the other side of the spectrum, it is impossible to doubt the meaning of the proposition, which affirms reality, because dismissing it as meaningless or doubting its meaning entails the affirmation of reality.

If, like a finite being, reality lacked eternal necessity and its necessity were conditional, say, with the continuance of its existence(al-dharūra al-dhātiyya) , sophism would have had veridicality in the realm of reality’s destruction. Nevertheless, the veridicality of sophistry is a reality, which has its own specific nafs al-amr.

The realm of sophistry’s veridicality is not the abode of the narrator’s existence, in which case its veridicality would pertain to the reality of the narrator. Rather, its realm of truth is that very supposition, which the proposition reflects. When, in a given supposition, reality is negated, real negation of philosophy and real affirmation of sophistry is a reality that has been narrated. Thus, reality is still manifested in the context of its very negation. For this reason, reality cannot be denied in any supposition; and the primary and self-evident proposition(al-qadhiyya al-awwaliyya al-badīhiyya) , which holds its truth, has eternal necessity.

Since the truth of the propositions, which relate reality of finite and conditional beings, is subject to certain conditions, and it is only within certain boundaries that they are true, beyond which they are false, finite and conditional beings cannot be the extension(misdāq) of the reality that has eternal necessity.

Given that the aggregate of finite beings is not another entity, which has something additional to its parts, it does not have any reality at all. Similarly, their universals(jāmi‛) do not have any external reality either, and they are notions that exist in the mind by the mental mode of existence(al-wujūd al-dhehnī) in such a way that if the mind did not to exist, the universals would not even have found the mental existence. Therefore, reality, the eternally necessary existence of which is axiomatic and primary, is other than the finite beings, their totality, and their universals, as the first have finite realities, the second has no reality, and the third has a limited mental reality.

Therefore, the first ontological proposition, which the human being cannot not know, is the affirmation of the basic reality, and its modality is eternal necessity. And since, as just explained, finite entities, such as the heavens, the earth, the cosmos, and so forth, cannot be the extension of this proposition, its extension is only an Absolute Reality - Who is above the restrictions of conditions, is present with all of the finite realities, and no absence or termination is perceivable with respect to Him.

The demonstration of the veracious, with this exposition, sidesteps the criticism of failure of differentiation between notion and extension. This argument is not based on the notion of reality and its necessity of predication to itself by predication as essence. The argument, in fact, proceeds from the first ontological proposition, which encompasses affirmation of the basic reality and rejection of sophistry. The affirmation of reality is not based on its notion, which is held in the mind; it is with respect to external factuality. If it were on the basis of its notion and by predication as essence(al-haml al-awwalī) , then just as reality is reality, sophism is sophism. Therefore, the invalidation of sophism, and consequently, the truth of the basic reality, is with respect to the external world and predication as extension(al-haml al-shā’ye‛) .

Allamah Tabātabā’i’s Exposition of the Demonstration

In succinct and expressive words, and through perception of reality, not its notion, ‛Allāmah Tabātabā’ī, Divine grace be with him, expounds the demonstration in the fourteenth essay of Usūl-I-Falsafa wa Rawish-i- Ri’ālizm as follows:

The reality of existence, the truth of which is indubitable, never accepts negation and is indestructible. In other words, the reality of existence is the reality of existence without any condition or provision; and under no condition or provision, does it become non-reality. However, the world is transient and every part thereof accepts nonexistence. Therefore, the world is not the undeniable reality.[152]

The martyred commentator of Usūl-i-Falsafa wa Rawish-i-Ri’alizm, sanctified be his soul, conducts the exposition of the demonstration in the light of some ontological principles such as the principality and unity of existence and portrays a sketch of the argument similar to other demonstrations, which proceed from gradation of existence or contingency of impoverishment. However, the proof, as exposed by its author, revolves around the axis of reality and does not require any of these principles. It entails the existence of the Necessary as the first ontological proposition. Perhaps the fragment “reality of existence”(haqīqat al-wujūd) in the ‛Allāmah’s work has led the commentator to conduct his exposition as such. However, ‛Allāmah’s statement in his commentary on Al-Asfār is such that it disallows any such misconception.

The reality with which we reject sophistry and which every sensible person is constrained to accept, by virtue of its essence, does not accede to nullity or nonexistence, so much so that even the supposition of its nullity and nonexistence presupposes its truth and existence. If, either absolutely or in a specific period, we suppose the nullity of every reality, then every reality will really be null, which affirms the reality. Similarly, if the sophist sees things as illusions, or doubts their reality, they are really illusions to him, and their reality is really dubious for him. This amounts to affirmation of reality qua its negation.

Therefore, if reality does not accept nonexistence and nullity by virtue of its essence, then it is necessary by virtue of its essence. Therefore, there is a reality, which is necessary by virtue of its essence; and everything, which has reality, is needful to it for its reality and is subsistent by it.

Here, it occurs to the reasonable that the existence of the Necessary is primary; and the arguments for Him, in effect, draw attention to His existence.[153]

The Qualities of the Demonstration of the Veracious

Although the sole indication of the demonstration of the veracious is with respect to the Necessary’s Essence and it does not prove His attributes or actions, it still has a number of unique qualities. In addition to its lack of need of ontological premises, its accomplishments far exceed the other arguments. In fact, it arrives at the infinite reality of God in the first step, an objective the other arguments accomplish only after going through many steps.

The arguments, which do not prove God’s attributes, do not indicate His absoluteness(itlāq) either. In fact, due to their dependence on premises such as gradation or multiplicity of existence, they fail to prove the Origin’s absoluteness. After some steps, when the imperativeness of the Necessary’s absoluteness is established, inevitably, certain philosophical positions are reassessed. However, the demonstration of the veracious, as expounded by the late ‛Allāmah, may Allah bless his soul, first illustrates the absoluteness of the Essence and then proves His necessity.

In the light of absoluteness and infinity of the Real, His other attributes such as unity, knowledge, and the like, are traced one after the other; and after the essential attributes, the grades and details of God’s practical manifestations and illuminations become evident.

In the light of Divine absoluteness and encompassment(ihāta) , multiplicity is translated into His manifestations and splendors, and the impoverished existence attributed to finite entities in the demonstration of contingency of impoverishment, is effaced(fānī) and annihilated(mostahlek) into the passion of generous Divine benedictions. Thus, everything from Adam to the atom, with all the characteristics they contain, are signs of that Infinite Who ever remains hidden in the unseen(ghaib) of His Essence.[154]

Najis Things

Issue 84: * The following ten things are essentially najis:

• Urine

• Faeces

• Semen

• Dead body

• Blood

• Dog

• Pig

• Kafir

• Alcoholic liquors

• The sweat of an animal who persistently eats najasat.

Urine and Faeces

Issue 85: * Urine and faeces of the following living beings are najis:

• Human beings

• Animals whose meat is haraam to eat, and whose blood gushes out forcefully when its large vein (jugular) is slit.

The excretion of those animals who are haraam to eat, but its blood does not gush forth forcefully when killed, like haraam fish, is Clean (tahir/pak ). Similarly, droppings of mosquito and flies are Clean (tahir/pak ). Of course, the urine of an animal whose meat is haraam, should be avoided as per obligatory precaution, even if its blood does not gush forth when killed.

Issue 86: The urine and droppings of those birds which are haraam to eat, is Clean (tahir/pak ), but it is better to avoid them.

Issue 87: * The urine and excretion of an animal who subsists on najasat, and of a goat who was nursed by a pig, and of a quadruped who has been defiled by a human being, are najis.

Semen

Issue 88: The semen of human beings, and of every animal whose blood gushes when its large vein (jugular) is cut, is najis.

Dead Body

Issue 89: The dead body of a human being is najis. Similarly the dead body of any animal whose blood gushes forth with force is najis, irrespective of whether it dies a natural death, or is killed in a manner other than that prescribed by Islam. As the blood o f a fish does not gush forth, its dead body is Clean (tahir/pak ), even if it dies in water.

Issue 90: Those parts of a dead body which do not contain life like, wool, hair, teeth, nails, bones and horns are Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 91: If flesh, or any other part which contains life, is cut off from the body of a living human being, or a living animal whose blood gushes forth, it will be najis.

Issue 92: Small pieces of skin which peel off from the lips, or other parts of the body, are Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 93: * An egg from the body of a dead hen, is Clean (tahir/pak ), but its exterior must be washed.

Issue 94: If a lamb or a kid dies before it is able to graze, the rennet (cheese) found in its stomach is Clean (tahir/pak ), but its exterior should be washed with water.

Issue 95: The liquid medicines, perfumes, ghee, soap and wax polish which are imported, are Clean (tahir/pak ), if one is not sure of their being najis.

Issue 96: Fat, meat or hide of an animal, about which there is a probability that it may have been slaughtered according to the Islamic law, are Clean (tahir/pak ). However, if these things are obtained from a non-Muslim, or from a Muslim who himself obtained them from a non -Muslim, without investigating whether the animal was slaughtered according to Islamic law, it is haraam to eat that meat and fat, but Salat in that hide will be permissible. But, if these things are obtained from Muslim Bazaar, or a Muslim, and it is not known that he got them from a non-Muslim, or if it is known that he got from a non-Muslim but there is a great probability that he has investigated about it being slaughtered according to Shariah, then eating such meat and fat is permissible.

Blood

Issue 97: The blood of a human being, and of every animal whose blood gushes forth when its large vein is cut, is najis. The blood of an animal like a fish, or an insect like mosquito, is Clean (tahir/pak ) because it does not gush forth..

Issue 98: * If an animal whose meat is halal to eat, is slaughtered in accordance with the method prescribed by Shariah, and enough blood flows out, the blood of which is still left in its body is Clean (tahir/pak ). However, the blood which goes back into the body of the a nimal due to breath, or because of its head having been at a higher level at the time of its slaughtering, is najis.

Issue 99: As a recommended precaution, one should refrain from eating an egg which has even the smallest amount of blood in it. However, if the blood is in the yolk (yellow potion) the albumen (white portion) will be Clean (tahir/pak ), as long as the skin over the yolk is not torn.

Issue 100: The blood which is sometimes seen while milking an animal, is najis, and makes the milk najis.

Issue 101: If the blood which comes from inside the teeth, vanishes as it gets mixed with the saliva, the saliva is Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 102: * If the blood which dries under the nail or skin, on account of being hurt, can no longer be called blood, it is Clean (tahir/pak ). But if it is blood and is seen as such, then it is najis. And if a hole appears in the nail or the skin, and if it is difficult t o remove the blood and to make it Clean (tahir/pak ) for the purpose of Wudhu or Ghusl, then one should performtayammum .

Issue 103: If a person cannot discern whether it is dried blood under the skin, or that the flesh has turned that way because of being hit, it is Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 104: * Even a small particle of blood falling in the food, while it is being boiled, will make the entire food together with its container najis, as

per obligatory precaution, and boiling, heat, or fire does not make it Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 105: When a wound is healing, and pus forms around it, that substance is Clean (tahir/pak ) if it is not known to have been mixed with blood.

Dogs and Pigs

Issue 106: The dogs and pigs which live on land are najis, and even their hair, bones, paws and nails, and every liquid substance of their body, is najis. However, sea dogs and pigs are Clean (tahir/pak ).

Kafir

Issue 107: * An infidel i.e. a person who does not believe in Allah and His Oneness, is najis. Similarly, Ghulat who believe in any of the holy twelve Imams as God, or that they are incarnations of God, and Khawarij and Nawasib who express enmity towards th e holy Imams, are also najis. And similar is the case of those who deny Prophethood, or any of the necessary laws of Islam, like, Salat and fasting, which are believed by the Muslims as a part of Islam, and which they also know as such.

As regards the people of the Book (i.e. the Jews and the Christians) who do not accept the Prophethood of Prophet Muhammad bin Abdullah (Peace be upon him and his progeny), they are commonly considered najis, but it is not improbable that they are Clean (tahir/pak ). Ho wever, it is better to avoid them.

Issue 108: The entire body of a Kafir, including his hair and nails, and all liquid substances of his body, are najis.

Issue 109: * If the parents, paternal grandmother and paternal grandfather of a minor child are all kafir, that child is najis, except when he is intelligent enough, and professes Islam. When, even one person from his parents or grandparents is a Muslim, the child is Clean (tahir/pak ) (The details will be explained in rule 217).

Issue 110: * A person about whom it is not known whether he is a Muslim or not, and if no signs exist to establish him as a Muslim, he will be considered Clean (tahir/pak ). But he will not have the privileges of a Muslim, like, he cannot marry a Muslim woman, nor can he be buried in a Muslim cemetery.

Issue 111: Any person who abuses any of the twelve holy Imams on account of enmity, is najis.

Alcoholic Liquor

Issue 112: * All Alcoholic liquors and beverages which intoxicate a person, are najis and on the basis of recommended precaution, everything which is originally liquid and intoxicates a person, is najis. Hence narcotics, like, opium and hemp, which are not li quid originally, are Clean (tahir/pak ), even when a liquid is added to them.

Issue 113: All kinds of industrial alcohol used for painting doors, windows, tables, chairs etc. are Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 114: If grapes or grape juice ferments by itself, or on being cooked, they are Clean (tahir/pak ), but it is haraam to eat or drink them.

Issue 115: If dates, currants and raisins, and their juice ferment, they are Clean (tahir/pak ) and it is halal to eat them.

Beer (Fuqa')

Issue 116: * Beer, which is prepared from barley, and is called 'Ab-i-Jaw', is haraam, but there is Ishkal in it being najis. But barley water which is medically prepared, and is called 'Maush- Shaeer', is Clean (tahir/pak ).

Sweat of an Animal Who Persistently Eats Najasat

Issue 117: * The perspiration of a camel which eats najasat, and the perspiration of every animal which is habituated to eat najasat, is najis.

Issue 118: * The perspiration of a person who enters the state of Janabat by haraam act is Clean (tahir/pak ), but on the basis of recommended precaution, Salat should not be offered with that sweat. Similarly sexual intercourse with the wife in her menses, knowingly, will be considered as Janabat by haraam act.

Issue 119: If a person has sexual intercourse with his wife at a time when it is forbidden, like, in the month of Ramadhan during fasting, his perspiration will not be classified with the perspiration of those who become Mujnib by haraam act.

Issue 120: If a person in Janabat by haraam act does tayammum instead of Ghusl, and perspires after performing tayammum, his perspiration will be governed by the same rules which applied to his perspiration before the tayammum.

Issue 121: If a person becomes Mujnib by haraam act, and then engages in lawful sexual intercourse with his wife, the recommended precaution for him is that he should not offer prayers with his perspiration. But if he has lawful sexual intercourse in th e first instance, and then commits the haraam act, his perspiration will not be treated as the perspiration of a person who has become Mujnib by haraam act.

Ways of Proving Najasat

Issue 122: * There are three ways of proving the najasat of anything:

One should be certain, or satisfied that something is najis. If one suspects that something may be najis, it is not necessary to avoid it. Accordingly, eating or drinking at stalls and guest houses where public goes to eat, and where people without scruples about najasat frequent, is allowed unless one knows that the food supplied is najis.

If a reliable person who possesses, controls or manages a thing, says that it is najis. For example, if the wife, or a servant, or a maid says that a particular utensil or any other object which she handles, is najis, it will be accepted as najis.

If two just persons testify that a certain thing is najis, provided that their testimony deals with the reason for najasat.

Issue 123: If a person does not know whether a thing is Clean (tahir/pak ) or najis because of ignorance, for example, if he does not know whether the droppings of a rat is Clean (tahir/pak ) or not, he should enquire from those who know. But, if he knows the rule, and doubts the nature of particular thing, like when he doubts whether a thing is blood or not, or if he does not know whether it is the blood of a mosquito or a human being, the thing is

Clean (tahir/pak ), and it is not necessary to make investigation or enquiry about it. 124. A thing which was originally najis, and one doubts whether it has become Clean (tahir/pak ), will be considered as najis. Conversely, if a thing was originally Clean (tahir/pak ), and if one doubts whether it has become najis, it will be considered Clean (tahir/pak ). And it is not necessary t o ascertain, even if it is possible to do so.

Issue 125: If a person knows that out of the two vessels, or two dresses used by him, one has become najis, but cannot identify it, he should refrain from using both of them. But if he does not know whether it is his own dress, or the dress which is no longer possessed by him, or is the property of some other person, which has become najis, then it is not necessary for him to refrain from using his own dress.

How a Clean (tahir/pak) Thing Becomes Najis

Issue 126: * If a Clean (tahir/pak ) thing touches a najis thing and if either or both of them are so wet that the wetness of one reaches the other, the Clean (tahir/pak ) thing will become najis. Similarly, if the wetness of the thing which has become najis, touches a third thing, that t hird thing will also become najis. It is commonly held by the scholars, that a thing which has become najis transmits its najasat, but indefinite number of transmissions is improbable. In fact, after certain stage it is Clean (tahir/pak ). For example, if the right hand of a person becomes najis with urine, and then, while still wet, it touches his left hand, the left hand will also become najis. Now, if the left hand after having dried up, touches a wet cloth, that cloth will also become najis, but, if that cloth touc hes another wet thing, it cannot be said to be najis. In any case, if the wetness is so little, that it does not affect the other thing, then the Clean (tahir/pak ) thing will not become najis, even if it had contacted the Najisul Ayn.

Issue 127: If a Clean (tahir/pak ) thing touches a najis thing and one doubts whether either or both of them were wet or not, the Clean (tahir/pak ) thing does not become najis.

Issue 128: * If there are two things and one does not know which of them is Clean (tahir/pak ), and which is najis, and later a damp Clean (tahir/pak ) thing touches one of them, that thing does not become najis.

Issue 129: If the ground, cloth, or similar things are wet, then only that part will become najis where najasat reaches, and the remaining part will remain Clean (tahir/pak ). Same is the case with melon, cucumber etc.

Issue 130: When a syrup or ghee is in a fluid state, in a manner that if some quantity of it is removed, it does not leave an empty trace, the entire quantity will become najis immediately when even their slightest part becomes najis. But if it has solidified, and when some part of it is removed, a trace of emptiness is seen, then only that part will be najis which has come in contact with najasat, even if the empty trace gets filled up later. So, if the droppings of a rat fall on it, only that part will becom e najis on which the droppings have fallen, and the rest will remain Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 131: If a fly or an insect sits on wet, najis thing, and later sits on wet, Clean (tahir/pak ) thing, the Clean (tahir/pak ) thing will become najis, if one is sure that the insect was carrying najasat with it, and if one is not sure, then it remains Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 132: If a part of one's body which is perspiring becomes najis, all those parts to which the sweat reaches, will become najis. Where it does not reach will remain Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 133: * If there is blood in the phlegm, or substance which comes out of the nose or throat, the part with blood will be najis, and the remaining part will be Clean (tahir/pak ). Hence, if these substances come out of the mouth, or the nose, the part about which one is sure that najasat has reached, will be najis, and the part about which one is doubtful whether najasat has reached it or not, will be considered Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 134: * If an ewer or a vessel with a hole in its bottom, is placed on najis ground, and its water ceases to flow, allowing water to collect under it, till it is seen as one with the water inside the vessel, the water in the vessel will be najis. However, if the water inside the vessel continues to flow forcefully, it will not become najis.

Issue 135: If a thing enters the body reaching najasat, but has no trace of it when brought out of the body, it is Clean (tahir/pak ). Hence, if the apparatus of enema, or its water, enters one's rectum, or a needle or knife, or any other similar thing, is driven into the bo dy and has no trace of najasat when it is taken out later, it is not najis. Same is the case with sputum and mucus of the nose, if it contacts blood within the body, but does not have any trace of blood when it comes out of the body.

Rules Regarding Najasaat

Issue 136: To make the script and pages of holy Qur'an najis, and violate its sanctity, is undoubtedly haraam, and if it becomes najis, it should be made Clean (tahir/pak ) immediately with water. In fact, as an obligatory precaution, it is haraam to make it najis even if no violation of sanctity is intended, and it is obligatory that it should be made Clean (tahir/pak ) by washing it with water.

Issue 137: If the cover of the holy Qur'an becomes najis, causing its desecration, the cover should be made Clean (tahir/pak ) by washing it with water.

Issue 138: * Placing the holy Qur'an on a Najisul Ayn, like, blood, or a dead body, even if it be dry, is haraam, if the intention is to profane it.

Issue 139: Writing the holy Qur'an with najis ink, even one letter of it, amounts to making it najis. And if written, it should be erased or washed off.

Issue 140: If giving the holy Qur'an to a non-believer involves its desecration, it is haraam to give it to him, and it is obligatory to take it back from him.

Issue 141: If a page from the holy Qur'an, or any sacred object like a paper on which the names of Almighty Allah or the Holy Prophet or the holy Imams are written, falls in a lavatory, it is obligatory to take it out and make it Clean (tahir/pak ) with water, no matter what expenses it may entail. And, if it is not possible to take it out, the use of that lavatory should be discontinued till such time when one is certain that the page has dissolved and petered out. Similarly, if Turbatul Husayn (the sacred earth of Karbala, usually formed into a tablets to place one's forehead on, while offering prayers) falls into lavatory, and it is not possible to take it out, the lavatory

should not be used until one becomes sure that it (Turbatul Husayn) has ceased to exist, and no tra ce of it is present there.

Issue 142: It is haraam to eat or drink or make others eat or drink something which has become najis. However, one may give such a thing to a child, or an insane person. And if a child or an insane person eats or drinks najis thing on his own accord, or makes food najis with his najis hands before consuming it, it is not necessary to stop him from doing so.

Issue 143: * To sell or lend a najis thing which can be made Clean (tahir/pak ), has no objection, but the buyer or the borrower must be told about it, particularly in the following two situations:

That if he is not informed, he might contravene the law of Shariah, like, if he wants to eat or drink it. Otherwise, it is not necessary to inform.

That the buyer or the borrower will pay heed to the advice. If one knows that it will have no effect, it will not be necessary to tell him.

Issue 144: If a person sees someone eat or drink something najis, or pray with a najis dress, it is not necessary to admonish him.

Issue 145: * If a place or carpet of a man's house is najis, and if he sees that the wet body or dress of his visitor will touch the najis thing, since it is he who is responsible, therefore he should inform the visitor, provided the two situations mentioned in rule 143 obtain.

Issue 146: * If the host comes to know during the meals, that the food is najis, he should inform the guests about it. But if one of the guests becomes aware of it, it is not necessary for him to inform others about it. However, if his dealings with the other guests are such, that he himself may become najis, or be involved in Najasat if they became najis, he should inform them.

Issue 147: * If a borrowed object becomes najis, the borrower must inform the owner, provided the situations mentioned in rule 143 is observed.

Issue 148: * If a child says that a thing is najis, or that he has washed and made it Clean (tahir/pak ), his word should not be accepted. But, if he is about to attain the age of puberty, and assures that he has washed and made it Clean (tahir/pak ), his word should be accepted if the t hing is normally in his charge, and if he is reliable.

Najis Things

Issue 84: * The following ten things are essentially najis:

• Urine

• Faeces

• Semen

• Dead body

• Blood

• Dog

• Pig

• Kafir

• Alcoholic liquors

• The sweat of an animal who persistently eats najasat.

Urine and Faeces

Issue 85: * Urine and faeces of the following living beings are najis:

• Human beings

• Animals whose meat is haraam to eat, and whose blood gushes out forcefully when its large vein (jugular) is slit.

The excretion of those animals who are haraam to eat, but its blood does not gush forth forcefully when killed, like haraam fish, is Clean (tahir/pak ). Similarly, droppings of mosquito and flies are Clean (tahir/pak ). Of course, the urine of an animal whose meat is haraam, should be avoided as per obligatory precaution, even if its blood does not gush forth when killed.

Issue 86: The urine and droppings of those birds which are haraam to eat, is Clean (tahir/pak ), but it is better to avoid them.

Issue 87: * The urine and excretion of an animal who subsists on najasat, and of a goat who was nursed by a pig, and of a quadruped who has been defiled by a human being, are najis.

Semen

Issue 88: The semen of human beings, and of every animal whose blood gushes when its large vein (jugular) is cut, is najis.

Dead Body

Issue 89: The dead body of a human being is najis. Similarly the dead body of any animal whose blood gushes forth with force is najis, irrespective of whether it dies a natural death, or is killed in a manner other than that prescribed by Islam. As the blood o f a fish does not gush forth, its dead body is Clean (tahir/pak ), even if it dies in water.

Issue 90: Those parts of a dead body which do not contain life like, wool, hair, teeth, nails, bones and horns are Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 91: If flesh, or any other part which contains life, is cut off from the body of a living human being, or a living animal whose blood gushes forth, it will be najis.

Issue 92: Small pieces of skin which peel off from the lips, or other parts of the body, are Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 93: * An egg from the body of a dead hen, is Clean (tahir/pak ), but its exterior must be washed.

Issue 94: If a lamb or a kid dies before it is able to graze, the rennet (cheese) found in its stomach is Clean (tahir/pak ), but its exterior should be washed with water.

Issue 95: The liquid medicines, perfumes, ghee, soap and wax polish which are imported, are Clean (tahir/pak ), if one is not sure of their being najis.

Issue 96: Fat, meat or hide of an animal, about which there is a probability that it may have been slaughtered according to the Islamic law, are Clean (tahir/pak ). However, if these things are obtained from a non-Muslim, or from a Muslim who himself obtained them from a non -Muslim, without investigating whether the animal was slaughtered according to Islamic law, it is haraam to eat that meat and fat, but Salat in that hide will be permissible. But, if these things are obtained from Muslim Bazaar, or a Muslim, and it is not known that he got them from a non-Muslim, or if it is known that he got from a non-Muslim but there is a great probability that he has investigated about it being slaughtered according to Shariah, then eating such meat and fat is permissible.

Blood

Issue 97: The blood of a human being, and of every animal whose blood gushes forth when its large vein is cut, is najis. The blood of an animal like a fish, or an insect like mosquito, is Clean (tahir/pak ) because it does not gush forth..

Issue 98: * If an animal whose meat is halal to eat, is slaughtered in accordance with the method prescribed by Shariah, and enough blood flows out, the blood of which is still left in its body is Clean (tahir/pak ). However, the blood which goes back into the body of the a nimal due to breath, or because of its head having been at a higher level at the time of its slaughtering, is najis.

Issue 99: As a recommended precaution, one should refrain from eating an egg which has even the smallest amount of blood in it. However, if the blood is in the yolk (yellow potion) the albumen (white portion) will be Clean (tahir/pak ), as long as the skin over the yolk is not torn.

Issue 100: The blood which is sometimes seen while milking an animal, is najis, and makes the milk najis.

Issue 101: If the blood which comes from inside the teeth, vanishes as it gets mixed with the saliva, the saliva is Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 102: * If the blood which dries under the nail or skin, on account of being hurt, can no longer be called blood, it is Clean (tahir/pak ). But if it is blood and is seen as such, then it is najis. And if a hole appears in the nail or the skin, and if it is difficult t o remove the blood and to make it Clean (tahir/pak ) for the purpose of Wudhu or Ghusl, then one should performtayammum .

Issue 103: If a person cannot discern whether it is dried blood under the skin, or that the flesh has turned that way because of being hit, it is Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 104: * Even a small particle of blood falling in the food, while it is being boiled, will make the entire food together with its container najis, as

per obligatory precaution, and boiling, heat, or fire does not make it Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 105: When a wound is healing, and pus forms around it, that substance is Clean (tahir/pak ) if it is not known to have been mixed with blood.

Dogs and Pigs

Issue 106: The dogs and pigs which live on land are najis, and even their hair, bones, paws and nails, and every liquid substance of their body, is najis. However, sea dogs and pigs are Clean (tahir/pak ).

Kafir

Issue 107: * An infidel i.e. a person who does not believe in Allah and His Oneness, is najis. Similarly, Ghulat who believe in any of the holy twelve Imams as God, or that they are incarnations of God, and Khawarij and Nawasib who express enmity towards th e holy Imams, are also najis. And similar is the case of those who deny Prophethood, or any of the necessary laws of Islam, like, Salat and fasting, which are believed by the Muslims as a part of Islam, and which they also know as such.

As regards the people of the Book (i.e. the Jews and the Christians) who do not accept the Prophethood of Prophet Muhammad bin Abdullah (Peace be upon him and his progeny), they are commonly considered najis, but it is not improbable that they are Clean (tahir/pak ). Ho wever, it is better to avoid them.

Issue 108: The entire body of a Kafir, including his hair and nails, and all liquid substances of his body, are najis.

Issue 109: * If the parents, paternal grandmother and paternal grandfather of a minor child are all kafir, that child is najis, except when he is intelligent enough, and professes Islam. When, even one person from his parents or grandparents is a Muslim, the child is Clean (tahir/pak ) (The details will be explained in rule 217).

Issue 110: * A person about whom it is not known whether he is a Muslim or not, and if no signs exist to establish him as a Muslim, he will be considered Clean (tahir/pak ). But he will not have the privileges of a Muslim, like, he cannot marry a Muslim woman, nor can he be buried in a Muslim cemetery.

Issue 111: Any person who abuses any of the twelve holy Imams on account of enmity, is najis.

Alcoholic Liquor

Issue 112: * All Alcoholic liquors and beverages which intoxicate a person, are najis and on the basis of recommended precaution, everything which is originally liquid and intoxicates a person, is najis. Hence narcotics, like, opium and hemp, which are not li quid originally, are Clean (tahir/pak ), even when a liquid is added to them.

Issue 113: All kinds of industrial alcohol used for painting doors, windows, tables, chairs etc. are Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 114: If grapes or grape juice ferments by itself, or on being cooked, they are Clean (tahir/pak ), but it is haraam to eat or drink them.

Issue 115: If dates, currants and raisins, and their juice ferment, they are Clean (tahir/pak ) and it is halal to eat them.

Beer (Fuqa')

Issue 116: * Beer, which is prepared from barley, and is called 'Ab-i-Jaw', is haraam, but there is Ishkal in it being najis. But barley water which is medically prepared, and is called 'Maush- Shaeer', is Clean (tahir/pak ).

Sweat of an Animal Who Persistently Eats Najasat

Issue 117: * The perspiration of a camel which eats najasat, and the perspiration of every animal which is habituated to eat najasat, is najis.

Issue 118: * The perspiration of a person who enters the state of Janabat by haraam act is Clean (tahir/pak ), but on the basis of recommended precaution, Salat should not be offered with that sweat. Similarly sexual intercourse with the wife in her menses, knowingly, will be considered as Janabat by haraam act.

Issue 119: If a person has sexual intercourse with his wife at a time when it is forbidden, like, in the month of Ramadhan during fasting, his perspiration will not be classified with the perspiration of those who become Mujnib by haraam act.

Issue 120: If a person in Janabat by haraam act does tayammum instead of Ghusl, and perspires after performing tayammum, his perspiration will be governed by the same rules which applied to his perspiration before the tayammum.

Issue 121: If a person becomes Mujnib by haraam act, and then engages in lawful sexual intercourse with his wife, the recommended precaution for him is that he should not offer prayers with his perspiration. But if he has lawful sexual intercourse in th e first instance, and then commits the haraam act, his perspiration will not be treated as the perspiration of a person who has become Mujnib by haraam act.

Ways of Proving Najasat

Issue 122: * There are three ways of proving the najasat of anything:

One should be certain, or satisfied that something is najis. If one suspects that something may be najis, it is not necessary to avoid it. Accordingly, eating or drinking at stalls and guest houses where public goes to eat, and where people without scruples about najasat frequent, is allowed unless one knows that the food supplied is najis.

If a reliable person who possesses, controls or manages a thing, says that it is najis. For example, if the wife, or a servant, or a maid says that a particular utensil or any other object which she handles, is najis, it will be accepted as najis.

If two just persons testify that a certain thing is najis, provided that their testimony deals with the reason for najasat.

Issue 123: If a person does not know whether a thing is Clean (tahir/pak ) or najis because of ignorance, for example, if he does not know whether the droppings of a rat is Clean (tahir/pak ) or not, he should enquire from those who know. But, if he knows the rule, and doubts the nature of particular thing, like when he doubts whether a thing is blood or not, or if he does not know whether it is the blood of a mosquito or a human being, the thing is

Clean (tahir/pak ), and it is not necessary to make investigation or enquiry about it. 124. A thing which was originally najis, and one doubts whether it has become Clean (tahir/pak ), will be considered as najis. Conversely, if a thing was originally Clean (tahir/pak ), and if one doubts whether it has become najis, it will be considered Clean (tahir/pak ). And it is not necessary t o ascertain, even if it is possible to do so.

Issue 125: If a person knows that out of the two vessels, or two dresses used by him, one has become najis, but cannot identify it, he should refrain from using both of them. But if he does not know whether it is his own dress, or the dress which is no longer possessed by him, or is the property of some other person, which has become najis, then it is not necessary for him to refrain from using his own dress.

How a Clean (tahir/pak) Thing Becomes Najis

Issue 126: * If a Clean (tahir/pak ) thing touches a najis thing and if either or both of them are so wet that the wetness of one reaches the other, the Clean (tahir/pak ) thing will become najis. Similarly, if the wetness of the thing which has become najis, touches a third thing, that t hird thing will also become najis. It is commonly held by the scholars, that a thing which has become najis transmits its najasat, but indefinite number of transmissions is improbable. In fact, after certain stage it is Clean (tahir/pak ). For example, if the right hand of a person becomes najis with urine, and then, while still wet, it touches his left hand, the left hand will also become najis. Now, if the left hand after having dried up, touches a wet cloth, that cloth will also become najis, but, if that cloth touc hes another wet thing, it cannot be said to be najis. In any case, if the wetness is so little, that it does not affect the other thing, then the Clean (tahir/pak ) thing will not become najis, even if it had contacted the Najisul Ayn.

Issue 127: If a Clean (tahir/pak ) thing touches a najis thing and one doubts whether either or both of them were wet or not, the Clean (tahir/pak ) thing does not become najis.

Issue 128: * If there are two things and one does not know which of them is Clean (tahir/pak ), and which is najis, and later a damp Clean (tahir/pak ) thing touches one of them, that thing does not become najis.

Issue 129: If the ground, cloth, or similar things are wet, then only that part will become najis where najasat reaches, and the remaining part will remain Clean (tahir/pak ). Same is the case with melon, cucumber etc.

Issue 130: When a syrup or ghee is in a fluid state, in a manner that if some quantity of it is removed, it does not leave an empty trace, the entire quantity will become najis immediately when even their slightest part becomes najis. But if it has solidified, and when some part of it is removed, a trace of emptiness is seen, then only that part will be najis which has come in contact with najasat, even if the empty trace gets filled up later. So, if the droppings of a rat fall on it, only that part will becom e najis on which the droppings have fallen, and the rest will remain Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 131: If a fly or an insect sits on wet, najis thing, and later sits on wet, Clean (tahir/pak ) thing, the Clean (tahir/pak ) thing will become najis, if one is sure that the insect was carrying najasat with it, and if one is not sure, then it remains Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 132: If a part of one's body which is perspiring becomes najis, all those parts to which the sweat reaches, will become najis. Where it does not reach will remain Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 133: * If there is blood in the phlegm, or substance which comes out of the nose or throat, the part with blood will be najis, and the remaining part will be Clean (tahir/pak ). Hence, if these substances come out of the mouth, or the nose, the part about which one is sure that najasat has reached, will be najis, and the part about which one is doubtful whether najasat has reached it or not, will be considered Clean (tahir/pak ).

Issue 134: * If an ewer or a vessel with a hole in its bottom, is placed on najis ground, and its water ceases to flow, allowing water to collect under it, till it is seen as one with the water inside the vessel, the water in the vessel will be najis. However, if the water inside the vessel continues to flow forcefully, it will not become najis.

Issue 135: If a thing enters the body reaching najasat, but has no trace of it when brought out of the body, it is Clean (tahir/pak ). Hence, if the apparatus of enema, or its water, enters one's rectum, or a needle or knife, or any other similar thing, is driven into the bo dy and has no trace of najasat when it is taken out later, it is not najis. Same is the case with sputum and mucus of the nose, if it contacts blood within the body, but does not have any trace of blood when it comes out of the body.

Rules Regarding Najasaat

Issue 136: To make the script and pages of holy Qur'an najis, and violate its sanctity, is undoubtedly haraam, and if it becomes najis, it should be made Clean (tahir/pak ) immediately with water. In fact, as an obligatory precaution, it is haraam to make it najis even if no violation of sanctity is intended, and it is obligatory that it should be made Clean (tahir/pak ) by washing it with water.

Issue 137: If the cover of the holy Qur'an becomes najis, causing its desecration, the cover should be made Clean (tahir/pak ) by washing it with water.

Issue 138: * Placing the holy Qur'an on a Najisul Ayn, like, blood, or a dead body, even if it be dry, is haraam, if the intention is to profane it.

Issue 139: Writing the holy Qur'an with najis ink, even one letter of it, amounts to making it najis. And if written, it should be erased or washed off.

Issue 140: If giving the holy Qur'an to a non-believer involves its desecration, it is haraam to give it to him, and it is obligatory to take it back from him.

Issue 141: If a page from the holy Qur'an, or any sacred object like a paper on which the names of Almighty Allah or the Holy Prophet or the holy Imams are written, falls in a lavatory, it is obligatory to take it out and make it Clean (tahir/pak ) with water, no matter what expenses it may entail. And, if it is not possible to take it out, the use of that lavatory should be discontinued till such time when one is certain that the page has dissolved and petered out. Similarly, if Turbatul Husayn (the sacred earth of Karbala, usually formed into a tablets to place one's forehead on, while offering prayers) falls into lavatory, and it is not possible to take it out, the lavatory

should not be used until one becomes sure that it (Turbatul Husayn) has ceased to exist, and no tra ce of it is present there.

Issue 142: It is haraam to eat or drink or make others eat or drink something which has become najis. However, one may give such a thing to a child, or an insane person. And if a child or an insane person eats or drinks najis thing on his own accord, or makes food najis with his najis hands before consuming it, it is not necessary to stop him from doing so.

Issue 143: * To sell or lend a najis thing which can be made Clean (tahir/pak ), has no objection, but the buyer or the borrower must be told about it, particularly in the following two situations:

That if he is not informed, he might contravene the law of Shariah, like, if he wants to eat or drink it. Otherwise, it is not necessary to inform.

That the buyer or the borrower will pay heed to the advice. If one knows that it will have no effect, it will not be necessary to tell him.

Issue 144: If a person sees someone eat or drink something najis, or pray with a najis dress, it is not necessary to admonish him.

Issue 145: * If a place or carpet of a man's house is najis, and if he sees that the wet body or dress of his visitor will touch the najis thing, since it is he who is responsible, therefore he should inform the visitor, provided the two situations mentioned in rule 143 obtain.

Issue 146: * If the host comes to know during the meals, that the food is najis, he should inform the guests about it. But if one of the guests becomes aware of it, it is not necessary for him to inform others about it. However, if his dealings with the other guests are such, that he himself may become najis, or be involved in Najasat if they became najis, he should inform them.

Issue 147: * If a borrowed object becomes najis, the borrower must inform the owner, provided the situations mentioned in rule 143 is observed.

Issue 148: * If a child says that a thing is najis, or that he has washed and made it Clean (tahir/pak ), his word should not be accepted. But, if he is about to attain the age of puberty, and assures that he has washed and made it Clean (tahir/pak ), his word should be accepted if the t hing is normally in his charge, and if he is reliable.


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