Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Those who didn’t take part in the uprising

Some people are seen among the eminent figures of Madīnans who had withdrawn from the uprising of the general public and did not interfere in it from the early phases of the people's revolt and resistance against the Umayyid rule. Although few in number, these people had totally different motives and insights. Imam Zayn al-‘Abidīn (‘a) was among them who, according to ideological principles and religious criteria, regarded the Umayyid rule as basically usurping and did not have the least belief in Yazīd's competence and the overthrow of his rule was one of the wishes of the Imam (‘a) and his household. On the other hand, among the withdrawers from the uprising of the Madīnans were such people as ‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Umar, who, according to what the historians have recorded had a viewpoint and analysis opposite to that of Imam Zayn al-‘Abidīn (‘a).

‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Umar . He did not participate in the public protest of the Madīnans against Yazīd and the Umayyid rule, neither because he did not view the battle style as inefficient, nor because he regarded the consequences of the uprising as heavy and devastating; rather, he viewed the Umayyid rule and the Yazīd's government as legitimate and simplistically presumed Yazīd as the guardian of the Muslims.

This is implied from his remarks to ‘Abd Allāh b. Mu tī‘ - one of the activists in the uprising of Medina - saying:

"Whoever abandons obeying a ruler will meet God on the Resurrection Day without a proof and whoever dies and there is not an allegiance of a leader on his neck dies a death of ignorance (Jāhilliyah )."[246]

If this is really stated by ‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Umar, it is so surprising that with such contention he refused to swear allegiance to ‘Alī b. Abī Tālib during the latter's Caliphate while the people of Medina did swear allegiance to the Imam, and was rated as among the six people who refused allegiance to Imam ‘Alī (‘a).

He would say: "I must be the last one to pledge allegiance to ‘Alī (‘a)![247]

It is reported that when Yazīd died and ‘Abd al-Malik b. Marwān took over the rule and dispatched Hajjāj to Medina to suppress Ibn Zubayr and his advocates, ‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Umar went to Hajjāj overnight to swear allegiance and said: "I have come to swear allegiance to the Caliph! "When asked why in such a hurry, ‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Umar replied: whoever dies and has no leader, dies a death ofJāhilliyah ; and I am afraid I may die overnight without having a leader! Hajjāj heedlessly stretched his leg and said 'kiss my leg instead of my hand'!"[248]

‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Abbās. ‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Abbās was the Holy Prophet's (s) cousin who was born in Shi‘b of Abū Tālib three years before hijrah and died in Tā’if in the year 80 A.H. (689 C.E.) at the age of 69 while having lost his eye sight and was buried in that place.[249]

The reasons for his not participating in the battle of Harrah can be numerous, for it is reported that he became blind and was sick toward the end of his life and since Tā’if had a pleasant climate, he went there for rest and remedy. After the martyrdom of Imam Husayn b. ‘Alī (‘a), Ibn ‘Abbās sent a letter of condemnation to Yazīd, part of which is as follows:

"… Do not suppose that I will forget your killing of Imam Husayn (‘a) and the youth of the Banī ‘Abd al-Mu ttalib who were beacons of guidance and guiding stars. Your troops left their pure bodies soiled with dust and exposed to the wind."

Yet, he wrote in another part of his letter:

"You killed Husayn and his companions. Nothing is stranger to me than your seeking my companionship! You have killed the sons of my father, and it is my blood that is dripping from your sword."[250]

This shows that the withdrawal of ‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Abbās from the uprising of Medina has not been because of avoiding opposition to Umayyid rule, but it has mainly been due to his illness.

Jābir b. ‘Abd Allāh Ansārī . Jābir b. ‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Amr b. Khazajī Ansārī Sulamī Sahābī[251] died in Medina in 78 A.H. (687 C.E.) at the age of 74 while blinded. Some have reported that he was the last of the Prophet's (s) companions.[252]

Ibn Qutayba Dīnūrī writes:

"Jābir was blind during the Harrah battle. He would walk in some alleys of Medina and say: Woe to the one who frightens God and the Messenger! A man asked 'who has frightened God and the Messenger?! Jābir answered: I heard the Messenger of Allah saying: Whoever frightens the people of Medina is as if frightening what is with me. A Syrian man attacked Jābir with his sword to kill him. Marwān drove that man away and ordered to send Jābir back to his house and lock the door behind him."[253]

Muhammad b. Hanafiyya. Muhammad b. ‘Alī b. Abī Tālib b. ‘Abd al-Muttalib b. Hāshim b. ‘Abd Manāf b. Qusayy, whose mother was Khawla daughter of Ja‘far b. Qays b. Muslima from the Hanafiyya tribe, hence known as Hanafiyya.[254]

Ibn Sa‘d wrote:

"After Imam Husayn (‘a) left Medina, Ibn Hanafiyya stayed in that city until he heard that Yazīd troops were approaching; then he left Medina for Mecca, where he stayed with Ibn ‘Abbās."[255]

The Aftermaths of the Battle of Harrah

Claiming allegiance from the people of Medina for Yazīd

After three days the invasion of the Syrian army over Medina and its inhabitants was over and the forth day was the time for those who survived the massacre to go with full humiliation and debasement under the yoke of Yazīd's slavery![256]

Ar that time, on the fourth day, Muslim b. ‘Uqba was stationed in a place called "Wādī al-Qurā"[257] and he ordered the surviving Madīnans to report to him for swearing allegiance to Yazīd.

The very command by Muslim b. ‘Uqba to claim allegiance from the people of Medina for Yazīd is not much surprising as the dominating army was perpetually seeking to block the enemy's way to fight after having dominated over it. What is unique in the history of Islam is the subject and the type of allegiance that the people were forced to undergo.

Ibn Athīr wrote:

"Muslim b. ‘Uqba said: Yazid has privilege over all kinds of appropriation of the properties and families of the Madīnans and their blood is permissible to him in whatever ways he wishes."[258]

Dīnawarī has pointed out the issue this way:

"Muslim ordered the people of Medina to swear allegiance to Yazīd to be his prisoners of war and let him decide and act as he wishes about their properties and family."[259]

Samhūdī has recorded the procedure of allegiance as follows:

"Muslim b. ‘Uqba summoned the dignitaries of Medina and ordered them to swear allegiance to Yazīd and admit to be his slaves."[260]

Exhausted and humiliated after the battle of Harrah, the people of Medina were forced under the unsheathed swords of the Syrian army to swear allegiance to Yazīd b. Mu‘āwiyah to be his slaves[261] and whoever rejected this allegiance was killed on the spot.[262]

It is reported in historical sources that the only personality who was exempted from such allegiance was Imam Zayn al-‘Abidīn (‘a).[263]

In his talk to the Imam (‘a), Muslim b. ‘Uqba regarded his case apart from the others and said: "Yazīd did not want me to make you swear allegiance like others."[264]

Given the short interval between the battle of Harrah and the tragedy of Karbalā, the heavy and irrepairable aftermath of the martyrdom of Imam Husayn (‘a) and his companions for Yazīd and Umayyid's rule - like the uprising ofTawwābīn and Mecca and Medina revolts - and the Imam Zayn al-‘Abidīn's (‘a) impressive speeches in Syria, it was obvious that Yazīd had advised Muslim b. ‘Uqba not to expect allegiance from Imam Husayn b. ‘Alī's (‘a) son, as the ‘Āshūra was created initially because of descendents of ‘Alī's (‘a) abstaining to pledge allegiance to such a person as Yazīd.

It is reported in some sources that before meeting with Imam Zayn al-‘Abidīn (‘a), Muslim b. ‘Uqba would revile him and his household, but when he met with Imam Zayn al-‘Abidīn (‘a), he became gentle and obedient before him and faced him with respect. When his entourage asked the reason for this encounter, Muslim answered that he had been impressed by his imposing appearance and nobility.[265]

The second person who did not swear allegiance like others to Yazīd was ‘Alī b. ‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Abbās; with the difference that in the first place Muslim b. ‘Uqba commanded him to swear allegiance to Yazīd like others to be his slave, but since ‘Alī b. ‘Abd Allāh had some kind of tribal kinship with Hu sayn b. Numayr - one of the commanders of Syrian army - the latter protected him and told Muslim b. ‘Uqba to exempt him from such an allegiance.

Muslim felt that if he would insist on his command and did not accept Hu sayn b. Numayr's request, it was possible that this would lead to discord, coflict, and indolence in the Syrian army;[266] thus, he gave up his order and let ‘Alī b. ‘Abd Allāh simply state that: "I swear allegiance to Yazīd and am obliged to obey him.[267]

Muslim b. ‘Uqba's Report to Yazīd

After his victory in early Muharram 64 A.H. (682 C.E.), Muslim b. ‘Uqba wrote a letter to Yazīd and informed him of the event of Harrah and what befell the people of Medina and asked him for advice.

Muslim's letter is as follows:

"From Muslim b. ‘Uqba to the chief commander of the faithful, Yazīd b. Mu‘āwiyah.

Salutations to you Oh commander of the faithful and God's Mercy and Blessings be on you!

I thank the One God for your victory; now then, God has undertaken the preservation and protection of the Amīr. May the shadow of Amīr be prolonged. Now I forward a report of my mission to you:

I left Damascus while I was feeling unwell as Amīr knew about it. I met some Umayyids [who had left Medina] in Wādī al-Qurā’. Marwān [despite his swearing not to help the enemy] returned with us to Medina! He was our aid in our victory over the enemy. We went to Medina and noticed that the people of Medina had dug many trenches around them, installed armed guards at the city entrances, taken their beasts inside Medina, and claimed to have stored up enough foodstuff for one year [so that the would be able to resist in case of being beseiged]. I advised them and informed them of the Amīr's promises, but they did not accept.

Then, I arranged my troops in groups and sent each group to one direction; I sent Husayn b. Numayr to Dhanāb region and its outskirts; Habīsh b. Dalja as commander of Mawālī to Banī Salma region; and ‘Abd Allāh b. Mas‘ūd to "Baqī‘ Gharqad" region.

I and other troops of Amīr's army stood against Banī Hāritha. Thanks to the way shown to us by one of the Banī Hāritha tribesmen, we managed to enter the city from the region of Banī ‘Abd al-Ashhal early at the sunrise.

It so happened that Marwān saw a man from the Banī Hāritha tribe and secretly promised him that the commander of the faithful [Yazīd] will do him benevolence and guarantee to pay off all his debts and give him some rewards, too [that man was deceived and showed the way to the Syrian army to infiltrate into the city]. Now, I am sending this letter to you via the same person and hope that God may inspire His Caliph and slave [Yazīd] the way that man deserves so that he [the Caliph] makes him statistied with his generous gifts!

God has graced and favored Amīr for his readiness, cleverness and triumph over his enemies, and this victory over the enemies is something that will not be lost for the Caliph of God and the Muslims. Insha‘Allah!

May God preserve Amīr's men [Syrian army]; no one was harmed! Their enemy [people of Mādīna] resisted but only for four hours. After widespread massacre and pillage, we performed the noon prayer in their mosque!

We wielded the swords against them, killing whoever that stood before us. We chased the fugitives and killed their wounded, as Amīr had commanded. We were busy killing and plundering for three days! May God lengthen Amīr's shadow!

I made secure the houses of ‘Uthmān's children. Thanks God that He appeased my heart by killing the hypocrites and wrong-doers whose [the Madīnans'] rebellion had lasted too long.

I am writing this letter to Amīr from the house of Sa‘īd b. ‘Ās while I am severely sick. For this sickness you may not see me any longer. I did not have any other wish than revenge from the people of Medina! Wassalām!"[268]

Some others have reported that in the end of his letter, Muslim had written to Yazīd as follows:

"Do not be saddened for the faithless people!"[269]

Departure of the Syrian Army towards Mecca

Early in 64 A.H. (683 C.E.), following Muslim b. ‘Uqba's ending of his deadly mission in Medina - as he had already predicted - he dispatched the Syrian army to Mecca to fight against ‘Abd Allāh b. Zubayr who was known to be the main instigator of the revolts in Hijāz region and had made Mecca his base for such revolts, and to put an end to him and his partisans' opposisions to the Umayyid rule. However, no farther than three miles away from Medina, Muslim b. ‘Uqba died due to illness.[270]

Noticing the pangs of death, Muslim b. ‘Uqba summoned Hu sayn b. Numayr to come to him before dying and made some recommendations to keep moving toward Mecca and battle against Ibn Zubayr, that have been recorded by some historians as follows:

"Yazīd recommended to me that if I failed to continue this way, I should appoint Husayn b. Numayr as the commander of the army; but if it were up to me, I would not have chosen you because the Yemenis are soft-hearted! But I do not disobey Yazīd's command."[271]

"Now I have some advice for you; keep it well in mind! Hasten to move; be quick in confrontation and fighting; and search for the news from the enemy. Beware! Do not give audience to the Quraysh and do not cooperate with them!"[272]

"When you arrive in Mecca, launch the battle with Ibn Zubayr, and do not prevent the people of Syria from doing whatever they wish to do with their enemy, and do not listen to Quraysh lest they should deceive you."[273]

In another part of his advice to Husayn b. Numayr, he says:

"The mission we have ahead of us requires more violence, rigidity, decisiveness, disregard for temptations, and unwavering mind. Therefore, make yourself ready for slaughter and plunder! May it never happen that the words of those who say "Mecca is the House of God and He has made it a safe sanctuary" would make you indolent! Pay no heed to such nonsence. The very sanctity of the Caliph [Yazīd] is much more superior to all other sanctities, even from the sanctity of the House andHaram of Allah!"[274]

Unfortunately, as it is evident from the words and recommendations of Muslim b. ‘Uqba, misunderstanding and misconception of the basic religious concepts and lack of knowledge, tribal bigotry, vengeance, and playful manipulation of religion for the political purposes, were the most problematic issues that the people were entangled with during the Umayyids' ruling era.

Absence of the Prophet (s), Muslim community's being distanced from the the‘Itrat (‘a) - i.e. the Progeny (Ahl al-Bayt ) of the Prophet (s) - the dominance of the worldly-minded profane scholars who were unfamiliar with spirit of the Prophetic mission; the usurpation of the political and social positions by the bullies, gold-worshippers, and tribal authorities, were all aiding the Caliph and political commanders of people to garner much more reverence and honor than that of all the religious and Divine values, and any human and religious principle can be easily trampled for the sake of the preservation of the ruler's authority and power!

In his death-bed and after creating all these tragedies, Muslim b. ‘Uqba says:

"O Lord! You know that I never disobeyed the Caliph. O God! After professing Your Oneness and the Prophethood of Muhammad (s), I have done no better and more praiseworthy task than the massacre of the people of Medina, and I take this massacre as a means of my salvation on the Day of Resurrection."[275]

A man, whom the historians have regarded as among the devotees of Mu‘āwiyan cult[276] and one of the tyrants of Arabs and their devils[277] , and who because of his countless murders and massacres has been called Musrif b. ‘Uqba, now tries to impute all his evils to religion and serving the Muslims!

Thus he died and was buried at a distance of three miles from Medina. However, those whose children and relatives were killed by his order exhumed his body from the grave and burned it.[278]

The Invasion of Mecca by the Syrian Army

On 26th of Muharram 64 A.H. (24th of September 683 C.E.), Syrian troops commanded by Husayn b. Numayr entered the city of Mecca in order to fight with Ibn Zubayr and his followers.

In this invasion the Divine Sanctuary was disgraced and Holy Ka’ba was damaged by the Yazidian army.

Death of Yazīd b. Mu‘āwiyah

Not too long after the tragedy of Harrah, on 17th of Safar of the same year, that is, about 20 days later, Yazīd b. Mu‘āwiyah gave up his ghost and died. Having remained on the throne for no more than three or four years[279] , Yazīd lay in his grave[280] while he had perpetrated the most heinous crimes of the Islamic history. He had, as he frequently admitted, taken the revenge on Islam for all the defeats suffered by the pagans and hypocrites in the time of Prophet!

While Banī Hāshim had managed to gather the spiritual dignity and honor of the Prophetic mission to their credit, the Umayyids - the descendents of Abū Sufyān who were freed by the Prophet of God ( s) -recorded violence, mutiny, bullying, and worldliness to their credit, and threw the yoke of slavery over the Muslims!

The death of the Syrian army commander after the tragedy of Harrah and the quick setting of the ominous star of Yazīd's life can be a true evidence of the Prophet’s ( s) words:

"The one who sets out toward Medina with an ominous intention and commits any evil to it, Allah will soon wipe him out."[281]

Bibliography

Abū al-Faraj al-Isfahānī, ‘Alī (d. 356 A.H.),Al-Aghānī , Beirut, Dār Ihyā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, 1383 A.H.

Abū al-Fidā, Ismā‘īl (d. 732 A.H.),Al-Mukhtasar fī Akhbār al-Bashar , Beirut, Dār al-Ma‘rifa, 1998 C.E.

Abū al-Fidā, Ismā‘īl (d. 732 A.H.),Taqwīm al-Buldān , Paris, Dār al-Tabā‘at al-Sultāniya, 1840 C.E.

Abū Mikhnaf, Hishām (d. 517 A.H.),Maqtal al-Husayn , Qom, Intishārāt al-Radī, 1466 A.H.

Abū Nu‘aym, Ahmad (d. 430 A.H.),Hilyat al-Awliyā’ , Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘Arabī, 1407 A.H.

Amīr ‘Alī (d. 1928 C.E.), A Short History of Saracens (Arabic translation:Mukhtasar Ta’rīkh al-‘Arab ) 1406 A.H.

Azraqī, Mu hammad (d. 250 A.H.),Akhbār Makkah al-Musharrafa , Cairo, Al-Madrasah al-Mahrūsa, 1275 A.H.

Bābitī, Fu’ād,Mu‘jam al-Shu‘arā’ , Tripoli, Dār al-Sādir, 1998 C.E.

Baghdādī, ‘Abd al-Mu’min b. ‘Abd al-Haqq (d. 739 A.H.),Marāsid al-Ittilā‘ , Beirut, Dār al-Ma‘rifa, 1954 C.E.

Baghdādī, ‘Abd al-Qādir (d. 393 A.H.),Khazānat al-Adab wa Lubb Lubāb Lisān al-‘Arab , Cairo, Dār al-Kitāb al-‘Arabī, 1389 A.H.

Bal‘amī, Mu hammad (d. 363 A.H.),Tārīkh Nāma-yi Bal‘amī , Tehran, Nashr-i Now, 1366 S.H.[282]

Bayhaqī, Ahmad (d. 458 A.H.),Al-Mahāsin wa al-Masāwī , Beirut, Dār Ṣādir, 1970 C.E.

Bīrūnī, Abū Ray hān Muhammad (d. 440 A.H.),Al-Āthār al-Bāqiya ‘an al-Qurūn al-Khāliya .

Dhahabī, Mu hammad (d. 748 A.H.),Sīyar A‘lām al-Nubalā’ , Beirut, Al-Risāla, 1402 A.H.

Dhahabī, Mu hammad (d. 748 A.H.),Ta’rīkh al-Islām , ed. ‘Umar ‘Abd al-Salām Tadmurī, Beirut, Dār al-Kitāb al-‘Arabī, 1410 A.H.

Fākhūrī, Hannā,Ta’rīkh al-Adab al-‘Arabī , Cairo, Dār al-Mu‘ārif, 1975 C.E.

Farīd Wajdī (d. 1954 C.E.),Dā’irat al-Ma‘ārif al-Qarn al-‘Ishrīn , Beirut, Dār al-Ma‘rifa, 1971 C.E.

Hadramī, Muhammad b. ‘Aqīl,Mu‘āwiya wa Ta’rīkh , (Persian translation by ‘Azīzullāh ‘Atārudī), Tehran, Murtadawī Publications, 1364 S.H.

Hamawī, Yāqūt, (d. 626 A.H.),Mu‘jam al-Buldān , Beirut, Dār al-Sādir, 1955 C.E.

Ibn ‘Abd al-Birr Numarī (d. 463 A.H.),Al-Istī‘āb fī Ma‘rifat al-Ashāb , added as margin toAl-Isāba of Ibn Hajar.

Ibn ‘Abd Rabah, A hmad (d. 328 A.H.),‘Iqd al-Farīd , ed. ‘Abd al-Majīd al-Tarhīnī, Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiya, 1404 A.H.

Ibn Abī al-Hadīd, ‘Izz al-Dīn (d. 748 A.H.),Sharh-i Nahj al-Balāgha , ed. Abū al-Fadl Ibrāhīm, Cairo, Dār Ihyā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, 1379 A.H.

Ibn Abī U syaybi‘a (d. 668 A.H.),‘Uyūn al-Anbā’ fī Tabaqāt al-Attibb’ , ed. Muhammad Bāsil, Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiya, 1419 A.H.

Ibn ‘Asākir, Mu hammad (d. 711 A.H.),Ta’rīkh Damishq, Beirut, Dār al-Fikr, 1404 A.H.

Ibn A’tham Kūfī, A hmad (d. 314 AH),Al-Futūh , Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiya, 1st impr. 1406 AH.

Ibn Athīr, ‘Alī (d. 630 A.H.),Al-Kāmil fī al-Ta’rīkh , Beirut, Dār al-Sādir, 1358 A.H.

Ibn Athīr, ‘Alī (d. 630 A.H.),Usud al-Ghāba fī Ma‘rifat al-Sahāba , Cairo, Dār Sha‘b, 1390 A.H.

Ibn Athīr, Mubārak (d. 606 A.H.),Jāmi‘ al-Usūl min Ahādīth al-Rasūl , Beirut, Dār Ihyā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, 1404 A.H.

Ibn Athīr, Mubārak (d. 606 A.H.),Al-Nihāya fī Gharīb al-Hadīth wa al-Athar , Qom, Ismā‘īliyān, 1364 S.H.

Ibn Bakkār, Mu s‘ab (d. 236 A.H.),Nasab Quraysh , Beirut, Dār al-Ma‘rifa, 1953 C.E.

Ibn Ba ttūta, Muhammad (d. 703 A.H.),Al-Rihla , Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiya, 1407 A.H.

Ibn Hajar Asqalānī, A hmad (d. 852 A.H.),Al-Isāba fī Tamyīz al-Sahāba , Beirut, Dār Ihyā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, 1328 A.H.

Ibn Hajar Asqalānī, A hmad (d. 852 A.H.),Tahdhīb al-Tahdhīb , Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiya, 1415 A.H.

Ibn Hajar Haytamī, A hmad (d. 974 A.H.),Sawā‘iq al-Muhriqa , Cairo, Maktabat al-Qāhira, 1385 A.H.

Ibn Hanbal, A hmad (d. 241 A.H.),Al-Musnad , Beirut, Dār al-Fikr, 1412 A.H.

Ibn Hazm, A hmad (d. 456 A.H.),Jumhuratu Ansāb al-‘Arab , Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiya, 1403 A.H.

Ibn Hishām, ‘Abd al-Malik (d. 218 or 213 A.H.),Al-Sīrat al-Nabawiyya , Beirut, Dār Ihyā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, 1969 C.E.

Ibn ‘Imād, ‘Abd al-Hayy b. A hmad (d. 1089 A.H.),Shadhrāt al-Dhahab fī Akhbār min Dhahab , Beirut, Dār Ihyā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, 1994 C.E.

Ibn Jawzī, ‘Abd al-Ra hmān (d. 597 A.H.),Sifat al-Safwa , Beirut, Dār al-Ma‘rifa, 1404 A.H.

Ibn Jawzī, Sib t (d. 654 A.H.),Tadhkirat al-Khawās , Beirut, Mu’assisa Ahl al-Bayt, 1401 A.H.

Ibn Kathīr, Ismā’īl (d. 774 A.H.),Al-Bidāya wa al-Nihāya , Beirut, Maktabat al-Ma‘ārif.

Ibn Khaldūn, ‘Abd al-Ra hmān (d. 808 A.H.),Muqaddima , (translated to Persian by M. Parvīn Gunābādī), Tehran, Intishārāt-e-‘Ilmī Farhangī, 1362 S.H.

Ibn Khaldūn, ‘Abd al-Ra hmān (d. 808 A.H.),Ta’rīkh-i Ibn Khladūn, al-‘Ibar wa Dīvān al-Mubtadā wa al-Khabar , trans. ‘Abd al-Muhammad Āyatī, Tehran, Mu’assisa Mutāli‘āt wa Tahqīqāt-i Farhangī, 1364 S.H.

Ibn Khallakān, A hmad (d. 681 A.H.),Wafiyāt al-A‘yān wa Anbā’ al-Zamān , ed. Ihsān ‘Abbās, Qom, Intishārāt al-Radī, 1364 S.H.

Ibn Khayyā t, Khalīfa (d. 240 A.H.),Ta’rīkh Khalīfa ibn al-Khayyāt, ed. Suhayl Zakkāra, Beirut, Dār al-Fikr, 1414 A.H.

Ibn Khurdādhbih, ‘Ubayd Allāh (d. ca. 300 A.H.),Al-Masālik wa al-Mamālik , Beirut, Dār Ihyā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, 1408 A.H.

Ibn Manzūr, Muhammad (d. 711 A.H.),Lisān al-‘Arab , Beirut, Dār Ihyā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, 1412, A.H.

Ibn Qutayba, ‘Abd Allāh Dīnawarī (d. 276 A.H.),‘Uyūn al-Akhbār , Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘Arabī, 1416 A.H.

Ibn Qutayba, ‘Abd Allāh Dīnawarī (d. 276 A.H.),Al-Imāma wa al-Siyāsa , Cairo, Maktabat al-Halabī, 1388 A.H.

Ibn Qutayba, ‘Abd Allāh Dīnawarī (d. 276 A.H.),Al-Ma‘ārif , Cairo, Dār al-Ma‘rifa, 1388 A.H.

Ibn Qutayba, ‘Abd Allāh Dīnawarī (d. 276 A.H.),Al-Shi‘r wa al-Shu‘arā , Beirut, ‘Ālam al-Kitāb, 1404 A.H.

Ibn Qutayba, ‘Abd Allāh Dīnawarī (d. 276 A.H.),Akhbār al-Tiwāl , ed. ‘Abd al-Mun‘im ‘Āmir, Cairo, Dār Ihyā al-Kutub al-‘Arabiyya, 1960 C.E.

Ibn Rusta, A hmad (d. 3rd century A.H.),Al-A‘lāq al-Nafīsa , (Persian translation) Husayn Qarachānlū, Tehran, Amīr Kabīr, 1365 S.H.

Ibn Sa‘d, Mu hammad (d. 230 A.H.),Tabaqāt al-Kubrā ed. Muhammad ‘Abd al-Qādir ‘Atā, Beirut, Dār al-Sādir, 1418 A.H.

Ibn Shahrāshūb, Mu hammad (d. 588 A.H.),Manāqib Āl Abī Tālib , Qom, Matba‘ al-‘Ilmiyya, 1412 A.H.

Ibn Tiqtaqā, Muhammad (d. 709 A.H.),Al-Fakhrī fī al-Ādāb al-Sultāniya wa al-Duwal al-Islāmiya , Beirut, Dār al-Sadir, 1414 A.H.

Ibn Taghri Birdī, Yūsuf (d. 874 A.H.),Al-Nujūm al-Zāhira fī Mulūk Misr wa al-Qāhira , Cairo, Wizāra al-Thiqāfa wa al-Irshād al-Qawmī, 1929 C.E.

Ibn Tāwūs, ‘Alī (d. 664 A.H.),Al-Luhūf fī Qatli al-Tufūf , Najaf, Haydariya, 1385 A.H.

Ibn Wirdī, ‘Umar (d. 749 A.H.),Tatammat al-Mukhtasar (Ta’rīkh Ibn al-Wardī ), Najaf, Haydariyya, 1389 A.H.

‘Imrānī, Mu hammad (d. 1184 C.E.),Al-Anbā’ fī Ta’rīkh al-Khulafā , ed. Taqī Bīnish, Mashhad, Dānishgāh, 1363 S.H.

I stakhrī, Ibrāhīm (d. after 340 A.H.),Masālik al-Mamālik , Qom, Sadr Library Publication, 1368 S.H.

Jā hiz, ‘Amr (d. 255 A.H.),Al-Tāj fī Akhlāq al-Mulūk , Beirut, al-Sharikah al-Lubnānīyah lil-Kitāb, 1970 C.E.

Kha tīb Baghdādī, Ahmad (d. 463 A.H.),Ta’rīkh Baghdad (or,Madīnat al-Salām ), ed. Mustafā ‘Abd al-Qādir ‘Atā‘, Ahmad, Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiya, 1417 A.H.

Khwārizmī, Muwwafaq (d. 568 A.H.),Maqtal al-Husayn , ed. Muhammad Samāwī, Qom, Anwār al-Hudā, 1418 A.H.

Khwānd Mīr, Ghiyāth al-Dīn (d. 942 A.H.),Habīb al-Siyar , Tehran, Khayyām, 1353 S.H.

Majlisī, Mu hammad Bāqir (d. 1111 A.H.),Bihār al-Anwār , Beirut, Mu’assisa al-Wafā’, 1403 A.H.

Maqdisī, Mu tahhar (d. 355 A.H.),Al-Bad’ wa al-Ta’rīkh , Baghdad, Muthannā, 1899 C.E.

Mas‘ūdī, ‘Alī (d. 346 A.H.),Murūj al-Dhahab , Qom, Dār al-Hijra, 1404 A.H.

Mas‘ūdī, ‘Alī (d. 346 A.H.),Al-Tanbīh wa al-Ishrāf , Cairo, Dār al-Sāwī, 1938 C.E.

Miskawayh al-Rāzī, Abū ‘Alī (d. 421 A.H.),Tajārub al-Umam , ed. Abū al-Qāsim Imāmī, Tehran, Dar-e Surūsh, 1366 S.H.

Mubarrad, Mu hammad (d. 286 A.H.),Kāmil , Cairo, Matba‘at al-‘Āmira, 1286 A.H.

Mufīd, Mu hammad (d. 413 A.H.),Al-Irshād , Beirut, Mu’assisa al-‘Ālami, 1399 A.H.

Muqarram, ‘Abd al-Razzāq (d. 1391 A.H.),Maqtal al-Husain , Beirut, Mu‘assisa al-Nūr li al-Matbū‘āt, 1423 A.H.

Nawawī, Ya hyā (d. 676 A.H.),Tahdhīb al-Asmā’ wa al-Lughāt , Cairo, Idara al-Tiba`al-Munīriyya, 1927 C.E.

Nuwayrī, A hmad (d. 6th century A.H.),Nahāyat al-Irab fī Funūn al-Adab , (Persian translation) Dāmqānī, Tehran, Amīr Kabīr, 1363 S.H.

Philip Hitti (d. 1978 C.E.),Ta’rīkh al-‘Arab (Persian translation by Abū al-Ghāsim Pāyandeh) Tehran, Intishārāt-e-Sīnā, 1351 S.H.

Philip Hitti (d. 1978 C.E.),Ta’rīkh al-Duwal al-Islāmiyya , Cairo, Dārul-Ma‘ārif, 1389 A.H.

Qurayshī Baqir Sharīf,Hayāt al-Imām Mūsā b. Ja‘far (‘a), Najaf, Matba‘at al-Ādāb, 1389 A.H.

Qazwīnī, ‘Abd al-Karīm (d. 623 A.H.),Al-Misbāh al-Munīr , Beirut, Maktabat al-Lubnān, 1987 C.E.

Q ummī,‘ Abbās (d. 1359 A.H.),Safīna al-Bihār , Qom, Dārul Uswa, 1416 A.H.

Q ummī,‘ Abbās (d. 1359 A.H.),Tatimma al-Muntahā , Qom, Dāwarī Publication, 1409 A.H.

Safwat, Zakī Ahmad,Jumhuratu Rasā’il al-‘Arab fī ‘Usūr al-‘Arabiyyat al-Zāhira , Beirut, Al-Maktaba al-‘Ilmiyya, 1985 C.E.

Samhūdī, ‘Alī (d. 911 A.H.),Wafā al-Wafā’ bi Akhbār Dār al-Mustafā , ed. Muhammad Muhyī al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Hamīd, Beirut, Dār al-Ihyā’ al-Turāth al-‘Arabī, 1374, A.H.

Sayyid Qu tb (d. 1966 C.E.),Fī Zalāl al-Qur'ān , Beirut, Dār al-Shurūq, 1402 A.H.

Shabrāwī, ‘Abd Allāh, (d. 1172 A.H.),Al-Ittahāf bi Hubb al-Ashrāf , Qom, Manshūrāt al-Rādī, 1363 S.H.

Shawqī Dayf (d. 1932 C.E.),Ta’rīkh al-Adab al-‘Arabī , Cairo, Dār al-Ma‘ārīf, 1975 C.E.

Suyu tī, Jalāl al-Dīn (d. 911 A.H.),Ta’rīkh al-Khulafā , Qom, Intishārāt al-Radī, 1411 A.H.

Suwaydī, Mu hammad Amīn (d. 1246 A.H.),Subā’ik al-Dhahab , Beirut, Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiya, 1409 A.H.

Tabarī, Mu hammad (d. 310 A.H.),Ta’rīkh al-Umam wa al-Mulūk (Ta’rīkh-i Tabarī) , ed. A Group of Scholars, Cairo, 1358 A.H.

Turayhī, Fakhr al-Dīn (d. 1058 A.H.),Majma‘ al-Bahrayn , Tehran, Daftar-i Nashr-i Farhang-i Islāmī, 1408 A.H.

Tūsī, Muhammad ibn al-Hasan (d. 460 A.H.),Al -Amālī , Najaf, Matba‘a al-Nu‘mān, 1386 A.H.

Ya‘qūbī, A hmad (d. 292 A.H.),Ta’rīkh al-Ya‘qūbī , Beirut, Dār al-Sādir, 1995 C.E.

Yafi‘ī, Abd Allāh (d. 768 A.H.),Mir’āt al-Jinān , Beirut, Mu’assisa al-A‘lamī li al-Matbū‘āt, 1390 A.H.

Zirkilī, Khayr al-Dīn,Al-A‘lām , Beirut, Dār al-Malā’yīn, 1998 C.E.

Zubaydī, Mu hammad (d. 379 A.H.),Tāj al-‘Arūs, Cairo, Khayriya, 1360 A.H.

Zubayrī, Mu s‘ab (d. 236 A.H.),Nasab-i Quraysh , ed. Lévie Provençal, Beirut, Dār al-Ma‘ārif, 1953 C.E.

Notes