Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Appendices

A word with critics

Recently when I was engaged in revising this book and preparing it for publication, I heard that a writer called A.M. had written a critical note of the Arabic original of the book on ‘A’ishah in No. 7 issue of the Journal of Book Guide for the Iranian year 1340 (1961).

I secured a copy of the said journal, and after reading page 696 of No. 273 of it, I realized that the writer’s intention had not been to make a scientific and logical criticism of the book, but he has rather had a private motive in taking up this matter; for, he had selected certain passages of the book and had omitted the introduction and conclusion of each part, and in line with his hidden intentions he had purposefully used words and phrases to destroy the books’ value as a research work and scientific study, and make such a reliable and worthy book look as lacking all validity and importance.

Some of the objections raised by Mr. A. M. were answered eloquently in the same journal by a clear-sighted scholar for whom I feel a great respect, and he has expressed his appreciation of this research work and defended it worthily. But this time the latter scholar has raised certain other criticisms about the contents of the book which criticisms cannot be disregarded and left unanswered, especially as these objections may also have occurred to other lovers of Islamic subjects and culture.

Now that this book of the Role of ‘A’ishah in the History of Islam is being printed for the second time and offered to the public, and the readers are more or less familiar with the contents of the book, it would be worth while, after an introduction to quote the exact objections of the honorable scholar and those of Mr. A. M. and then answer them.

Falsehoods and fables in important Islamic sources

It should unfortunately be admitted that the history of early Islam is full of lies and calumnies. Many an imaginary and bloody battle has been recorded in them and attributed to the time of Abu Bakr or as victories won during the rule of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar and ‘Uthman none of which has ever taken place nor any blood ever spilt.

On the other hand many a real war has been mingled with fable and irrefutable historical facts have been turned into unbelievable stories and fantastic novels. The great scholar Mr. ‘Askari has spent more than forty years of his life on the research and survey of the history of early Islam to discover these bitter truths and found out that these falsehoods and fables have found their way since the beginning of the second century of Hijrah into the valid and important historical sources of Islam through the clever and falsehood-fabricating hands of the genius of the east, namely Sayf ibn ‘Umar at-Tamimi and his atheistic fellow-thinkers, and they continue to remain the same to the present era.

Mr. ‘Askari has introduced in his worthy work of research such works as ‘Abd Allah ibn Saba’(245) , Ahadith of Umm al-Mu’minin ‘A’ishah,(246) One hundred and fifty false companions(247) and other works of his to prove the existence of so many lies and fabrications on the basis of definite historical facts, and to show that all those lies and fables have been presented first by at-Tabari as real events in his book and then other historians like Ibn al-Athir in his al-Kamil, Ibn Kathir in his al-Bidayah wa an-nihayah, Ibn Khaldun in his al-‘Ibar, Mir Khand in his Rawdat as-safa, Ahmad Amin in his Fajr al-Islam, Farid Wajdi in his Da’irat al-ma‘arif and a number of Orientalists in the Islamic Encyclopedia and other writers in their books have borrowed them from at-Tabari and recorded them.

The book of one hundred and fifty false companions by the present writer is a clear evidence of how so many false companions have been made up for the Prophet and who have never been created by God, and yet surprisingly enough in their biographies their miraculous acts, poems and traditions have found their way into such credible books as al-Isti‘ab, Usd al-ghabah, Tajrid, al-Isabah and Ibn ‘Asakir’s History.

Many a non-existing spot and places on the earth are recorded on the basis of the same fables in such reliable geographical books as Mu‘jam al-buldan, Marasid al-itla‘ and other works describing their geography and conditions.

Mr. ‘Askari after long years of study and research in hundreds of reliable texts and sources, has found that all these lies and fables have found their way into reliable important Islamic historical sources only through Sayf ibn ‘Umar at-Tamimi who has also been charged with atheism, God knows how many other fables and lies by other atheists and enemies of Islam are recorded in important and reliable sources of the school of caliphs which have not yet been recognized!

For more than 12 centuries these fables have existed in reliable books, and as Mr. ‘Askari states, he has worriedly published a part of them in the lunar year 1375 of Hijrah in his first work entitled ‘Abd Allah ibn Saba’ al-madkhal, waiting for a reaction to this work.(248)

This book of ‘Abd Allah Saba’ was first printed and published in an-Najaf, and for the second and third times reprinted in Egypt and Beirut. It has also frequently been printed in India, Turkey and Iran in Turkish, Persian and English languages, and it is received well by men of learning and scholars who have written criticisms and appreciation’s of it in reliable journals, thereby encouraging Mr. ‘Askari to endeavor and publish the second part of this series of topics which is one of the most significant parts of Islamic history.

Ahadith of Umm al-Mu’minin ‘A’ishah

Scholars of narration and traditions are well aware that none of the intimates and companions of the Prophet have produced so many traditions about his life and characteristics as ‘A’ishah has done.

The traditions of ‘A’ishah comprises the first day of revelation of the Prophet to the last moment of his life, and then continues to include the period of her father’s caliphate, the time of his old loyal friend ‘Umar and his successors ‘Uthman and ‘Ali until the rule of Mu‘awiyah.

She quotes traditions showing the Prophet’s predictions made related to the events after his life, and contains praises and appreciation’s of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar and ‘Uthman in support of their position as caliphs and their party and followers. There are also available from ‘A’ishah many traditions related to the interpretation of Quranic verses and explanation of Islamic ideas and injunctions.

The total number of traditions narrated from her is 2210 in number, while in the book of Musnad Ahmad alone nearly the same number of traditions has been quoted from her. This number begins with the first days of revelation to the Prophet, whereas we know that she entered the Prophet’s house in Medina a year and a half after the emigration and fifteen years after his ordainment as Prophet, and that she has had only eight years and a few months of joint life with him.

All the writers and scholars who have been engaged in discussing the events of history of early Islam and especially the Prophet’s life, both Orientalists and Muslims (except Shi‘ah scholars) have been guided by these same traditions of ‘A’ishah.

The traditions of this lady of early Islam have described all the Prophet’s marriages, whether they have had an injunctional propaganda aspect, or have been effected for political reasons and high interests of Islam and Muslims or for emotional purposes, in such a way as if all of them have been effected by lust and sexual instincts!

These same traditions of ‘A’ishah which have found their way into all the (reliable and important historical and jurisdictional sources of the followers of caliphs, have served as a bad guide for Orientalists, with the result that they and the enemies of Islam, and friendly-seeming enemies have wounded the founder of Islam with their words by relying on ‘A’ishah’s traditions and consider the Prophet and religion of Islam as lustful and commonplace! It is here that discussion and investigation become necessary for a committed scholar in order to clarify the truth, since this research reveals the facts and will promote religion and its advance.

Consequently this scholar has concentrated the second part of his important scientific research on a survey of ‘A’ishah’s traditions. But as this research was not possible except through a full understanding of the spirit and mentality of this lady and her likes and dislikes Mr. ‘Askari has, as mentioned already, in the preface by reference to valid historical sources in the first section of this topic described the principal part of her life in which he speaks of her party and political activities, and when necessary he has subjected some of her traditions to a survey and criticism. This part of the book too, has been translated into Persian and printed in three volumes under the title of“The Role of ‘A’ishah in the History of Islam” . The second part which contains a comprehensive survey of her traditions will soon go to the press.

Now that the goal of writing this series of topics and evaluation of tradition and Islamic history by the great scholar Mr. ‘Askari have become considerably clear, we turn to the original subject, namely answers to the objections. But as our respected scholar has left some of Mr. A. M.’s criticisms unanswered, we give priority to Mr. A. M. in receiving answers and as we have promised, we will first quote his criticisms and then will answer them.

Mr. A. M.’s criticisms and answers to them

Mr. A. M. writes in the second part of his criticism which is related to the difference of age between ‘A’ishah and the Prophet, as follows(249) :

C. This difference of age had two results: firstly during her life it created such stories as that of“Ifk” which is reflected in the Qur’an and Safwan and Hassan ibn Thabit as its heroes, and secondly after the Prophet’s death ‘A’ishah was still passing through her youthful and active period and this produced heroic military acts on her part.

A. Firstly concerning the Ifk tradition and its related story, we should remember that the tradition is given by ‘A’ishah herself and all its related narration’s end with her person, not to any other source of sources.

On the other hand in the Ifk story there is a mention of personalities who were not alive at the probable time of the occurrence of such an event. Other cases exist, too, which make the question of Ifk doubtful in connection with ‘A’ishah herself.

Moreover there are a number of narration’s and reports which consider the Ifk verse to be a reference to Mariyah, the mother of the only son of the Prophet, and the matters becomes so complicated and painful that God testifies the purity and chastity of that innocent lady and thus it relieves the Muslims and shuts the mouths of babblers.(250)

As we said, the Ifk tradition in the way described by ‘A’ishah is a tradition narrated from her and it is one of the cases discussed by the author in the second part of the book.

Secondly, concerning his statement about the military activities of ‘A’ishah in her youth and the heroic acts of this lady of early Islam, the matter is quite the reverse for according to the verdict of history, after the Prophet’s death, ‘A’ishah spent her youthful years in the time of the rule of her father Abu Bakr and his old friend ‘Umar, and left those years behind in full comfort and tranquility and away from all turmoil, enjoying extraordinary respect and honour, and until the age of forty she never stepped out of her house except two times and even then to make a pilgrimage.

When she entered the period of old age in her fifth decade of life, she began the tumultuous period of activity, heroic deeds and military joys. She accepted the position of commander in chief of the forces in the battle of al-Jamal against ‘Ali, imposed on him by the people despite him own wish, and took part in the battle as an experienced army commander riding a milled camel in the battlefield!

C. Mr. A. M. writes: For example one of the scenes where young ‘A’ishah protests angrily against the repeated marriage of the Prophet is as follows: The Prophet declared that any woman who wished so, could place herself at the disposal of the Prophet, and he could select anyone he liked and reject anyone he did not want, and in confirmation of this decision the verse descended allowing his freedom of choice. Then ‘A’ishah became angry and said to the Prophet:“O Muhammad! God, too, seems to fulfill your wishes!”

A. If you read the above account more carefully and compare it with the exact Arabic phrases the translation of which will be given below, you will see the difference:

According to al-Bukhari and Muslim, ‘A’ishah said: I felt vexed with the women who offered themselves to the Prophet without expecting a dowry and said to him:“Would a free-born woman offer herself?” At this time the following verse descended: Keep away any of your wives you wish, and keep any of them you desire, and if you call back to yourself the one you have sent away, there is no offence on your part.

I said to him:“I see that God approves of your wish.”

Here you can see that not only no declaration, which Mr. A. M. claims, is made by the Prophet, but no such declaration is seen in the whole book or any book of traditions and biography, and no woman has ever been taken in marriage by the Prophet the way described by Mr. A. M. He considers the Prophet a pleasure-loving lover of women and in using words below the dignity of the Prophet attributes such a story to him.

Would the writings of Mr. A. M. not be an evidence of his idea and opinion of Islam and its prophet?

Mr. A. M. writes:

C.“While the Prophet was in bed with ‘A’ishah he received the companions. Such a story is quoted in the first part of the book. ‘A’ishah said: “I was in bed with the Prophet when Abu Bakr arrived and was allowed to enter. Then ‘Umar came and was admitted in the same way, and only when ‘Uthman arrived the Prophet covered himself.”

A. I ask the reader to refer once more to the former chapter on the ‘period of support and confirmation’ about this story where one of ‘A’ishah’s traditions about ‘Uthman has been considered, and see the great difference between the quoted tradition and Mr. A. M.’s statement. He has omitted the first and last part of the tradition as well as the criticisms of the exalted scholar on the basis of which he has refuted that tradition, and thus he has fabricated his own version of it in accordance with his motive, whereas such a treason is most indecent coming from an educated person.

C. Mr. A. M. writes: When ‘Ali went to Basra for the battle of al-Jamal, Hafsah and minstrels of Medina made the following song:

A. We are compelled to quote here the translation of the exact words of the book of ‘A’ishah’s Traditions about the story which is written on page 137 of that book as follows:

‘Abu Mikhnaf narrates: When ‘Ali reached Dhu Qar(251) , ‘A’ishah wrote to Hafsah, daughter of ‘Umar as follows: I must say that ‘Ali has arrived at Dhu Qar and is worried and perplexed on hearing about our great military forces and equipment there. For, if he retreats one step, he shies off like a horse, and if he advances one step, he collapses and is vanquished.

When Hafsah received the letter, she ordered her slave- girls to arrange festivity and beat the tambourine and sing this song:

The at-Tulaqa’(252) girls gathered in Hafsah’s house to hear that song. The news reached Umm Kulthum, daughter of ‘Ali. She covered herself with a robe and veil and went to Hafsah’s place with an anonymous group and then in the heat of their merry-making started by Hafsah, Umm Kulthum removed her veil, and on seeing her Hafsah was greatly embarrassed and uttered:“We are from God and return to Him.” Umm Kulthum said:“It is not something new for you and ‘A’ishah to join hands against him. It was only yesterday that with each other’s aid you rose against his brother, the Prophet, and God punished you as you deserved.” Hafsah answered:“That is enough, may God favour you!” Then she asked to bring ‘A’ishah’s letter, tore it up and begged God’s forgiveness.(253)

Do you now see Mr. A. M.’s evil intention? God knows what he has in mind. He begins his criticism of the book by insulting the lofty position of the Imam, and as you read, he has omitted the first and last part of the subject and has offended the holy personality of the leader of the world’s pious believers, whereas the honorable author had intended to show the inner feelings of these two ladies of early Islam, namely the daughters of the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, towards Imam ‘Ali and at the same time to refer to chapter at-Tahrim which is an admonishment of ‘A’ishah and Hafsah who aided each other to hurt the Prophet.

The points mentioned by Mr. A. M. in the journal of Book Guide for introducing the book are with one exceptions answered elaborately by our exalted scholar and were quoted to show that:

1-Mr. A. M. as a would-be trustworthy writer has never shown any sincerity and trustworthiness in quoting the contents of the book. By omitting the significant parts of a book which is written scientifically and which is based on more than forty years of research by the author he has lowered it to the rank of a simple and unscientific book and has introduced it as such to the world of learning, and has thus shown his evil intention. Indeed no more than this can be expected from the writer of the book of“Twenty-three Years” in order to refute Islam and his prophet.

2-What Mr. A. M. has written in the name of introducing the book is in fact an account of his own attitude and thought about the history of early Islam and its chaste and honest prophet. For the works of the great scholar Mr. ‘Askari which are written on the evaluation of tradition and history, beginning with ‘Abd Allah ibn Saba’ al-madkhal, have been printed and published for a quarter of a century and placed at the disposal of experts and scholars of the east and west, and have been subjected to survey and discussion by such great literary and religious and scientific circles of the world as al-Azhar of Egypt, to be followed by a series of profound investigations, as well as wonder and praise of his works. But as this welcome and these reactions shown by the great scholars of the world to Mr. ‘Askari’s book have assumed a scientific and technical aspect, and have been produced in all sincerity and absence of fanaticism and private motives, they have not reached Mr. A. M.’s ears who has imagined that he can easily undermine the worth of scientific and technical researches.

A word with the writer

We said at the beginning that a fine scholar who is greatly respected by us and from whose books and lectures I have greatly benefited, has answered some parts of Mr. A. M.’s criticisms in a long article printed in No. 9 of the journal of Book Guide. He himself has also made some criticisms about the book that, irrespective of his exalted position as a scholar and man of learning and as I hope to give priority to truth, therefore, after quoting his exact objections and criticisms, we will deal with and answer them.

He writes on page 895 of the said journal as follows:

C. I cannot yet predict the success or failure of Mr. ‘Askari in his objective, to see whether the effect of the book is to make ‘A’ishah’s Traditions lose their validity for those who consider them reliable, or whether they make the fanatics for or against ‘A’ishah more fanatical in their prejudice.

A. The rain falls and produces tulips in the garden and motes in the swamp. All are unanimous about the fineness of rain, but its effect varies on different lands. This matter is not confined only to the book of the great scholar. Every psychological and religious book has such a fate. Do you believe that the book of Abu Hurayrah by the great Sayyid Sharaf ad-Din al-‘Amili who has cruelly attacked Abu Hurayrah and his traditions and whose book you yourself have praised, is an exception to this rule, remembering the position of Abu Hurayrah in the Sunni community and among the followers of the school of caliphs? Whereas many books have been written refuting him and ash-Shaykh Mahmud Abu Rayh, while no such rebuttal has been written on any works of Mr. ‘Askari.

When a definite scientific fact is discovered, do you think it permissible to hide the truth merely for a regard for the public and their fanaticism? You yourself know well that this prejudice is worth studying, not only in the ordinary and illiterate class of people, but also in the learned and scholarly class. If one were to abstain from telling the truth because of a regard for the prejudice of either of the two groups who were supporters or opposers, and scientific matters were to be concealed, would the level of knowledge and vision rise to this amazing extent?

We know that in the present world and in the open space which is created for stating truth, the door of excuse is shut to both scholars and human society, and the number of narrow-minded people and religious sectarians has consid¬erably been reduced.

You have written:

C. What Mr. ‘Askari may surely be criticized for, is his negligence about a basic question. He has forgotten that owing to Christian propaganda and the fanning up of this fire by a particular group, a special sensitivity has been created today in the minds of the young concerning the Prophet’s plurality of marriage, a sensitivity which exists also about the wars of early Islam.

A. Our dear scholar knows that the enemies of Islam, especially Christian missionaries as Orientalists have for hundreds of years obtained most of our precious books at the highest prices, and having long been engaged in the discussion and criticism of them. Long before us they have even printed our books especially those of the Sunnis and congregation, together with their scientific research and technical indices in Europe, and have even made an index of the Quranic vocabulary. One of their scholars has prepared an index of fourteen sets of the most reliable books of traditions and biographies of the outstanding personalities of Islamic history, explaining each tradition or topic on the basis of more than fifty books. They have even made an index of the vocabulary of tradition which is far more voluminous than the previous index. The researchers of Brockelmann in history and literature is a source of reference in the world. They have experts for every corner of the Islamic realm and for every century of Islam. Thus the malicious have no need of our writing. They have access to whatever they want, and whenever they decide, they can engage in writing either self-interestedly or impartially.

In view of all this, if we investigate and be convinced that the source of all those misrepresentations about the Prophet’s marriages and even about some jurisprudentially verdicts and interpretation of some Quranic verses, and chapters is derived from these same traditions attribute to ‘A’ishah, and discover that such traditions are untrue, should we remain silent and leave a weapon in the hands of the enemies of Islam?

Dear Sir! To what goal do you invite the people of our time by your book and your pleasant lectures? Is your goal anything but Islam and acceptance of its truths? If you recognize right would you disregard it for the sake of wrong and remain silent? Or on the contrary would you disregard matters of time, place, conditions of the day, transitory wishes and tastes of a particular group of people, and would according to your duty reveal what is right and true, and thus pay your debt?

Concerning your reference to the wars of early Islam, fortunately Mr. ‘Askari has openly and elaborately revealed the true visage of historical facts as a result of his valuable scientific researches in his book of one hundred and fifty false companions, the first volume of which has been translated and printed by myself. He has, in his second volume of ‘Abd Allah ibn Saba’, proved at length the invalidity of the idea that Islam was advanced with the sword.

Therefore, the investigation of such matters and declaration of truth do not only create no danger for the Muslims and Islam, but they will also promote its greatness and advance. If any danger might exist it is in the mind and spirit of some of us who with our poverty of knowledge retreat before the wrong criticisms of individuals who are fascinated by the propaganda of the same Orientalists, and thus show our weakness.

It is not our duty to interpret Islam and its truth according to the wishes of these people or conceal it, and drag Islam behind their ideas. On the contrary it is our duty to declare what is right and attract them towards Islam, and place the truth on their table and let them discuss and investigate it freely.

C. You have written: The author has not foreseen that these same seemingly baseless matters will one day be printed in a dignified journal by a critic under the title of“Historical points” in the name of fresh discoveries about the life of the Prophet of Islam.

A. Our dear scholar knows that the misuse of a matter by an individual or individuals does not prevent a person from writing a book, especially such valid books. You have surely read in the same journal, page 697 No. 277 the reference to the subject of cleanliness, as stated by the writer who introduces the book. If you have not, this is what he writes:

“The book of cleanliness (or ceremonious purification of the body) by Muhammad Taqi Majlisi, Part One, Tehran, ‘Ilmi Brothers, year 1340 is in 1032 pages. This voluminous book of one thousand pages is a description of ceremonious cleanliness from a well-known book of jurisprudence, and it is the first volume of it. Is cleanliness such a difficult and problematic matter that its discussion does not end even in one thousand pages?!”

You see the result of malevolence! Thus the late Majlisi is criticized why he has written such an elaborate book that compels a critic to write about it in a dignified journal!

C. Our dear scholar has written: The author has quoted some of these matters and he has left his analysis and criticism for the second volume of the book. Thus he has paved the way for doubt in the form of cash and has left its removal on credit.

A. We hope that our explanations will serve to answer his criticism, We have already stated in the introduction to this chapter that Mr. ‘Askari has postponed the discussion and survey of ‘A’ishah’s traditions to the second volume of this book. He has devoted Volume One to a description of the mentality, spirit, morals and significant acts of ‘A’ishah during the time of the Prophet, the two elder caliphs and his two sons-in-law, and he has cited as example a tradition of hers whenever necessary, and has discussed it, showing its weak points and implied objections and proving its falsity and baselessness. Therefore the removal of doubt has not been effected on credit.

C. The dear scholar writes: A decisive expression of opinion in such matters depends on a high council of well-informed and discerning experts which can guide our religious propaganda and publications towards high Islamic interests, or it can at least check such chaos and confusion. But unfortunately we lack such a council, though we hope that this idea will soon be put into practice.

A. It would have been proper if our dear scholar had not made a hasty prejudgment and before deciding to make this strong protest he had contacted well-versed persons and centers of learning to find out the views of world scholars, especially those of Egyptian universities such as Dr. Hamid Hafni Dawud professor of the language chair and ash-Shaykh Mahmud Abu Rayh about Mr. ‘Askari’s book.

We ask our learned master to refer to the words of those two great Egyptian scholars, a part of which is quoted in the introduction of this book and to the statement of Abu Rayh which has been given in the introduction of Volume Two, and then find out what discussions have taken place between leading Sunni and congregation scholars about this and other words of Mr. ‘Askari, and what praises are bestowed on him. Then he can compare his judgment in the research center of Iran with the conclusion of the leaders of the school of caliphs and Sunni and congregation followers in the Sunni center of Egypt concerning the scientific researches of Mr. ‘Askari and then sit in judgment and say in all fairness what a great difference exists between the two.

C. Our dear scholar writes: I do not claim that I can clarify this part of the Prophet’s life in this brief article. It is Mr. ‘Askari’s duty in view of his negligence in this book, to write a comprehensive treatise on this subject for his Persian-speaking compatriots?

A. At this stage the supposition comes to the mind that our learned scholar may have left our reading that part of the book which has been improperly and unfairly criticized by Mr. A. M.

We ask what negligence has been committed by Mr. ‘Askari for which he must offer atonement? You should have first read his introduction to see that his intention has not been to write a history book or describe the life of the Prophet and his wives especially that of ‘A’ishah. Therefore there has been no negligence to require expiation.

It seems that we are compelled once more to state that the author has reached the conclusion after spending long years of his life in the survey and study of various literary, jurisprudentially, traditional and historical texts of early Islam, that the quotation and forging of annals and false happenings in historical text, as well as untrue narration of traditions by their narrators, have diverted the history of Islam from its true course and have exhibited the visage of Islam to the world quite the reverse of what it has really been. It is for this reason that Orientalists and enemies of Islam by relying on these forgeries and fables of Sayf ibn ‘Umar at-Tamimi have confronted Islam and have scoffed at the Prophet and at the holy religion of Islam.

Now I quote a point of yours about Mr. A. M. you have written on page 896 of the journal:

C. To my mind however much one wishes to attribute it to propriety, yet one sees signs of malevolence in this article. (Then you add the reason for it and say:) For, firstly the critic himself is aware that the selected parts are all distorted and subject to criticism and the author of the book himself has protected against their validity. Nevertheless like a person who has produced an evidence of a crime against someone, he has selected some pungent sections in connection with the Prophet and given them the name of“Historical points” .

A. In view of the scholar’s diagnosis concerning the existence of malevolence in the article of Mr. A. M. in introducing the book, now the question arises:“Does there remain any more room for criticism and objection towards the book of ‘A’ishah’s traditions?”

Tehran, Deymah, 1355 Iranian year (1976)

‘Ata Muhammad Sardar-Niya

Lesson 44: The Seventh Imam (Musa ibn Ja‘far)

1. Birth

Imam Musa al-Kazim, the son of the sixth Imam, was born in 128 A.H. in Abwa’, a village between Medina and Mecca while his parents were on their way to perform the pilgrimage at Mecca.

2. Political Circumstance of His Imamate

Musa al-Kazim (a.s.) became the Imam at the age of twenty through Divine Command and the decree of his forefathers. His imamate, however, began under a very difficult political atmosphere.

The first ten years coincided with Mansur who, as already mentioned in the previous lesson, had given orders to his governor in Medina to behead the heir of Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq (a.s.). His plot failed because Imam as-Sadiq, predicting this move of Mansur, had written the last will in a way that confused the enemies but guided the seekers of truth to his rightful successor.

The Imam had written five names: the names of the caliph and his governor in Medina were just to confuse the enemy. It was obvious that Hamidah, being a woman, cannot be an imam. So we are left with two possible successors to Imam as-Sadiq: ‘Abdullah Aftah, the older son, and Musa al-Kazim, his younger son.

If ‘Abdullah, the older son, was capable of inheriting the father’s status, there was no need to mention the younger son’s name! This will, besides other proofs, clearly guided the Shi’as towards their new Imam.

Obviously with such a beginning, it was not possible for the Imam to openly assume the role of leadership. His contacts with the Shi’as were very much restricted. Some relief came when Mansur died in 158 A.H. and was succeeded by his son, Mahdi, who adopted a lenient policy towards the Shi’as and the Ahlu ‘1- Bayt.

During this time, the Imam’s fame in knowledge and piety spread far and wide. This fame prompted Mahdi to order his officers to arrest Imam Musa al-Kazim and bring him to Baghdad.

But soon the Imam was released and sent back to Medina. Now the Imam started meeting his followers more openly and continued the scholarly jihad of his forefathers.

In 169 A.H., Mahdi died and was succeeded by Hadi. Hadi, unlike his father, had no respect for people’s views, and openly persecuted the Shi’as and the Ahlu 1-Bayt. Morally he was a very corrupt person.

It was during his short reign that Husayn bin ‘Ali organized an uprising against Hadi which ended in an armed confrontation in Fakh. Unfortunately, Husayn and all his companions were killed.

Hadi died in 170 A.H. and was succeeded by Harun ar- Rashid. Harun, in spite of all the fame that he has in advancing sciences and knowledge, was a very tyrannical ruler-especially when it involved the Shi’as and the Ahlu 1-Bayt.

He exiled all the descendants of Imam ‘Ali in Baghdad to Medina; he used to give hefty rewards to the poets who composed verses against the Shi’a Imams; he even made it difficult for the people to visit the grave of Imam Husayn (a.s.) at Karbala.

Under such circumstances, Imam Musa al-Kazim strongly urged his followers to refrain from working or cooperating with tyrant rulers and governments. One interesting example is of Safwan bin Mihran al-Jammal. Once when Safwan came to visit him, the Imam said:

“You are a good person except for one thing.”

Safwan: “What is it, O Imam?”

Imam: ‘’You have rented out your camels to Harun.”

Safwan: “O Imam, I have rented them out to him for his journey to Mecca for hajj; and I have not personally gone for taking care of the animals, my employees are going with his caravan.”

Imam: “Don’t you have this wish in your heart that may Harun come back alive from this journey so that you may get back your camels and their rental?”

Safwan: “Yes, O Imam.”

Imam: “O Safwan, one who wishes the tyrants to live longer will be counted as one of them!”

There are, however, some cases where Imam Musa al-Kazim allowed a selected few (like ‘Ali bin Yaqtin) to work for Harun’s government only with the condition that they would use their positions to help their fellow Shi’as.

3. His Companions

In spite of the difficult political atmosphere the Imam had trained great companions in knowledge as well as in piety. Ibn Abi ‘Umayr: Anyone familiar with the Shi’i hadith literature would testify that Ibn Abi ‘Umary is the source of countless ahadith on Islamic laws. Just because he was a student of Imam Musa al-Kazim (a.s.), he suffered at the hand of the oppressive regimes of the ‘Abbasids. Once he was arrested and asked to reveal the names of all the prominent Shi’as of Iraq.

He refused even though he had to suffer a hundred lashes after which he was hanged between two trees. According to Shaykh Mufid, Ibn Abu ‘Umary was put in prison for seventeen years just because he was a follower of the Ahlu 1-Bayt.

‘Ali bin Yaqtin belonged to a prominent Shi’a family in Kufa. After the ‘Abbasid revolution, Harun ar-Rashid offered him the position of minister in his government.

He approached Imam Musa al-Kazim (a.s.) who told him to accept it but refrain from ever confiscating the money or property of the Shi’as. So ‘Ali bin Yaqtin, to show his loyalty to the government, would confiscate the money of the Shi’as but would then secretly return it to them.

Once Imam al-Kazim (a.s.) told ‘Ali bin Yaqtin: “You promise me one thing; and I guarantee you three things: you won’t be killed, neither face poverty nor suffer imprisonment.”

‘Ali: “What do I have to promise you?” Imam (a.s.): “Promise me that whenever a follower of ours comes to you, you would honour him and not turn him away.”

4. Death in Prison

During Harun’s reign, Imam Musa al-Kazim (a.s.) lived in very difficult times, in hiding, until finally Harun went on the hajj and in Medina had the Imam arrested while praying in the Mosque of the Prophet.

He was chained and imprisoned, then taken from Medina to Basra and made a prisoner in the house of Isa bin Ja’far, the governor of that city. Isa was so much impressed by the Imam’s personality that he requested Harun to relieve him of this responsibility. Imam al-Kazim (a.s.) was moved from Basra to Baghdad where for years he was transferred from one prison to another.

During his imprisonment in Baghdad, he was taken to meet Harun from time to time. In one such meeting, an interesting conversation took place. We will reproduce just a section from that conversation:

Harun: “Why do you allow the people to address you by words like ‘O son of the Prophet’ while you are in reality sons of ‘Ali? People are mostly known by their paternal lineage; whereas your are related to the Prophet through your grandmother [i.e., Fatimah].”

Imam (a.s.): “If the Prophet becomes alive and comes to you, and asks for the hand of your daughter in marriage - would you accept his proposal?”

Harun: “Praise be to Allah! Why not? That would be the greatest privilege for me over all the Arabs and non-Arabs!” Imam (a.s.): “The Prophet would never ask for my daughter’s hand; nor would I accept his proposal.”

Harun: “Why?”

Imam (a.s.): “Because the Prophet is my direct ancestor (even though from my grandmother’s side); but he is not your ancestor.” The Imam was saying that all the descendants of Fatimah would be considered the children of the Prophet, and; therefore, it would be unlawful for the Prophet to marry any one of them.

Whereas the ‘Abbasids descended from the Prophet’s uncle ‘Abbas, so they are not directly related to him; the Prophet, if he wished, could marry the descendants of his uncle. This difference shows that the Imams of Ahlu 1-Bayt had full right to be addressed as “the son of the Prophet”.

Finally he died in Baghdad in the prison of Sindi ibn Shahak through poisoning and was buried in the cemetery of the Quraysh which is now located in the city of Kazimayn.

This lesson has been written and compiled by Sayyid M. Rizvi by using the following sources.

1. Shi’a Islam’ of Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn at-Tabataba’i.

2. Pishway-e Haftum: Hazrat Imam Musa al-Kazim (a.s.) by Dar Rah-e Haq.

The main sources have been extensively edited in order to fit the requirements of our course. Also, for the sake of brevity, we have not included the references quoted by our sources. Those who are interested to know the sources may refer mentioned above.

Lesson 45: The Eighth Imam(‘Ali ibn Musa)

1. Birth

Imam ‘Ali ar-Rida was the son of the seventh Imam and according to well-known accounts was born in 148/765 and died in 203/817.

2. Political Circumstances of His Imamate

Imam ar-Rida (a.s.) became the Imam at the age of thirtyflve, through Divine Command and the decree of his forefathers. The period of his imamate coincided with the caliphate of Harun and then his sons Amin and Ma’mun.

Harun had appointed Amin as his successor with the condition that the latter would name his brother, Ma’mun, as his successor. But after the death of Harun in 194, Amin named his own son, Musa, as his successor. This became a cause of conflict between the brothers which led to bloody wars and finally the assasination of Amin in 198, after which Ma’mun became caliph.

Imam ar-Rida took advantage of this chaotic situation and continued the tradition of his forefathers in educating and teaching his companions and followers.

Until that day the policy of the.’Abbasid caliphate toward the Shi’ites had been increasingly harsh and cruel. Every once in a while one of the supporters of ‘Ali would revolt, causing bloody wars and rebellions which were of great difficulty and consequence for the caliphate.

The Shiite Imams would not cooperate with those who carried out these rebellions and would not interfere with their affairs. The Shi’ites of that day, who comprised a considerable population, continued to consider the Imams as their religious leaders to whom obedience was obligatory and believed in them as the real caliphs of the Holy Prophet.

They considered the caliphate to be far from the sacred authority of their Imams, for the caliphate had come to seem more like the courts of the Persian kings and Roman emperors, and was being run by a group of people more interested in worldly rule than in the strict application of religious principles.

The continuation of such a situation was dangerous for the structure of the caliphate and was a serious threat to it.

Ma’mun thought of finding a new solution for these difficulties which the seventy-year old policy of his ‘Abbasid predecessors had not been able to solve. To accomplish this end he adopted some pro-Shi’ite policies:

• he openly used to say that Imam ‘Ali bin Abi Talib was better suited for caliphate than Abu Bakr or ‘Umar ibn Khattab. • he openly used to curse Mu’awiya bin Abi Sufyan.

• he gave Fadak back to the descendants of ‘Ali and Fatima.

• he chose Imam ‘Ali ar-Rida as his successor, hoping in this way to overcome two difficulties: first of all to prevent the descendants of the Prophet from rebelling against the government since ,they would be involved in the government themselves, and secondly, to cause the people to lose their spiritual belief and inner attachment to the Imams.

This would be accomplished by having the Imams become engrossed in worldly matters and politics itself, which had always been considered by the Shi’ites to be evil and impure. In this way their religious organization would crumble and they would no longer present any danger to the caliphate.

Obviously, after accomplishing these ends, the removal of the Imam would present no difficulties to the ‘Abbasids.

3. Imam ar-Rida’s Historical Journey to Marw

In order to have his last decision put into effect, Ma’mun asked Imam ar-Rida to come to Marw from Medina. This was the longest journey undertaken by any of the Shi’a Imams: from Medina (north-west of Arabia) to Marw (in Turkmenistan, north of the Afghan border). The Imam passed through southern Iraq, into sourthern Persia on to the famous city of Neshapur and further north into Turkmenistan.

This journey itself availed an opportunity for the Muslim populace to see the Shi’a Imam (a descendant of the Holy Prophet) in person and hear his words of wisdom. While the Imam was about to leave Nishapur, the scholars of the city took hold of his camel’s reign and insisted upon him to narrate from his forefathers: The Imam obliged as follows:

My father, Musa bin Ja’far, narrated to me from his father, Ja’far bin Muhammad, who narrated from his father, Muhammad bin ‘Ali, who narrated from his father, ‘Ali ibn al-Husayn, who narrated from his father, al-Husayn bin ‘Ali, who narrated from his father, ‘Ali bin Abi Talib, who said, I heard the Prophet (s.a.w.) saying, “I heard Jibrail saying, The Almighty Allah said, “I surely am the God besides whom there is no god, so worship Me.

Whoever comes with the testimony of tawhid sincerely, he has surely entered My castle; and whoever enters My castle, he shall be protected from My chastisement.”

Then the Imam added that this salvation is guaranteed “with its conditions; and I am one of its conditions.” That is, together with tawhid, one must also believe in other fundamentals of Islam like nubuwwa and imamat in order to gain salvation in the hereafter.

Because of its excellent chain of narrators, this hadith is known as “hadith silsilatu ‘dh-dhabab - hadith with the golden chain [of narrators].”

4. Ma’mun’s Decision & Its Consequences

Finally Imam ar-Rida arrived at Marw. Ma’mun offered him first the caliphate and then the succession to the caliphate.

The Imam made his apologies and turned down the proposal, but he was finally compelled to accept the successorship-the Imam accepted the successorship with the condition that he would not interfere in governmental affairs or in the appointment or dismissal of government agents.

This event occurred in 200/814. But soon Ma’mun realized that he had committed an error, for there was a rapid spread of Shi’ism, a growth in the attachment of the populace to the Imam, and an astounding reception was given to the Imam by the people and even by the army and govenment agents.

For example, once just a few days before an ‘idd, Ma’mun asked Imam ar-Rida to lead the ‘idd prayer. The Imam refused at first, but then Ma’mun insisted.

Finally, the Imam accepted but on the condition that he would lead the prayer the way the Prophet used to do. On the day of ‘idd, all the high ranking officials of Ma’mun came to the Imam’s house and waited for him outside.

There were also many common people waiting for the Imam as well. The holy Imam came out of the house, barefooted, and started walking calmly with a walking stick in one hand. The officials stepped down from their horses and started walking behind the Imam.

After every few steps he would stop and look towards the sky and say “Allahu Akbar.” The official entourage and the masses followed the Imam in what he was doing. Soon the entire city of Marw was ringing with the sound of “Allahu Akbar.

Ma’mun was informed by his spies that if this procession continues to the prayer area, the masses could easily turn against the ‘Abbasids and in favour of the Ahlul Bayt. Ma’mun immediately sent an emissary with the message to the Imam that by insisting that you lead the prayer, we have put you in difficulty so please return to your residence and the ‘idd prayer will be led by the regular imam.

The Imam ordered that his shoes and horse be brought, he got on it and returned home. This episode made it clear for the people that Ma’mun was not sincere in his show of respect towards Imam ar-Rida: he would respect him as long as that did not endanger his own caliphate.

Unlike other caliphs, Ma’mun displayed great interest in having works on the intellectual sciences translated into Arabic. He organised gatherings in which scholars of different religions and sects assembled and carried out scientific and scholarly debates.

Imam ‘Ali ar-Rida also participated in these assemblies and joined in the discussions with scholars of other religions. Many of these debates are recorded in the collections of Shi’ite hadiths.

These debates also gave a high profile to the Imam’s status in knowledge to the extent that people started making comments that ‘Ali ar-Rida is more deserving of the caliphate than Ma’mun.

Concerned with the spread of Shi’ism and the popularity of Imam ar-Rida, Ma’mun sought to find a remedy for this difficulty - he had the Imam poisoned and martyred. After his death the Imam was buried in the city of Tus in Iran, which is now called Mashhad.

5. Words of Wisdom

Some one asked Imam ar-Rida, “Where is God?”

The Imam: “This is an invalid question because God created space; He cannot be limited to a place or recognized by the senses; He is unlike everything.”

“When did God come to exist?”

The Imam: “Tell me when He did not exist, so that I can tell when he came to exist!”

“What is the proof that the world was created?”

The Imam: “It did not exist, and then came to being. You know that the world did not create itself.”

“Can you describe God for us?”

The Imam: “Whoever describes God by attributes of other things is mistaken and misguided. I will describe God the way He has described Himself without forming any shape or image in my mind:

“He is not perceived by the [five] senses.

“He cannot be compared to people.

“He is wellknown without resemblance to anything.

“He is not unjust in His judgements...”

“What is iman (faith) and what is islam (submission)?”

The Imam: “Iman is superior to islam; taqwa (constant consciousness of God) is superior to faith; conviction is superior to taqwa...”

“What is conviction?”

The Imam: “Putting your trust in God, and submitting yourself to His command and wish, and being pleased with His decree, and leaving the final decision to Him.”

“Why did the people turn away from ‘Ali and accept others as caliphs while they knew of his exemplary services to Islam and his high status in the eyes of the Prophet?”

The Imam: “Since ‘Ali had killed many of their fathers, uncles, brothers and relatives who had come to fight against Islam;

and this created the feeling of animosity in their hearts against ‘Ali and, consequently, they did not like that ‘Ali should become their leader.

They did not harbour such feelings against the other [caliphs] since they did not hold the same [high] position with the Prophet as that of ‘Ali neither did they rank equal to him in defending Islam in jihad. This is the reason why people turned away from ‘Ali and accepted others.”

This lesson has been written and compiled by Sayyid M. Rizvi by using the following sources.

1. Shi’a Islam’ of Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn at-Tabataba’i.

2. Pishway-e Hastum: Hazrat ‘Ali ar-Riza (a.s.) by Dar Rah-e Haq, Qum.

The main sources have been extensively edited in order to fit the requirements of our course. Also, for the sake of brevity, we have not included the references quoted by our sources. Those who are interested to know the sources may refer to those mentioned above.

Lesson 46: The Ninth Imam (Muhammad bin ‘Ali)

1. Birth & Imamate in Childhood

Imam Muhammad at-Taqi was born in 195/809 in Medina.

The news of his birth caused extraordinary joy among the Shi’as of that time. Imam ar-Rida was childless till the age of forty, and some Shi’as were concerned about the continuation of imamate: who would succeed Imam ar-Rida? So the birth of the ninth Imam brought about a mood of festivity among the Shi’as of Ahlul Bayt.

Imam ‘AH ar-Rida died in 203 A.H.; and Muhammad at-Taqi became the Imam at the age of eight. The age of the Imam caused a concern in the minds of some elder members of the Shi’a community because no Imam had reached the position of imamate at this young age.

Mu’alla bin Muhammad narrates that after the death of Imam ar-Rida, he saw Imam at-Taqi and closely observed his physical size and age in order to report it to others. At that moment, Imam at-Taqi said, “O Mu’alla, Allah has argued about imamat just as he argued about nubuwwat when He said, ‘And We gave prophethood to him [i.e., Yahya] when he was still a child.”

After the death of Imam ar-Rida, a group of eighty scholars from Baghdad and other places came to Mecca for hajj. On the way, they stopped at Medina and met Imam at-Taqi. They were particularly interested in meeting the young Imam and wanted to satisfy themselves about his capabilities. The meeting went on for a long time with the visitors asking him questions and the Imam replying in a convincing and satisfying manner. All left fully convinced that he truly was the Imam appointed by Allah, subhanahu wa ta’ala, and endowed with knowledge.

Ishaq was one of the eighty persons in that meeting. He narrates his impression as follows: I had written ten questions in a letter for the Imam and had decided that if he answers my questions, then I will ask him to pray for me that the child that my wife is carrying be a male child.

The meeting, however, went on for a long time so I decided to present my letter to him the next day. But as I was about to leave, the Imam called me and said, “O Ishaq! Allah has accepted my prayer; therefore, name your son ‘Ahmad’.”

The answer to his prayer without even stating it to the Imam fully convinced Ishaq that Muhammad at-Taqi, inspite of his young age, was the Imam!

2. Ma’mun & Imam at-Taqi (a.s.)

Caliph Ma’mun ar-Rashid, in pursuing the same policies as mentioned in the previous lesson, asked that Imam Muhammad at- Taqi (a.s.) be brought from Medina to Baghdad. This journey took place in 204 A.H., a year after the death of the eighth Imam.

When Ma’mun met the young Imam, he was impressed with the latter’s knowledge; and he proposed to marry his daughter Ummul Fazl to the Imam. When the elders of the ‘Abbasid clan learned of this decision, they tried to change Ma’mun’s views: they reminded him of dangers in promoting the decendants of ‘Ali, and the possible loss of power.

Realizing that their words had no effect on Ma’mun, they finally said, “Although you are impressed by this child; but he is still a child. Wait till he grows up and gets educated, then you may marry your daughter to him.”

Ma’mun: “Woe unto you! I know this child better than you; he comes from a family which is bestowed with knowledge by God. His ancestors were never in need of knowledge and character from others. If you wish, you may examine him.”

The elders of the ‘Abbasid agreed to examine him. They approached Yahya bin Aktham, the chief judge (qazi) of the ‘Abbasid court, and asked him to prepare some difficult questions which the Imam would not be able to answer.

At an appointed time, the meeting between Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.) and Yahya bin Aktham took place in the presence of Ma’mun and the elders of the ‘Abbasid clan. After the formalities, Yahya asked: “What is your view about a person who hunts while he is in the ihram?” (Ihram means pilgrim’s garment; a person in ihram is not allowed to hunt.) Imam at-Taqi: “This question has many facets:

“Was the person outside the boundary of the holy territory or inside?

“Did he know that it was forbidden to hunt while in ihram or he did not?

“Did he do it intentionally or was it an accident?

“Was he a free man or a slave?

“Was he minor or an adult?

“Was this his first hunting in the state of ihram or a second time?

“Was the hunted creature a bird or something else?

“Was it big or small?

“Was the person sorry that he committed the offence or was he careless about such issues?

“Was it in the night or during the day?

“Was he in the state of ihram for the minor pilgrimage or for the major pilgrimage?”

Yahya bin Aktham was dumbfounded by this thorough analysis of the question by the ten year old Imam Muhammad at- Taqi! He could not even utter a word, and the audience clearly saw the signs of defeat on his face!

Ma’mun broke the silence by saying, “Praise be to Allah who proved me right in my estimation of this young man.” Then he faced the elders of the ‘Abbasids and rebuked them: “Now do you realize what I was saying?” .

Then he proposed the marriage of his daughter to the Imam, and the Imam accepted it. The young Imam also recited the khutba (sermon) before the actual marriage which has become a common khutba in the Shi’a marriage ceremonies. The khutba is as follows:

“All praise is due to Allah, in recognition of His blessings. [I declare that) there is no god but Allah, in sincere belief in His oneness. And may Allah send His blessings upon Muhammad, the leader of His creatures, and upon the chosen one of his family.

“It is Allah’s grace upon the people that He has made them free from the forbidden [means of fulfilling sexual urge] by the permissible [institution of marriage].

He, the Exalted, said: ‘And marry the single among you (those who are good ones from among your slaves and maids)-if they are poor, Allah will make them free from need from His grace; Allah, indeed, is Generous, All- Knowing.’”

After the marriage ceremony, when only a few people had remained in the gathering, Ma’mun requested the Imam to provide the answer for the various situations that he had derived from Yahya’s single question. The holy Imam gave -a detailed answer to all those situations.

Then Ma’mun proposed that now the Imam should ask a question to Yahya bin Aktham. The latter replied, “If I know the answer, I will reply; otherwise, I will learn from you.”

Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.) asked: “Can you describe the situation in which a man looked at a woman at dawn while it was forbidden (haram) for him to do so; but then at sunrise, it was permissible (halal) for him to look at her?

Then at noon hour, it became haram for him to look at that woman; but in the afternoon, it became permissible for him to look at her? Then at sunset, it became haram for him to look at that woman; but at night, it became halal for him to look at her? Then at midnight, it became haram for him to look at her; but at dawn, it became halal for him to do so?”

Yahya bin Aktham said, “By Allah! I do not know the answer to this question. We would, however, benefit from your answer.”

The Imam explained the answer as follows:

“At dawn, the woman was the slave of someone else;

however, by sunrise, the man had already bought her for himself and so it became halal for him to look at her.

“At noon, he made her free, and so she became haram for him; but by afternoon, he had married her, so she became halal for him.

“At sunset, he did zihar8 by which one’s wife becomes haram for a person; but by night time he paid the penalty for zihar, and so she became halal for him again.

Thus the ten year old Imam, from the descendants of ‘Ali and Fatimah, proved to the caliph and his entourage that God had endowed them with the knowledge to guide the Muslim ummah as the Prophet had truly said, “Do not try to teach them, because they are- not in need of your teaching.”

One must remember that Ma’mun was a very shrewd politician. This marriage between his daughter and Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.) should not be taken as proof that he was a Shi’a. As mentioned in the previous lesson, these actions were all politically motivated by Ma’mun to calm the opposition of the Shi’a masses. Other motives for the marriage can be described as follows:

• By having his daughter as Imam’s wife, Ma’mun was guaranteed a continuous flow of information about the Imam’s activities.

• By becoming the son-in-law of Ma’mun at this young age, the caliph hoped that the personality of the Imam would be tarnished with worldly luxuries and entertainment of the establishment, and thus lose the respect in the eyes of his Shi’as.

• By this marriage, prove to the Shi’a masses that he respects the Ahlul Bayt, and thus neutralize their opposition to his rule.

• Ma’mun was hoping that if Imam at-Taqi gets a child through his daughter, he can claim to be the grandfather of a child from the descendants of Imam ‘Ali and Fatimah (a.s.). But Allah, until he atones by fasting for two successive months, or if that is not possible, then feeding sixty poor people, littering such a statement is known as zihar.

subhanahu wa ta’ala, did not fulfill this hope because none of the children of the Imam were born from Ma’mun’s daughter! Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.) did not stay for long in Baghdad. He insisted on returning to Medina with his wife, the daughter of Ma’mun.

His return to Medina where he stayed till the year 220 A.H. foiled the plans of Ma’mun ar-Rashid.

3. Mu’tasim’s Rule

Ma’mun ar-Rashid died in the year 218 A.H. He was succeeded by his brother, Mu’tasim billah. In the year 220, Mu’tasim ordered that Imam Muhammad at-Taqi be brought from Medina to Baghdad.

One day a person came to the court of Mu’tasim and confessed that he had committed theft and would like to be punished so that he could be free from the guilt and punishment in the hereafter.

The Qur’an says that the punishment for theft (with some conditions) is cutting off the thief’s yad. Yad means: hand, forearm and elbow. So the caliph called all the prominent religious scholars, including Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.), and asked:

“From where should the yad of the thief be cut?” (The Qur’an is asking for the definition of “yad”.)

Ibn Abi Da’ud, the chief judge, said, “From the wrist.” Mu’tasim: “What is your proof for that?”

Ibn Abi Da’ud: “The word ‘yad’ has been used in the verse of tayammum -so wipe your faces and your hands(5:5)- for the hand.”

Some scholars agreed with Ibn Abi Da’ud but others disagreed and said: “Cut the thief’s yad from the elbow.” Mu’tasim: “What is your proof?”

The scholars: “The word ‘yad’ has been used in the verse of wudhu - wash your faces and your hands up to the elbows(5:5)- for the fore-arm.”

Then Mu’tasim turned towards Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.) and asked his opinion. The Imam first declined to give his view because he was aware of the court’s politics. But when Mu’tasim insisted, the Imam finally said, “All these gentlemen are mistaken because only the [four] fingers have to be cut.” Mu’tasim: “What is your proof?”

The Imam (a.s.): “The Prophet (s.a.w.) has said that sajdah is done on seven parts of the body: forehead, palms, knees and two big toes [of the feet). If a thief’s hand or forearm is cut, then it would not be possible for him to do the sajdah whereas Allah has said, ‘And verily the masajid [the body parts on which sajdah is done] belong to Allah...;’ and what belongs to Allah should not be cut.”

The caliph liked the answer of the Imam and ordered that the four fingers of the thief be cut.

This extraordinary event, in the public’s view at Mu’tasim’s court, proved the superiority of the Imams of Ahlu ‘1-Bayt. It, however, also created an extreme feeling of jealousy and hatred in the heart of Ibn Abi Da’ud.

On finding an appropriate moment, Ibn Abi Da’ud cautioned the caliph against inadvertantly promoting Imam Muhammad at- Taqi (a.s.) by publicly following his view and rejecting those of the other scholars. He filled the caliph’s ears to the extent that the caliph started looking at the Imam as a threat to his own caliphate.

During the last days of Dhul Qa’dah 220 A.M., the Imam was poisoned by his wife, the niece of Mu’tasim, and he died as a martyr. His body was buried next to his grandfather’s grave in the Qurayshi cemetary in Baghdad which is now known as Kadhimayn.

This lesson has been written and compiled by Sayyid M. Rizvi by using the following sources.

1. Shi’a Islam’ of Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn at-Tabataba’i.

2. Pishway-e Nahum: Hazrat Imam Muhammad al-Jawad (a.s.) by Dar Rah-e Haq, Qum.

The main sources have been extensively edited in order to fit the requirements of our course. Also, for the sake of brevity, we have not included the references quoted by our sources. Those who are interested to know the sources may refer to those mentioned above.

Lesson 47: The Tenth Imam (‘Ali ibn Muhammad)

1. Birth & Early Years

Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi (also known as al-Hadi), was the son of the ninth Imam. He was born on 15th Dhil Hijja in 212/827 in Sarya, outside Medina. At the age of eight in 220, he became the Imam. After having seen his father’s example, the Shi’a community had no more problems in accepting such a young Imam.

2. Rulers of the Time

The thirtythree years of imamate of Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi coincided with the caliphate of the following six caliphs Mu’tasim bin Harun, Wathiq bin Mu’tasim, Mutawakkil bin Mu’tasim, Muntasir bin Mutawakkil, Musta’in, and Mu’tazz bin Mutawakkil. Wathiq bin Mu’tasim had a very promiscuous lifestyle, and had no time to harass the Shi’as and the Imams of the Ahlul Bayt.

During his caliphate, a large number of the descendants of Imam ‘Ali (a.s.) had settled in Samarra, the ‘Abbasid capital. But the peaceful days for the ‘Alids and the Imam did not last long. After Wathiq, his brother Mutawakkil, came to power. Mutawakkil was the most cruel of all the ‘Abbasid caliphs; he is comparable to Yazid bin Mu’awiyah of the Umayyads.

Mutawakkil, on the one hand, started promoting the Shafi’i madhhab in order to distract the masses away from the Ahlul Bayt. And, on the other hand, he intensified harassment of the Shi’as.

He had such hatred for the Ahlul Bayt that in 236 A.H. he ordered the grave of Imam Husayn (a.s.) be leveled to the ground, and that the surrounding area be transformed into farmlands so that no trace of the grave be left.

This all was done to stop the Shi’as from visiting (ziyarat) the graves of Imam Husayn (a.s.) and the other martyrs of Karbala. But when Allah wishes to protect His “light” no human can do anything about it!

The attempt to erase all traces of Imam Husayn’s grave angered many Muslims; people starting writing anti-’Abbasid slogans on the walls. Opposition poets also expressed their feelings on this issue. A famous poem against Mutawakkil is given below:

By Allah, if the Umayyids unjustly killed

Husayn, son of the Prophet’s daughter,

his cousins9 have committed a similar crime

for I swear that Husayn’s grave has been erased.

It seems that they regret for not participating

in the massacre, so they now go after the grave!

Mutawakkil enjoyed torturing the followers of the Ahlul Bayt;

even the persons appointed by him as governor in Medina and Mecca were instructed to prevent people from being kind and courteous towards the Ahlul Bayt.

In 234 A.H., Mutawakkil ordered Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi (a.s.) to be brought from Medina to Samarra where he was placed in a house next to the caliph’s garrison. The Imam lived under constant surveillance until Mutawakkil was murdered by his own troops at the instigation of his own son, Muntasir.

Musta’in came to power after Muntasir and continued the oppressive policies of his ancestors. But soon his own Turkish troops rebelled against him and pledged allegiance to Mu’tazz bin Mutawakkil whom they rescued from prison. Finally, Musta’in was killed and Mu’tazz become the caliph.

It was during the reign of Mu’tazz bin Mutawakkil that Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi was martyred by poisoning.

3. Two Companions of the Imam

One of the most distinguished of all the companions of Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi was ‘Abdul ‘Azim al-Hasani (a descendant of Imam Hasan) whose grave outside the city of Tehran has become a famous place for visitation (ziyarat). ‘Abdul ‘Azim had met and heard ahadith from the companions of the sixth, seventh and eight Imams; and he himself has narrated many ahadith from the ninth and tenth Imams.

Abu Hammad Razi narrates that once Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi

(a.s.) told him that “whenever you have religious problems, go to ‘Abdul ‘Azim and also convey my salaams to him.”

Once ‘Abdul ‘Azim al-Hasani came to Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi (a.s.) and said, “O son of the Prophet! I would like to describe my faith to you so that if you agree with it then I will stay firm upon it till the last moment of my life.” When the Imam gave his approval, ‘Abdul ‘Azim described his faith as follows:

“I believe that God is One; there is nothing like Him; He is free from ibtal (i.e., saying that He is ‘nothing’) and tashbih (i.e., comparing Him to a created thing). Allah has no body or figure; neither is He substance nor form; intead, He is the creator of body and figure, and of substance and form. He is the creator and sustainer of everything.

“I believe that Muhammad (s.a.w.) is a servant and prophet of God, and His last Messenger. There will be no prophet, shari’ah or religion after him till the day of judgement.

“I believe that the Imam and successor of Prophet

Muhammad (s.a.w.) was ‘Ali bin Abi Talib (a.s.), and after him Hasan, then Husayn, ‘Ali ibn al-Husayn, Muhammad bin ‘Ali,

Ja’far bin Muhammad, Musa bin Ja’far, ‘Ali bin Musa,

Muhammad bin ‘Ali, and then you are my master.”

Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi (a.s.) then said, “After me, my son Hasan,

will be the Imam. How do you think the people will react in regard to Hasan’s son [i.e., the Mahdi]?”

‘Abdul ‘Azim: “O my master! How will he [i.e., Hasan’s son] be?”

Imam an-Naqi (a.s.): “He will not be seen; and mentioning his name is not permissible until he rises and fills the earth with justice just as it would be filled with injustice and tyranny.” ‘Abdul ‘Azim then continued: “I testify that their [i.e., Imams] friend is God’s friend; and their enemy is God’s enemy; obeying them is obedience to God; and disobeying them is disobeying God.

“I believe in the mi’raj, the questioning in the grave, paradise, hell, the path (sirat), the scale-all these are truth. I believe that the day of judgement is sure to come without any doubt, and that God will resurrect the dead people.

“I believe that my religious obligations after wilayah (love and obedience to the Imams) are prayers, alms-giving, fasting, pilgrimage to Mecca, jihad, bidding good and forbidding evil.”

Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi (a.s.) said, “O Abul Qasim! By Allah, this is the same religion that Allah has chosen for His servants! So remain firm on it; and may Allah keep you steadfast on this truth.” Musa bin ‘Abdullah an-Nakha’i was another learned companion of the Imam.

Once he went to the Imam and requested him for a comprehensive ziyarat he could use to recite whenever he visits the graves of any of the Imams of Ahlul Bayt. This ziyarat became famous as Ziyarat-e Jami’a whose selected parts are presented below:

“...May peace be upon you O the People of the house of prophethood, the source of messengership, the people on whom angels descend and where revelation used to come down; the family which is the source of mercy, custodians of knowledge, peaks of forbearance, foundations of generosity, leaders of nations, masters of blessings, the cream of pious people, pillars of kindness, leaders of people...doors of iman, trustees of the Merciful God, family of prophets and messengers, and descendants of the best of those chosen by the Lord of the Universe...

“May peace be upon the Imams of guidance, lamps in the darkness, signs of piety, those who possess wisdom and intelligence, the refuge for people, the heirs of prophets, the best of examples...the proofs of God upon the people of this world and the hereafter...

“I bear witness that there is no god but Allah, He has no partner just as Allah has declared it Himself and so have the angels and the knowledgeable among His servants. There is no god but He, the Powerful, the Wise.

I bear witness that Muhammad is His chosen servant and a messenger with whom He is pleased, and whom He has sent with guidance and the religion of truth so that He may give victory to it over all religions even if the polytheists dislike it.

“I bear witness that you are the rightly-guided leaders, the infallibles, the respected ones, those who are closest to Allah, the pious, the truthful, the chosen ones; those who are obedient to Allah, who are firm in His command, who act according to His wish, who have attained His respect. Allah has chosen you by His knowledge, and He has chosen you for His [knowledge of the] unseen and His secret...

“One who turns away from you has gone out of religion; one who stays with you reaches the religion; and one who lowers you from your status is lost.

The truth is with you, in you, from you, towards you-you are its owners and custodians...One who loves you, loves Allah; one who hates you, hates Allah; one who seeks refuge with you has sought refuge with Allah...

“O Allah! If I could find any intercessors closer to You than Muhammad and his good progeny, the pious Imams, I would have made them my intercessors. [But there is no one closer to you than Muhammad and his family.]

So by the right that You have given to them over Yourself, I pray to You to include me among those who truly know them and their rights, among those on whom You have showered mercy through their intercession. You are indeed the most merciful of all. And may Allah send His blessings upon Muhammad and his pure progeny. Indeed Allah is sufficient for us and He is the best of agents.”

This lesson has been written and compiled by Sayyid M. Rizvi by using the following sources.

1. Shi’a Islam’ of Allaxnah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn at-Tabataba’i.

2. Pishway-e Dahum: Hazrat Imam ‘Ali bin Muhammad al-Hadi (a.s.) by Par Rah-e Haq. Qum.

The main sources have been extensively edited in order to fit the requirements of our course. Also, for the sake of brevity, we hve not included the references quoted by our sources. Those who are interested to know the sources mays refer to the sources mentioned above.

Lesson 44: The Seventh Imam (Musa ibn Ja‘far)

1. Birth

Imam Musa al-Kazim, the son of the sixth Imam, was born in 128 A.H. in Abwa’, a village between Medina and Mecca while his parents were on their way to perform the pilgrimage at Mecca.

2. Political Circumstance of His Imamate

Musa al-Kazim (a.s.) became the Imam at the age of twenty through Divine Command and the decree of his forefathers. His imamate, however, began under a very difficult political atmosphere.

The first ten years coincided with Mansur who, as already mentioned in the previous lesson, had given orders to his governor in Medina to behead the heir of Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq (a.s.). His plot failed because Imam as-Sadiq, predicting this move of Mansur, had written the last will in a way that confused the enemies but guided the seekers of truth to his rightful successor.

The Imam had written five names: the names of the caliph and his governor in Medina were just to confuse the enemy. It was obvious that Hamidah, being a woman, cannot be an imam. So we are left with two possible successors to Imam as-Sadiq: ‘Abdullah Aftah, the older son, and Musa al-Kazim, his younger son.

If ‘Abdullah, the older son, was capable of inheriting the father’s status, there was no need to mention the younger son’s name! This will, besides other proofs, clearly guided the Shi’as towards their new Imam.

Obviously with such a beginning, it was not possible for the Imam to openly assume the role of leadership. His contacts with the Shi’as were very much restricted. Some relief came when Mansur died in 158 A.H. and was succeeded by his son, Mahdi, who adopted a lenient policy towards the Shi’as and the Ahlu ‘1- Bayt.

During this time, the Imam’s fame in knowledge and piety spread far and wide. This fame prompted Mahdi to order his officers to arrest Imam Musa al-Kazim and bring him to Baghdad.

But soon the Imam was released and sent back to Medina. Now the Imam started meeting his followers more openly and continued the scholarly jihad of his forefathers.

In 169 A.H., Mahdi died and was succeeded by Hadi. Hadi, unlike his father, had no respect for people’s views, and openly persecuted the Shi’as and the Ahlu 1-Bayt. Morally he was a very corrupt person.

It was during his short reign that Husayn bin ‘Ali organized an uprising against Hadi which ended in an armed confrontation in Fakh. Unfortunately, Husayn and all his companions were killed.

Hadi died in 170 A.H. and was succeeded by Harun ar- Rashid. Harun, in spite of all the fame that he has in advancing sciences and knowledge, was a very tyrannical ruler-especially when it involved the Shi’as and the Ahlu 1-Bayt.

He exiled all the descendants of Imam ‘Ali in Baghdad to Medina; he used to give hefty rewards to the poets who composed verses against the Shi’a Imams; he even made it difficult for the people to visit the grave of Imam Husayn (a.s.) at Karbala.

Under such circumstances, Imam Musa al-Kazim strongly urged his followers to refrain from working or cooperating with tyrant rulers and governments. One interesting example is of Safwan bin Mihran al-Jammal. Once when Safwan came to visit him, the Imam said:

“You are a good person except for one thing.”

Safwan: “What is it, O Imam?”

Imam: ‘’You have rented out your camels to Harun.”

Safwan: “O Imam, I have rented them out to him for his journey to Mecca for hajj; and I have not personally gone for taking care of the animals, my employees are going with his caravan.”

Imam: “Don’t you have this wish in your heart that may Harun come back alive from this journey so that you may get back your camels and their rental?”

Safwan: “Yes, O Imam.”

Imam: “O Safwan, one who wishes the tyrants to live longer will be counted as one of them!”

There are, however, some cases where Imam Musa al-Kazim allowed a selected few (like ‘Ali bin Yaqtin) to work for Harun’s government only with the condition that they would use their positions to help their fellow Shi’as.

3. His Companions

In spite of the difficult political atmosphere the Imam had trained great companions in knowledge as well as in piety. Ibn Abi ‘Umayr: Anyone familiar with the Shi’i hadith literature would testify that Ibn Abi ‘Umary is the source of countless ahadith on Islamic laws. Just because he was a student of Imam Musa al-Kazim (a.s.), he suffered at the hand of the oppressive regimes of the ‘Abbasids. Once he was arrested and asked to reveal the names of all the prominent Shi’as of Iraq.

He refused even though he had to suffer a hundred lashes after which he was hanged between two trees. According to Shaykh Mufid, Ibn Abu ‘Umary was put in prison for seventeen years just because he was a follower of the Ahlu 1-Bayt.

‘Ali bin Yaqtin belonged to a prominent Shi’a family in Kufa. After the ‘Abbasid revolution, Harun ar-Rashid offered him the position of minister in his government.

He approached Imam Musa al-Kazim (a.s.) who told him to accept it but refrain from ever confiscating the money or property of the Shi’as. So ‘Ali bin Yaqtin, to show his loyalty to the government, would confiscate the money of the Shi’as but would then secretly return it to them.

Once Imam al-Kazim (a.s.) told ‘Ali bin Yaqtin: “You promise me one thing; and I guarantee you three things: you won’t be killed, neither face poverty nor suffer imprisonment.”

‘Ali: “What do I have to promise you?” Imam (a.s.): “Promise me that whenever a follower of ours comes to you, you would honour him and not turn him away.”

4. Death in Prison

During Harun’s reign, Imam Musa al-Kazim (a.s.) lived in very difficult times, in hiding, until finally Harun went on the hajj and in Medina had the Imam arrested while praying in the Mosque of the Prophet.

He was chained and imprisoned, then taken from Medina to Basra and made a prisoner in the house of Isa bin Ja’far, the governor of that city. Isa was so much impressed by the Imam’s personality that he requested Harun to relieve him of this responsibility. Imam al-Kazim (a.s.) was moved from Basra to Baghdad where for years he was transferred from one prison to another.

During his imprisonment in Baghdad, he was taken to meet Harun from time to time. In one such meeting, an interesting conversation took place. We will reproduce just a section from that conversation:

Harun: “Why do you allow the people to address you by words like ‘O son of the Prophet’ while you are in reality sons of ‘Ali? People are mostly known by their paternal lineage; whereas your are related to the Prophet through your grandmother [i.e., Fatimah].”

Imam (a.s.): “If the Prophet becomes alive and comes to you, and asks for the hand of your daughter in marriage - would you accept his proposal?”

Harun: “Praise be to Allah! Why not? That would be the greatest privilege for me over all the Arabs and non-Arabs!” Imam (a.s.): “The Prophet would never ask for my daughter’s hand; nor would I accept his proposal.”

Harun: “Why?”

Imam (a.s.): “Because the Prophet is my direct ancestor (even though from my grandmother’s side); but he is not your ancestor.” The Imam was saying that all the descendants of Fatimah would be considered the children of the Prophet, and; therefore, it would be unlawful for the Prophet to marry any one of them.

Whereas the ‘Abbasids descended from the Prophet’s uncle ‘Abbas, so they are not directly related to him; the Prophet, if he wished, could marry the descendants of his uncle. This difference shows that the Imams of Ahlu 1-Bayt had full right to be addressed as “the son of the Prophet”.

Finally he died in Baghdad in the prison of Sindi ibn Shahak through poisoning and was buried in the cemetery of the Quraysh which is now located in the city of Kazimayn.

This lesson has been written and compiled by Sayyid M. Rizvi by using the following sources.

1. Shi’a Islam’ of Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn at-Tabataba’i.

2. Pishway-e Haftum: Hazrat Imam Musa al-Kazim (a.s.) by Dar Rah-e Haq.

The main sources have been extensively edited in order to fit the requirements of our course. Also, for the sake of brevity, we have not included the references quoted by our sources. Those who are interested to know the sources may refer mentioned above.

Lesson 45: The Eighth Imam(‘Ali ibn Musa)

1. Birth

Imam ‘Ali ar-Rida was the son of the seventh Imam and according to well-known accounts was born in 148/765 and died in 203/817.

2. Political Circumstances of His Imamate

Imam ar-Rida (a.s.) became the Imam at the age of thirtyflve, through Divine Command and the decree of his forefathers. The period of his imamate coincided with the caliphate of Harun and then his sons Amin and Ma’mun.

Harun had appointed Amin as his successor with the condition that the latter would name his brother, Ma’mun, as his successor. But after the death of Harun in 194, Amin named his own son, Musa, as his successor. This became a cause of conflict between the brothers which led to bloody wars and finally the assasination of Amin in 198, after which Ma’mun became caliph.

Imam ar-Rida took advantage of this chaotic situation and continued the tradition of his forefathers in educating and teaching his companions and followers.

Until that day the policy of the.’Abbasid caliphate toward the Shi’ites had been increasingly harsh and cruel. Every once in a while one of the supporters of ‘Ali would revolt, causing bloody wars and rebellions which were of great difficulty and consequence for the caliphate.

The Shiite Imams would not cooperate with those who carried out these rebellions and would not interfere with their affairs. The Shi’ites of that day, who comprised a considerable population, continued to consider the Imams as their religious leaders to whom obedience was obligatory and believed in them as the real caliphs of the Holy Prophet.

They considered the caliphate to be far from the sacred authority of their Imams, for the caliphate had come to seem more like the courts of the Persian kings and Roman emperors, and was being run by a group of people more interested in worldly rule than in the strict application of religious principles.

The continuation of such a situation was dangerous for the structure of the caliphate and was a serious threat to it.

Ma’mun thought of finding a new solution for these difficulties which the seventy-year old policy of his ‘Abbasid predecessors had not been able to solve. To accomplish this end he adopted some pro-Shi’ite policies:

• he openly used to say that Imam ‘Ali bin Abi Talib was better suited for caliphate than Abu Bakr or ‘Umar ibn Khattab. • he openly used to curse Mu’awiya bin Abi Sufyan.

• he gave Fadak back to the descendants of ‘Ali and Fatima.

• he chose Imam ‘Ali ar-Rida as his successor, hoping in this way to overcome two difficulties: first of all to prevent the descendants of the Prophet from rebelling against the government since ,they would be involved in the government themselves, and secondly, to cause the people to lose their spiritual belief and inner attachment to the Imams.

This would be accomplished by having the Imams become engrossed in worldly matters and politics itself, which had always been considered by the Shi’ites to be evil and impure. In this way their religious organization would crumble and they would no longer present any danger to the caliphate.

Obviously, after accomplishing these ends, the removal of the Imam would present no difficulties to the ‘Abbasids.

3. Imam ar-Rida’s Historical Journey to Marw

In order to have his last decision put into effect, Ma’mun asked Imam ar-Rida to come to Marw from Medina. This was the longest journey undertaken by any of the Shi’a Imams: from Medina (north-west of Arabia) to Marw (in Turkmenistan, north of the Afghan border). The Imam passed through southern Iraq, into sourthern Persia on to the famous city of Neshapur and further north into Turkmenistan.

This journey itself availed an opportunity for the Muslim populace to see the Shi’a Imam (a descendant of the Holy Prophet) in person and hear his words of wisdom. While the Imam was about to leave Nishapur, the scholars of the city took hold of his camel’s reign and insisted upon him to narrate from his forefathers: The Imam obliged as follows:

My father, Musa bin Ja’far, narrated to me from his father, Ja’far bin Muhammad, who narrated from his father, Muhammad bin ‘Ali, who narrated from his father, ‘Ali ibn al-Husayn, who narrated from his father, al-Husayn bin ‘Ali, who narrated from his father, ‘Ali bin Abi Talib, who said, I heard the Prophet (s.a.w.) saying, “I heard Jibrail saying, The Almighty Allah said, “I surely am the God besides whom there is no god, so worship Me.

Whoever comes with the testimony of tawhid sincerely, he has surely entered My castle; and whoever enters My castle, he shall be protected from My chastisement.”

Then the Imam added that this salvation is guaranteed “with its conditions; and I am one of its conditions.” That is, together with tawhid, one must also believe in other fundamentals of Islam like nubuwwa and imamat in order to gain salvation in the hereafter.

Because of its excellent chain of narrators, this hadith is known as “hadith silsilatu ‘dh-dhabab - hadith with the golden chain [of narrators].”

4. Ma’mun’s Decision & Its Consequences

Finally Imam ar-Rida arrived at Marw. Ma’mun offered him first the caliphate and then the succession to the caliphate.

The Imam made his apologies and turned down the proposal, but he was finally compelled to accept the successorship-the Imam accepted the successorship with the condition that he would not interfere in governmental affairs or in the appointment or dismissal of government agents.

This event occurred in 200/814. But soon Ma’mun realized that he had committed an error, for there was a rapid spread of Shi’ism, a growth in the attachment of the populace to the Imam, and an astounding reception was given to the Imam by the people and even by the army and govenment agents.

For example, once just a few days before an ‘idd, Ma’mun asked Imam ar-Rida to lead the ‘idd prayer. The Imam refused at first, but then Ma’mun insisted.

Finally, the Imam accepted but on the condition that he would lead the prayer the way the Prophet used to do. On the day of ‘idd, all the high ranking officials of Ma’mun came to the Imam’s house and waited for him outside.

There were also many common people waiting for the Imam as well. The holy Imam came out of the house, barefooted, and started walking calmly with a walking stick in one hand. The officials stepped down from their horses and started walking behind the Imam.

After every few steps he would stop and look towards the sky and say “Allahu Akbar.” The official entourage and the masses followed the Imam in what he was doing. Soon the entire city of Marw was ringing with the sound of “Allahu Akbar.

Ma’mun was informed by his spies that if this procession continues to the prayer area, the masses could easily turn against the ‘Abbasids and in favour of the Ahlul Bayt. Ma’mun immediately sent an emissary with the message to the Imam that by insisting that you lead the prayer, we have put you in difficulty so please return to your residence and the ‘idd prayer will be led by the regular imam.

The Imam ordered that his shoes and horse be brought, he got on it and returned home. This episode made it clear for the people that Ma’mun was not sincere in his show of respect towards Imam ar-Rida: he would respect him as long as that did not endanger his own caliphate.

Unlike other caliphs, Ma’mun displayed great interest in having works on the intellectual sciences translated into Arabic. He organised gatherings in which scholars of different religions and sects assembled and carried out scientific and scholarly debates.

Imam ‘Ali ar-Rida also participated in these assemblies and joined in the discussions with scholars of other religions. Many of these debates are recorded in the collections of Shi’ite hadiths.

These debates also gave a high profile to the Imam’s status in knowledge to the extent that people started making comments that ‘Ali ar-Rida is more deserving of the caliphate than Ma’mun.

Concerned with the spread of Shi’ism and the popularity of Imam ar-Rida, Ma’mun sought to find a remedy for this difficulty - he had the Imam poisoned and martyred. After his death the Imam was buried in the city of Tus in Iran, which is now called Mashhad.

5. Words of Wisdom

Some one asked Imam ar-Rida, “Where is God?”

The Imam: “This is an invalid question because God created space; He cannot be limited to a place or recognized by the senses; He is unlike everything.”

“When did God come to exist?”

The Imam: “Tell me when He did not exist, so that I can tell when he came to exist!”

“What is the proof that the world was created?”

The Imam: “It did not exist, and then came to being. You know that the world did not create itself.”

“Can you describe God for us?”

The Imam: “Whoever describes God by attributes of other things is mistaken and misguided. I will describe God the way He has described Himself without forming any shape or image in my mind:

“He is not perceived by the [five] senses.

“He cannot be compared to people.

“He is wellknown without resemblance to anything.

“He is not unjust in His judgements...”

“What is iman (faith) and what is islam (submission)?”

The Imam: “Iman is superior to islam; taqwa (constant consciousness of God) is superior to faith; conviction is superior to taqwa...”

“What is conviction?”

The Imam: “Putting your trust in God, and submitting yourself to His command and wish, and being pleased with His decree, and leaving the final decision to Him.”

“Why did the people turn away from ‘Ali and accept others as caliphs while they knew of his exemplary services to Islam and his high status in the eyes of the Prophet?”

The Imam: “Since ‘Ali had killed many of their fathers, uncles, brothers and relatives who had come to fight against Islam;

and this created the feeling of animosity in their hearts against ‘Ali and, consequently, they did not like that ‘Ali should become their leader.

They did not harbour such feelings against the other [caliphs] since they did not hold the same [high] position with the Prophet as that of ‘Ali neither did they rank equal to him in defending Islam in jihad. This is the reason why people turned away from ‘Ali and accepted others.”

This lesson has been written and compiled by Sayyid M. Rizvi by using the following sources.

1. Shi’a Islam’ of Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn at-Tabataba’i.

2. Pishway-e Hastum: Hazrat ‘Ali ar-Riza (a.s.) by Dar Rah-e Haq, Qum.

The main sources have been extensively edited in order to fit the requirements of our course. Also, for the sake of brevity, we have not included the references quoted by our sources. Those who are interested to know the sources may refer to those mentioned above.

Lesson 46: The Ninth Imam (Muhammad bin ‘Ali)

1. Birth & Imamate in Childhood

Imam Muhammad at-Taqi was born in 195/809 in Medina.

The news of his birth caused extraordinary joy among the Shi’as of that time. Imam ar-Rida was childless till the age of forty, and some Shi’as were concerned about the continuation of imamate: who would succeed Imam ar-Rida? So the birth of the ninth Imam brought about a mood of festivity among the Shi’as of Ahlul Bayt.

Imam ‘AH ar-Rida died in 203 A.H.; and Muhammad at-Taqi became the Imam at the age of eight. The age of the Imam caused a concern in the minds of some elder members of the Shi’a community because no Imam had reached the position of imamate at this young age.

Mu’alla bin Muhammad narrates that after the death of Imam ar-Rida, he saw Imam at-Taqi and closely observed his physical size and age in order to report it to others. At that moment, Imam at-Taqi said, “O Mu’alla, Allah has argued about imamat just as he argued about nubuwwat when He said, ‘And We gave prophethood to him [i.e., Yahya] when he was still a child.”

After the death of Imam ar-Rida, a group of eighty scholars from Baghdad and other places came to Mecca for hajj. On the way, they stopped at Medina and met Imam at-Taqi. They were particularly interested in meeting the young Imam and wanted to satisfy themselves about his capabilities. The meeting went on for a long time with the visitors asking him questions and the Imam replying in a convincing and satisfying manner. All left fully convinced that he truly was the Imam appointed by Allah, subhanahu wa ta’ala, and endowed with knowledge.

Ishaq was one of the eighty persons in that meeting. He narrates his impression as follows: I had written ten questions in a letter for the Imam and had decided that if he answers my questions, then I will ask him to pray for me that the child that my wife is carrying be a male child.

The meeting, however, went on for a long time so I decided to present my letter to him the next day. But as I was about to leave, the Imam called me and said, “O Ishaq! Allah has accepted my prayer; therefore, name your son ‘Ahmad’.”

The answer to his prayer without even stating it to the Imam fully convinced Ishaq that Muhammad at-Taqi, inspite of his young age, was the Imam!

2. Ma’mun & Imam at-Taqi (a.s.)

Caliph Ma’mun ar-Rashid, in pursuing the same policies as mentioned in the previous lesson, asked that Imam Muhammad at- Taqi (a.s.) be brought from Medina to Baghdad. This journey took place in 204 A.H., a year after the death of the eighth Imam.

When Ma’mun met the young Imam, he was impressed with the latter’s knowledge; and he proposed to marry his daughter Ummul Fazl to the Imam. When the elders of the ‘Abbasid clan learned of this decision, they tried to change Ma’mun’s views: they reminded him of dangers in promoting the decendants of ‘Ali, and the possible loss of power.

Realizing that their words had no effect on Ma’mun, they finally said, “Although you are impressed by this child; but he is still a child. Wait till he grows up and gets educated, then you may marry your daughter to him.”

Ma’mun: “Woe unto you! I know this child better than you; he comes from a family which is bestowed with knowledge by God. His ancestors were never in need of knowledge and character from others. If you wish, you may examine him.”

The elders of the ‘Abbasid agreed to examine him. They approached Yahya bin Aktham, the chief judge (qazi) of the ‘Abbasid court, and asked him to prepare some difficult questions which the Imam would not be able to answer.

At an appointed time, the meeting between Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.) and Yahya bin Aktham took place in the presence of Ma’mun and the elders of the ‘Abbasid clan. After the formalities, Yahya asked: “What is your view about a person who hunts while he is in the ihram?” (Ihram means pilgrim’s garment; a person in ihram is not allowed to hunt.) Imam at-Taqi: “This question has many facets:

“Was the person outside the boundary of the holy territory or inside?

“Did he know that it was forbidden to hunt while in ihram or he did not?

“Did he do it intentionally or was it an accident?

“Was he a free man or a slave?

“Was he minor or an adult?

“Was this his first hunting in the state of ihram or a second time?

“Was the hunted creature a bird or something else?

“Was it big or small?

“Was the person sorry that he committed the offence or was he careless about such issues?

“Was it in the night or during the day?

“Was he in the state of ihram for the minor pilgrimage or for the major pilgrimage?”

Yahya bin Aktham was dumbfounded by this thorough analysis of the question by the ten year old Imam Muhammad at- Taqi! He could not even utter a word, and the audience clearly saw the signs of defeat on his face!

Ma’mun broke the silence by saying, “Praise be to Allah who proved me right in my estimation of this young man.” Then he faced the elders of the ‘Abbasids and rebuked them: “Now do you realize what I was saying?” .

Then he proposed the marriage of his daughter to the Imam, and the Imam accepted it. The young Imam also recited the khutba (sermon) before the actual marriage which has become a common khutba in the Shi’a marriage ceremonies. The khutba is as follows:

“All praise is due to Allah, in recognition of His blessings. [I declare that) there is no god but Allah, in sincere belief in His oneness. And may Allah send His blessings upon Muhammad, the leader of His creatures, and upon the chosen one of his family.

“It is Allah’s grace upon the people that He has made them free from the forbidden [means of fulfilling sexual urge] by the permissible [institution of marriage].

He, the Exalted, said: ‘And marry the single among you (those who are good ones from among your slaves and maids)-if they are poor, Allah will make them free from need from His grace; Allah, indeed, is Generous, All- Knowing.’”

After the marriage ceremony, when only a few people had remained in the gathering, Ma’mun requested the Imam to provide the answer for the various situations that he had derived from Yahya’s single question. The holy Imam gave -a detailed answer to all those situations.

Then Ma’mun proposed that now the Imam should ask a question to Yahya bin Aktham. The latter replied, “If I know the answer, I will reply; otherwise, I will learn from you.”

Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.) asked: “Can you describe the situation in which a man looked at a woman at dawn while it was forbidden (haram) for him to do so; but then at sunrise, it was permissible (halal) for him to look at her?

Then at noon hour, it became haram for him to look at that woman; but in the afternoon, it became permissible for him to look at her? Then at sunset, it became haram for him to look at that woman; but at night, it became halal for him to look at her? Then at midnight, it became haram for him to look at her; but at dawn, it became halal for him to do so?”

Yahya bin Aktham said, “By Allah! I do not know the answer to this question. We would, however, benefit from your answer.”

The Imam explained the answer as follows:

“At dawn, the woman was the slave of someone else;

however, by sunrise, the man had already bought her for himself and so it became halal for him to look at her.

“At noon, he made her free, and so she became haram for him; but by afternoon, he had married her, so she became halal for him.

“At sunset, he did zihar8 by which one’s wife becomes haram for a person; but by night time he paid the penalty for zihar, and so she became halal for him again.

Thus the ten year old Imam, from the descendants of ‘Ali and Fatimah, proved to the caliph and his entourage that God had endowed them with the knowledge to guide the Muslim ummah as the Prophet had truly said, “Do not try to teach them, because they are- not in need of your teaching.”

One must remember that Ma’mun was a very shrewd politician. This marriage between his daughter and Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.) should not be taken as proof that he was a Shi’a. As mentioned in the previous lesson, these actions were all politically motivated by Ma’mun to calm the opposition of the Shi’a masses. Other motives for the marriage can be described as follows:

• By having his daughter as Imam’s wife, Ma’mun was guaranteed a continuous flow of information about the Imam’s activities.

• By becoming the son-in-law of Ma’mun at this young age, the caliph hoped that the personality of the Imam would be tarnished with worldly luxuries and entertainment of the establishment, and thus lose the respect in the eyes of his Shi’as.

• By this marriage, prove to the Shi’a masses that he respects the Ahlul Bayt, and thus neutralize their opposition to his rule.

• Ma’mun was hoping that if Imam at-Taqi gets a child through his daughter, he can claim to be the grandfather of a child from the descendants of Imam ‘Ali and Fatimah (a.s.). But Allah, until he atones by fasting for two successive months, or if that is not possible, then feeding sixty poor people, littering such a statement is known as zihar.

subhanahu wa ta’ala, did not fulfill this hope because none of the children of the Imam were born from Ma’mun’s daughter! Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.) did not stay for long in Baghdad. He insisted on returning to Medina with his wife, the daughter of Ma’mun.

His return to Medina where he stayed till the year 220 A.H. foiled the plans of Ma’mun ar-Rashid.

3. Mu’tasim’s Rule

Ma’mun ar-Rashid died in the year 218 A.H. He was succeeded by his brother, Mu’tasim billah. In the year 220, Mu’tasim ordered that Imam Muhammad at-Taqi be brought from Medina to Baghdad.

One day a person came to the court of Mu’tasim and confessed that he had committed theft and would like to be punished so that he could be free from the guilt and punishment in the hereafter.

The Qur’an says that the punishment for theft (with some conditions) is cutting off the thief’s yad. Yad means: hand, forearm and elbow. So the caliph called all the prominent religious scholars, including Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.), and asked:

“From where should the yad of the thief be cut?” (The Qur’an is asking for the definition of “yad”.)

Ibn Abi Da’ud, the chief judge, said, “From the wrist.” Mu’tasim: “What is your proof for that?”

Ibn Abi Da’ud: “The word ‘yad’ has been used in the verse of tayammum -so wipe your faces and your hands(5:5)- for the hand.”

Some scholars agreed with Ibn Abi Da’ud but others disagreed and said: “Cut the thief’s yad from the elbow.” Mu’tasim: “What is your proof?”

The scholars: “The word ‘yad’ has been used in the verse of wudhu - wash your faces and your hands up to the elbows(5:5)- for the fore-arm.”

Then Mu’tasim turned towards Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (a.s.) and asked his opinion. The Imam first declined to give his view because he was aware of the court’s politics. But when Mu’tasim insisted, the Imam finally said, “All these gentlemen are mistaken because only the [four] fingers have to be cut.” Mu’tasim: “What is your proof?”

The Imam (a.s.): “The Prophet (s.a.w.) has said that sajdah is done on seven parts of the body: forehead, palms, knees and two big toes [of the feet). If a thief’s hand or forearm is cut, then it would not be possible for him to do the sajdah whereas Allah has said, ‘And verily the masajid [the body parts on which sajdah is done] belong to Allah...;’ and what belongs to Allah should not be cut.”

The caliph liked the answer of the Imam and ordered that the four fingers of the thief be cut.

This extraordinary event, in the public’s view at Mu’tasim’s court, proved the superiority of the Imams of Ahlu ‘1-Bayt. It, however, also created an extreme feeling of jealousy and hatred in the heart of Ibn Abi Da’ud.

On finding an appropriate moment, Ibn Abi Da’ud cautioned the caliph against inadvertantly promoting Imam Muhammad at- Taqi (a.s.) by publicly following his view and rejecting those of the other scholars. He filled the caliph’s ears to the extent that the caliph started looking at the Imam as a threat to his own caliphate.

During the last days of Dhul Qa’dah 220 A.M., the Imam was poisoned by his wife, the niece of Mu’tasim, and he died as a martyr. His body was buried next to his grandfather’s grave in the Qurayshi cemetary in Baghdad which is now known as Kadhimayn.

This lesson has been written and compiled by Sayyid M. Rizvi by using the following sources.

1. Shi’a Islam’ of Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn at-Tabataba’i.

2. Pishway-e Nahum: Hazrat Imam Muhammad al-Jawad (a.s.) by Dar Rah-e Haq, Qum.

The main sources have been extensively edited in order to fit the requirements of our course. Also, for the sake of brevity, we have not included the references quoted by our sources. Those who are interested to know the sources may refer to those mentioned above.

Lesson 47: The Tenth Imam (‘Ali ibn Muhammad)

1. Birth & Early Years

Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi (also known as al-Hadi), was the son of the ninth Imam. He was born on 15th Dhil Hijja in 212/827 in Sarya, outside Medina. At the age of eight in 220, he became the Imam. After having seen his father’s example, the Shi’a community had no more problems in accepting such a young Imam.

2. Rulers of the Time

The thirtythree years of imamate of Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi coincided with the caliphate of the following six caliphs Mu’tasim bin Harun, Wathiq bin Mu’tasim, Mutawakkil bin Mu’tasim, Muntasir bin Mutawakkil, Musta’in, and Mu’tazz bin Mutawakkil. Wathiq bin Mu’tasim had a very promiscuous lifestyle, and had no time to harass the Shi’as and the Imams of the Ahlul Bayt.

During his caliphate, a large number of the descendants of Imam ‘Ali (a.s.) had settled in Samarra, the ‘Abbasid capital. But the peaceful days for the ‘Alids and the Imam did not last long. After Wathiq, his brother Mutawakkil, came to power. Mutawakkil was the most cruel of all the ‘Abbasid caliphs; he is comparable to Yazid bin Mu’awiyah of the Umayyads.

Mutawakkil, on the one hand, started promoting the Shafi’i madhhab in order to distract the masses away from the Ahlul Bayt. And, on the other hand, he intensified harassment of the Shi’as.

He had such hatred for the Ahlul Bayt that in 236 A.H. he ordered the grave of Imam Husayn (a.s.) be leveled to the ground, and that the surrounding area be transformed into farmlands so that no trace of the grave be left.

This all was done to stop the Shi’as from visiting (ziyarat) the graves of Imam Husayn (a.s.) and the other martyrs of Karbala. But when Allah wishes to protect His “light” no human can do anything about it!

The attempt to erase all traces of Imam Husayn’s grave angered many Muslims; people starting writing anti-’Abbasid slogans on the walls. Opposition poets also expressed their feelings on this issue. A famous poem against Mutawakkil is given below:

By Allah, if the Umayyids unjustly killed

Husayn, son of the Prophet’s daughter,

his cousins9 have committed a similar crime

for I swear that Husayn’s grave has been erased.

It seems that they regret for not participating

in the massacre, so they now go after the grave!

Mutawakkil enjoyed torturing the followers of the Ahlul Bayt;

even the persons appointed by him as governor in Medina and Mecca were instructed to prevent people from being kind and courteous towards the Ahlul Bayt.

In 234 A.H., Mutawakkil ordered Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi (a.s.) to be brought from Medina to Samarra where he was placed in a house next to the caliph’s garrison. The Imam lived under constant surveillance until Mutawakkil was murdered by his own troops at the instigation of his own son, Muntasir.

Musta’in came to power after Muntasir and continued the oppressive policies of his ancestors. But soon his own Turkish troops rebelled against him and pledged allegiance to Mu’tazz bin Mutawakkil whom they rescued from prison. Finally, Musta’in was killed and Mu’tazz become the caliph.

It was during the reign of Mu’tazz bin Mutawakkil that Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi was martyred by poisoning.

3. Two Companions of the Imam

One of the most distinguished of all the companions of Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi was ‘Abdul ‘Azim al-Hasani (a descendant of Imam Hasan) whose grave outside the city of Tehran has become a famous place for visitation (ziyarat). ‘Abdul ‘Azim had met and heard ahadith from the companions of the sixth, seventh and eight Imams; and he himself has narrated many ahadith from the ninth and tenth Imams.

Abu Hammad Razi narrates that once Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi

(a.s.) told him that “whenever you have religious problems, go to ‘Abdul ‘Azim and also convey my salaams to him.”

Once ‘Abdul ‘Azim al-Hasani came to Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi (a.s.) and said, “O son of the Prophet! I would like to describe my faith to you so that if you agree with it then I will stay firm upon it till the last moment of my life.” When the Imam gave his approval, ‘Abdul ‘Azim described his faith as follows:

“I believe that God is One; there is nothing like Him; He is free from ibtal (i.e., saying that He is ‘nothing’) and tashbih (i.e., comparing Him to a created thing). Allah has no body or figure; neither is He substance nor form; intead, He is the creator of body and figure, and of substance and form. He is the creator and sustainer of everything.

“I believe that Muhammad (s.a.w.) is a servant and prophet of God, and His last Messenger. There will be no prophet, shari’ah or religion after him till the day of judgement.

“I believe that the Imam and successor of Prophet

Muhammad (s.a.w.) was ‘Ali bin Abi Talib (a.s.), and after him Hasan, then Husayn, ‘Ali ibn al-Husayn, Muhammad bin ‘Ali,

Ja’far bin Muhammad, Musa bin Ja’far, ‘Ali bin Musa,

Muhammad bin ‘Ali, and then you are my master.”

Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi (a.s.) then said, “After me, my son Hasan,

will be the Imam. How do you think the people will react in regard to Hasan’s son [i.e., the Mahdi]?”

‘Abdul ‘Azim: “O my master! How will he [i.e., Hasan’s son] be?”

Imam an-Naqi (a.s.): “He will not be seen; and mentioning his name is not permissible until he rises and fills the earth with justice just as it would be filled with injustice and tyranny.” ‘Abdul ‘Azim then continued: “I testify that their [i.e., Imams] friend is God’s friend; and their enemy is God’s enemy; obeying them is obedience to God; and disobeying them is disobeying God.

“I believe in the mi’raj, the questioning in the grave, paradise, hell, the path (sirat), the scale-all these are truth. I believe that the day of judgement is sure to come without any doubt, and that God will resurrect the dead people.

“I believe that my religious obligations after wilayah (love and obedience to the Imams) are prayers, alms-giving, fasting, pilgrimage to Mecca, jihad, bidding good and forbidding evil.”

Imam ‘Ali an-Naqi (a.s.) said, “O Abul Qasim! By Allah, this is the same religion that Allah has chosen for His servants! So remain firm on it; and may Allah keep you steadfast on this truth.” Musa bin ‘Abdullah an-Nakha’i was another learned companion of the Imam.

Once he went to the Imam and requested him for a comprehensive ziyarat he could use to recite whenever he visits the graves of any of the Imams of Ahlul Bayt. This ziyarat became famous as Ziyarat-e Jami’a whose selected parts are presented below:

“...May peace be upon you O the People of the house of prophethood, the source of messengership, the people on whom angels descend and where revelation used to come down; the family which is the source of mercy, custodians of knowledge, peaks of forbearance, foundations of generosity, leaders of nations, masters of blessings, the cream of pious people, pillars of kindness, leaders of people...doors of iman, trustees of the Merciful God, family of prophets and messengers, and descendants of the best of those chosen by the Lord of the Universe...

“May peace be upon the Imams of guidance, lamps in the darkness, signs of piety, those who possess wisdom and intelligence, the refuge for people, the heirs of prophets, the best of examples...the proofs of God upon the people of this world and the hereafter...

“I bear witness that there is no god but Allah, He has no partner just as Allah has declared it Himself and so have the angels and the knowledgeable among His servants. There is no god but He, the Powerful, the Wise.

I bear witness that Muhammad is His chosen servant and a messenger with whom He is pleased, and whom He has sent with guidance and the religion of truth so that He may give victory to it over all religions even if the polytheists dislike it.

“I bear witness that you are the rightly-guided leaders, the infallibles, the respected ones, those who are closest to Allah, the pious, the truthful, the chosen ones; those who are obedient to Allah, who are firm in His command, who act according to His wish, who have attained His respect. Allah has chosen you by His knowledge, and He has chosen you for His [knowledge of the] unseen and His secret...

“One who turns away from you has gone out of religion; one who stays with you reaches the religion; and one who lowers you from your status is lost.

The truth is with you, in you, from you, towards you-you are its owners and custodians...One who loves you, loves Allah; one who hates you, hates Allah; one who seeks refuge with you has sought refuge with Allah...

“O Allah! If I could find any intercessors closer to You than Muhammad and his good progeny, the pious Imams, I would have made them my intercessors. [But there is no one closer to you than Muhammad and his family.]

So by the right that You have given to them over Yourself, I pray to You to include me among those who truly know them and their rights, among those on whom You have showered mercy through their intercession. You are indeed the most merciful of all. And may Allah send His blessings upon Muhammad and his pure progeny. Indeed Allah is sufficient for us and He is the best of agents.”

This lesson has been written and compiled by Sayyid M. Rizvi by using the following sources.

1. Shi’a Islam’ of Allaxnah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn at-Tabataba’i.

2. Pishway-e Dahum: Hazrat Imam ‘Ali bin Muhammad al-Hadi (a.s.) by Par Rah-e Haq. Qum.

The main sources have been extensively edited in order to fit the requirements of our course. Also, for the sake of brevity, we hve not included the references quoted by our sources. Those who are interested to know the sources mays refer to the sources mentioned above.