Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Alhassanain (p) Network for Islamic Heritage and Thought

The Savior in Islam

Mansour Pahlavan

Associate Professor of University of Tehran

Naba Cultural

www.alhassanain.org/english

The Savior in Islam

Author: Mansour Pahlavan

No. of Copies: 1000/ First Edition

Publisher: Naba Cultural Organization, Tehran, Iran

Address: P. O. Box: 15655/377 Tehran, Iran

E-Mail: info@nabacultural.org

Site: www.nabacultural.org

ISBN: 964-8323-52-6

In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful

Table of Contents

Foreword 5

Preface 6

The Good News 7

The Birth 10

The Minor Occultation 13

The Major Occultation 16

The Shia During The Imam's Occultation 18

Bibliography 20

Notes 21

Foreword

At the heart of every religion, there is a belief in the savior, the Rescuer of human communities. Such a belief is commonly accepted among the major religious doctrines. All the people believe that one day the Savior will come and rid the world of all evil.

The only difference among the religions, regarding this particular belief, is in the identity of the Savior. He has been introduced as a different person in every religion, and in the religion of Islam, with which we are currently concerned; he is non but Imam Mahdi (p.b.u.h.), who will one day emerge as the Savior of mankind.

It is on the day of salvation that he will bring east and west of the world to justice, and by his powerful hand annihilate demons, infidelity, and disbelieving on that day, the authority of the Last Luminous Jewel of Allah will be established on the face of earth. It is he who will decide the end of the long struggle between truth and falsehood. His appearance will mean a victory for truth and the annihilation of falsehood.

He is the same person who, by the will of Allah, will overpower fragile doctrines, and will pursue and accomplish the objectives of the Last Prophet, Muhammad (p.b.u.h.).

He will remove ignorance and discriminations from the world, and will establish equality instead; he will exploit the earth's resource, distribute them among the poor and make them wealthy and happy.

The outburst of enthusiasm and happiness will at that time cause tears to flow down the cheeks, and the happy and mournful eyes of the awaiting people will be filled with light.

Belief in the Savior is the most genuine and fundamental Islamic beliefs, which even a person with limited knowledge of Islam will surly accepted. Since it is necessary for every Muslim to know Imam Mahdi (p.b.u.h.), it has been endeavored here to study a short history of this fundamental belief and present an introduction to the life of Imam Mahdi. Let us hope that he would accept this meager collection as a humble gift.

Preface

The magnificent and auspicious celebration of the fifteenth of Sha'ban can be observed every where.

Every place has been decorated.

In every place joyful and cheerful gathering can be seen.

The enthusiasm and happiness of the Shi'ite on this auspicious day is apparent every where.

Indeed, what day is revered like this day by people with such elation and glory?

The fifteenth of Sha'ban is the day in which the shi'ites saw the fulfillment of the glad tiding of the divine messengers.

It is the day in which the good news of Islam, the Quran and the traditions (ahadith ) of the infallible Imams will take place.

It is on his birthday that he will bring the east and west of the world to justice, and by his powerful hand annihilate demons ('ifrit ), infidelity and irreligiousness.

On this day, the authority of the last Luminous Jewel of Allah will be established on the face of earth. He it is who will decide the end of the long struggle between truth and falsehood. His appearance will mean a victory for truth and the annihilation of falsehood.

He is the same person who, by the will of Allah, will overpower fragile doctrines, and will pursue and accomplish the objectives of the Last Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.)1

He will remove ignorance and class-dis-crimination from the world and will establish equality instead; he will exploit the earth's resources, distribute them among the poor and make them sufficient.

The outburst of enthusiasm and happiness will at that time cause tears to flow down the cheeks of enthusiasts, and the lustrous and mournful eyes of the awaiting people will be filled with light.

Mahdism is the most genuine and fundamental Islamic beliefs, which even a person with a limited knowledge of Islam will surely accept.

Since it is obligatory for every Muslim to know the "Leader of the Age" - Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi (a.s.)2 , it has been endeavored here - though in brief - to study the short history of this fundamental belief and present introduction to the life ofHujjat-e haqq (The Rightful Proof [of Allah]). We hope this meager "collection", as a humble gift, will be accepted by the "Solomon of the Age".

The Good News

There is no doubt that the holy Qur'an is the Book of Allah, and that all the Muslims of the world accept and obey its teachings and instructions.

When one opens this Book (Qur'an) and casts a glance at its verses, one will come to what seems to be a clear vista of the extraordinary, sensational and exciting future and end of the universe.

The holy Quran says that the ultimate mission of the holy Prophet of Islam is to make this holy religion prevail over all other religions of the world; and one day this holy aspiration will finally be fulfilled, as the holy Quran says:

He it is who has sent his messenger (Muhammad) with the guidance and the Religion of Truth, that He may cause it to prevail over all religions, however much the idolaters may be averse. 3

The divine book of the last Messenger of Allah gives the glad tiding that rule over the earth shall finally belong to the righteous and virtuous servant of All.0ah:

The earth is Allah's. He gives it for an inheritance to which He will. And lo! The sequel is for those who keep their duty (unto Him). 4

The earth, which will be full of corruption, destruction and ignorance like a lifeless body, will be revived with the glowing light of justice, as referred to in the holy Quran.5

We also read in the holy Quran:

Allah has promised such of you as believe and do good works that He will surely make them succeed (the present rulers) in the earth even as he caused those who were before them to succeed (others) and that He will surely establish for them religion which he has approved for them, and will give them in exchange safety after their fear. They serve Me. They ascribe no thing as partner unto Me. 6

The Almighty Allah also says:

Fain would they put out the light of Allah with their mouth, but Allah will perfect His light however much the disbelievers are averse. 7

These are some short examples of the divine glad tidings mentioned in the holy Quran. By studying these and tens of other similar matters, it shall be perceived that the Islamic message will reach its complete fulfillment when these holy aspirations and desires have taken place. All fabricated and superstitious objectives will disappear, and then only Islam, the unique and true religion, will be the faith of the people in the east and west of the world. Injustice, oppression, and inequality shall vanish and instead justice and equality which is the law of the creation of the world will be established everywhere. The sovereignty of the divine caliphs will be established in all the corners of the world. The light of the guidance of Allah will shine and the earth be long to the virtuous ones.

Yes, the holy Quran gives the good news that a day will come when all Muslims of the world shall wait enthusiastically for such a time.

***

Neat to the holy Quran, the words of the holy Prophet and the honorable Imams are the most important and worthiest treasure of Islamic knowledge. For every Muslim, it is obligatory and essential to follow and obey the sayings of the holy Prophet and the holy Imams since obeying their commands is particularly and clearly mentioned in the Book of Allah.8

In the sea of Jewels of Islamic traditions, glad tidings on the Government of Justice can be seen. Moreover, especial mention has been made regarding the "Divine Revolution" and the divine leader who will fulfill this holy aspiration.

The holy Prophet of Islam said:

"Even when the entire duration of the world's existence has already been exhausted, and one solitary day is left to embrace the eve of Doomsday, Allah will expand that day and make it swell to such a length of time as to accommodate the ultimate reign of a person out of my holy progeny who will be called by my name and my agnomen ('Abu' l-Qasim). He will then make the earth abound with peace and justice as it will have been fraught with injustice and tyranny before him. "9

The context of this precious tradition reveals definite good news more than anything else, and informs the people of the Government of Justice, Achievement and Divine Promises as mentioned in most of the Shi 'ite and Sunnite sources.

In another tradition, the Holy Prophet told Amir al-mu'minin 'Ali (a.s.):

"There will be twelve Guides after me ,the first of who are you, Ali, and the last one will be Qa'em, who by Almighty Allah's grace, will gain victory over the whole of the east and west of the world. "10

The purified Imams reminded people, in several traditions, of the significance of the Divine Promise and Government of the twelfth Imam, and told them that waiting for the Great Savior is the most valuable deed, and that his followers and devotees are the best and the beloved people.

It will suffice here to quote a few of these traditions:

1) When Imam Hasan Mujtaba (a.s.) held the seat of the caliphate, he fought the hypocrite Mu 'awiyah, who, with the assistance of his cunning minister, gradually deceived the companions of Imam Hasan (a.s.); and left the Imam alone. Hence, he was compelled to make a peace treaty with Mu 'awiyah in which he (Mu 'awiyah) was obliged to comply with some duties and to refrain from appointing a successor and fighting.

On some occasions, the Imam took the opportunity to point out to the people the Mu 'awiyah's errors and unjust acts. Meanwhile, some of ignorant people started criticizing the Imam that why he had accepted the peace treaty! Imam Hasan (a.s.) clarified for the people the meaning of the Imam and the leader, and the necessity of obeying every command of the Imam.

Then he explained about the Government of the twelfth Imam:

"Don't you know that every one of us (Imams) has the responsibility of giving allegiance to the oppressors of his time, except the Qa'em, behind whom the Spirit of Allah (Jesus) will pray; Almighty Allah will keep secret his birth from some people and will conceal him from their sights? When he appears he will not be responsible to obey anyone. He is the ninth descendant of my brother Husain, the son of the captive princess. Almighty Allah will prolong his age during his occultation, and by His Perfect Power, h will appear as a young man of less than forty years so that all people will know that Allah truly has power over all things. "11

2) Imam Jafar Sadiq (a.s.) in reply to a question of his followers about his successors, said:

"The Imam succeeding me is my son Musa, and the Awaited Imam is Muhammad ibn Hasan ibn 'Ali ibn Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn Musa. "12

The same Imam is quoted as having said repeatedly that:

"Every group of people is waiting for a government, and we are waiting for our Government to be established at the End of the Time. "13

3) The seventh holy Imam Musa ibn Jafar (a.s.) in a reply to one of his companions who asked him whether he was "Qaem bi'l-Haqq ", said:

"I am Qaem bi'l-Haqq, but that "Qaem" who will remove Allah's enemies from the earth, and will fill it with justice and equity is my fifth descendant. Since he will fear for his own life, he will be in occultation for a long time during which a group of people will apostate, but there will also be a group who will be firm in their belief. "

He added: "Blessed are our followers (the Shi 'ites) who, during the time of occultation of the Imam of the Age, identify themselves with our Authority (Wilayah) and keep away from our enemies. They belong to us and we belong to them. They have accepted our leadership and we are pleased with their adherence. Therefore, blessed are they. I swear Allah that they will be with us, in our rank, in Paradise. "14

4) Finally, the Eleventh Imam, Hasan Askari (a.s.) said:

"I see that after me difference will appear among you concerning the next Imam. Whoever accepts the Imams after the Prophet of Allah but denies my son is like a person who accepts all the prophets but denies Muhammad (p.b.u.h.), the Prophet of Allah. And whoever denies (Muhammad) the Prophet of Allah is like one who has denied all the prophets of Allah. For to obey the last of us is like obeying the first, and to deny the last of us is like denying the first. But beware! Verily, for my son there will be an occultation during which all people will fall into doubt except those whom Allah protects. "15

The available traditions from the holy Prophet and the infallible Imams are so many in number as to make us well-informed on this important principle of faith. One can say that the most important, and the highest recorded number, of traditions are on the subject of Imamology (Imamate ) in the Shi 'ite books of traditions.

The subject of the leadership of the twelfth Imam, his Government, and other related maters, comes next to the subject of the successorship of Imam 'Ali, Amir al-mu'minin (a.s.). There are hundreds of traditions recorded both in the Shi 'ite and Sunnite books.16 A large number of religious scholars from all Islamic sects have independently compiled books on this subject.17

***

The years of Imams', Islamic leadership passed one after another along with tyranny of the rulers contemporary with them, till the leadership of Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) came. This holy Imam lived in a difficult circumstance, appearing less frequently in the public gatherings. His beloved son who is the last Divine Proof, was hidden from the sight of strangers till the year 260 A.H., when the rays of his being set, while the eyes of all people were fixed at the door of Imam Mahdi (a.s.).

The Birth

At dawn, on the 15 th sha 'ban 255 A.H., the rays of the illuminating world shone with a powerful shaft of light in to a human form which became the source of existence for the universe.

Yes, finally, the Divine Promise was fulfilled and Imam Mahdi (a.s.) was born in spite of the efforts of those who denied him.

It is one of history's miracles that the Umayyids, 'Abbasids, and other opponents of this holy Imam attempted to extinguish this divine light but met complete failure.

The cruel and tyrannical Abbasid caliphs had heard that the twelfth Imam of the Shi 'ites would establish a just Government and would rule over the east and west of the world, and would destroy the foundations of injustice. Therefore, to counter this event, they tortured and shed the blood of the Shi 'ites. The history of the martyred Shi 'ites can be referred in the books on this subject.18

In the year 235 A.H., Mutawakkil, the 'Abbasid caliph, ordered the tenth Imam of Shia, Muhammad Hadi (a.s.) and his family to move from Medina to Samarra, his seat of government, so that he could keep a close watch on the Imam of the Shi 'ites.19

Similarly, Mu 'tamid, the 'Abbasid caliph, the Pharaoh of the time, was afraid of the son of Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.). He formed a group of detectives and midwives who had the mission of searching through the houses of Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.), so that if a newly-born child were found, he could be killed immediately.20

The search to find and kill Imam Mahdi (a.s.) was intensified when Imam Hasan 'Askari (a.s.) left this world for the eternal one. It is because everyone knew that on that day the command of Divine Leadership (Imamate ) was to be entrusted to the twelfth Imam, and the universe would come under his authority.

Shaikh Saduq, the eminent scholar of the Shi 'ite world, writes inKamalu'd-din :

"When the holy body of Imam Hasan 'Askari (a.s.) was buried and the people went away, the caliph and his staff started their efforts to search for his son and inspected the houses carefully. "21

Shaikh Mofid, a distinguished Shi 'ite scholar, also wrote inIrshad :

"When Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) passed away, the caliph of that time, pursued his son because the Shi 'ite Imamiyyah's belief was famous, and they knew that the Shias were waiting his eminence. "22

Mu 'tazid, one of the tyrant 'Abbasid caliphs who ruled from 279 to 289 A.H., decided, all at once, to destroy the entire family of 'Askari when he heard that more than twenty years had passed since the birth of the son of Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) and that he was living in spite of the attempts of the preceding caliph to kill him.

One of Mu 'tazid's officers said:

"Mu 'tazid has ordered me and two other persons, each of us to mount a horse and to proceed to Samarra' in full speed, without even stopping for prayer. He gave us the address of (Imam) Askari and instructed us to enter his

house without permission, and to bring him the head of whoever we find there."23

As a matter of fact, they were unaware that the same power which had protected the Imam from the former caliphs would give him protection from his evil, because:

Allah disdains (nothing) save that he shall perfect His light, however much the disbelievers are averse. 24

Indeed what an immature thought and foolish act it was! If the Divine Will bears on some matter can a person revolt against it and combat it? Is it possible that definite Divine promises my not be accomplished? Or is it possible that the reins of oppressive imposters who fight against the Divine decree will not cut?

Is it not more amazing that peerless, Almighty Allah has shown His power many times before, so that after that all men should know that if He wishes to give His chosen servant government and sovereignty and to abolish infidelity and polytheism through him, then no one who can disrupt His will.

Fortunately, this sensational story is mentioned in the holy Quran.

Pharaoh, the great emperor of Egypt, who had great power and pride, claimed divinity for himself. He determined to kill all the youth and boy children of Isra'el, as a result of what he had heard about a son being born who would destroy his empire and divinity.

He shed the blood of innocents, and banished many persons to unknown regions; but sees how Almighty Allah restored His Prophet and how the Divine Will worked to protect the life of Moses and destroy Pharaoh:

And We revealed to the mother of Mūsā, saying, "Give him suck; and if you fear for him, launch on the river; and fear not, nor grieve; for We will return him to you and make him one of the Messengers." And took him up Pharaoh's people, that he might be to them an enemy and a (cause of their) grief, (for) Verily Pharaoh and Hāmān and their hosts were sinners…So we did restore him to his mother that her age might be refreshed and that she might know that the promise of Allah is (always) true, but most of them know not. 25

Allah will protect His Proof (Hujjat ) and will fulfill His promises and glad tidings because His decision is based on its execution, although most people do not know it.

Would Allah wish to save the life of Prophet Mūsā (a.s.), who was only a messenger to a certain nation and tribe, and yield the Imam Mahdi (Imam-e Zaman ) into the hands of Mu 'tamid and Mu 'tazid?

Wuld Allah protect the life of Mūsā (a.s.) while he was in the middle of the roaring waves of a river, and give no security to the Imam of Age who was in the house of his father, Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.)?

Would he sustaining Allah of the Prophet Abraham (whose story is mentioned in the Quran)26 protect him in the middle of the flaming fire, but allow the Last Pearl of the Prophet's progeny to be a victim of the lust and anger of the 'Abbasid caliphs?

Really, how to false thinkers and feebleminded people judge?

***

At dawn, on the middle day of Sha 'ban in the year 255 A.H., Imam Askari (a.s.) beheld the heavenly, shining face of his son who was to fulfill all Divine promises and glad tidings.

Not more than three days had passed after his birth when the eleventh Imam took the holy child to his companions and told them:

"After me this will be your master of authority and my successor, and he is the 'Support' (Qaim) for whose appearance all people will wait; when the earth is full of injustice and tyranny, he will fill it with peace and justice. "2 7

At the time of his son's birth, the eleventh Imam told some of his companions:

"Oppressors were plotting to kill me so that my son would not be born, but now see how great is the power of the All-powerful God. "28

Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.), ordered ten thousand pounds (10000 lbs.) of bread and meet to be distributed among the Hashemid to mark the happy and auspicious birthday. 'Othman ibn Sa 'id was charged with this important work and he undertook in the best way.29

From the very beginning, Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) hide his son from stangers.

Shaikh Mofid has given the story from below:

"Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) prepared a true government for his son. He Kept secret the birth of his son and other related matters, because his eminence was living in difficult time when the caliphs were intensively searching for his son and were keeping a close eye on the affairs of Imam Askari. This is because the Shia belief about Imam Mahdi (a.s.) had become so current that they were waiting for his eminence. Hence, Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) did not show his son, and, therefore, the enemies could not recognize Imam Mahdi (a.s.) after the demise of his father. "30

Although the affairs of Imam Mahdi (a.s.) were unknown to his enemies and opponents, the sincere Shia gathered the news of this important event.

Some of them were informed by Imam Askari (a.s.) though letters. One of the sincere Shias Ahamad ibn Is'haq, recived a letter from the Imam written in his own handwriting, was saying:

"…my son is born. Therefore, keep secret the news of it from people, and inform only your near relatives and particular friends… "31

Some of the Shi 'ites used to pay private visits to Imam Askari (a.s.) who would take them to the presence of the Imam Mahdi (a.s.).

Abu Amri Ahwazi reported:

"Abu Muhammad (Imam Hasan Askari) showed me his son (the twelfth Imam) and told

me, 'this is your Master (Sahib)."32

Some other Shi 'ites used to visit Imam Askari (a.s.) in a group, and if the Imam trusted in them that they would faithfully keep their visit secret, he would show them his beloved son.

Mu 'awiyah ibn Hkim, Muhammad ibn Ayyub and Muhammad ibn 'Uthman Amri has narrated that:

"We were forty persons who gathered at the house of Imam Hasan, and then he showed us his son and said, 'this is your Imam and my successor! You should obey him after me and should not oppose him lest you perish. "33

Anyhow, from the time of the birth of twelfth "moon" till his Imamate, the Shi 'ites used to go to the eleventh Imam and congratulate him.

Hasan ibn Hasan Alawi has said:

"I went to see Imam Hasan (Askari) in Samarra' and congratulated him on the birth of his son. "34

And 'Abdullah ibn 'Abbas Alawi also said:

"I visited Imam Askari (a.s.) in Samarra' and congratulate him on the birth of his son. "35

In this manner was the Imam of the Age (Imam-e Zaman) born and kept hidden from the reach of strangers. On some occasions only the virtuous Shi 'ites were allowed to see him, until the year 260 A.h., when the eleventh Imam expired, and by Divine decree the office of Divine Leadership (Imamate) vested in the Master of the Authority (Sahibu'l-Amr).

The Minor Occultation

When Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) died, the office of Divine leadership (Imamate ) was transferred to the Last Luminous, Pearl of the Household of the holy Prophet, Imam Mahdi (a.s.). Although eminence did not appear amongst the people, some persons, in whom he had trust and confidence, were allowed to visit him and present him the problems and questions of the Shi 'ites. And they communicated to people the guidance of the Imam.

With regards to faith, confidence, and virtue, they were distinguished persons among the Muslims. They were mediators between the Imam and the people. And in due time they conveyed his guidance to the people.

By studying the character and perception of the belief and piety of those individuals, not only the greatness of their personalities becomes clear to us, but we become more familiar with the Imam of the Age, because, among the sayings of these distinguished, trustworthy and reliable companions of the holy Imams, one finds the signs of the greatness of Imam Mahdi.

Among the companions ofImam-e Zaman , four became his most confidential deputies who acted as mediators between the Imam and people, and they are known as theNowwab arba 'ah (the four deputies).

In order to know more about the dignity and greatness of their positions, we give below a brief description of each one of them:

1) 'Othman ibn Saeid Amri:

This honorable figure was not only a deputy ofImam-e Zaman , but he was also a representative (wakil ) of Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.). he setteled and organized many affairs of the Shi 'ites. The tenth Imam (Hadi -a.s.) said to his followers regarding him:

"Abu Amri is a reliable and trustworthy person. Whatever he says to you he says so on my behalf, and whatever he does on my behalf." 36

This representation continued till 254 A.H. when Imam Hadi (a.s.) died. Then, the eleventh Imam is reported to have praised the character of Abu Amri as having his high esteem in his address to his Shi 'ites, saying:

"This Abu Amri is a reliable and trustworthy person. He had the confidence of the preceding Imam, and has also my confidence in my lifetime and after my death. Whatever he says to you, is on my behalf, and whatever he does he does on my behalf. "37

Likewise, with this certificate of admiration, he became the deputy of the twelfth Imam after the demise of Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.).

On the death of Abu Amri, the Imam Mahdi (Sahibu'z-Zaman) sent condolences to his son, Muhammad ibn Othman saying:

"Verily we belong to Allah and to Him shall we return. We submit to his command and are pleased with His decree. Your father has lived in good fortune and has died with dignity. May Allah's mercy be upon him, he has joined his friends and masters. He was always endeavouring to search for whatever would bring him near to Allah and His friends. May Allah strengthen his countenance. "38

2) Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Othman:

This man was the second special deputy ofImam-e Zaman. He was also a deputy of the eleventh Imam, about whom the letter said:

"The greatness of his dignity and the exaltation of his status among the Shi 'ites is so famous that there is no need to explain or dispute it. "39

Regarding him and his father, 'Othman ibn Saeid, Imam Hasan Askari (a.s.) said to one of his companions:

"Amri and his son are both trustworthy. Whatever they do they do on my behalf, and whatever they say to you, the say so on my behalf. Therefore, listen to their words and obey them, because both of them are reliable and trustworthy to us. "40

AndImam-e Zaman himself said about him:

"He is my confident, and his letter is of the same value as mine. "41

3) Abu'l- Qasim Husain ibn Rouh Nawbakhti:

Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Othman, the second deputy ofImam-e Zaman , said about him:

"This Husain ibn Rouh ibn Abu Bahr Nawbakhti is my successor. He is a reliable and trustworthy envoy and deputy between you and the Sahibu'l-Amr (the master of the Authority). Therefore, in your affairs and important tasks refer to him and trust him. I was given this task; and I have announced it. "42

Shaikh Toosi (may Allah's mercy be upon him) said about him:

"Abu'l-Qasim Husain ibn Rouh was regarded by his friends and opponents, as the most learned man among the people. "43

The integrity of Husain ibn Rouh's deputyship was acknowledged by his opponents too. Shalmaghni, who was one of the pseudo-claimants to the deputyship, had to confess his falsity whenImam-e Zaman ordered Husain ibn Rouh to expose him. He (Shalmaghani) said:

"it is not right between me and Allah to say anything in the affair of Husain ibn Rouh other than the trust. Although his crime towards me is a big one, yet this man was appointed by Imam-e Zaman for the task. The Shia should not turn away from him. "44

4) Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali ibn Muhammad Simmori:

This honorable person was the last especial deputy of the holyImam-e Zaman. His death, concided with the 15 th of Sha 'abn 329 A.H.

Husain ibn Rouh had introduced him as the deputy of the Imam. The last letter ofImam-e Zaman to the four especial deputies was addressed to his honorable man. In this order the Imam announced the death of 'Ali ibn Muhammad ' and the end of the deputation:

"In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. You are going to die in six days, May Allah grant patience to your brothers in faith on your departure. So, be prepared, but appoint no one in your place, because from the day of your death the period of my major occultation (ghaybatu'l-kubra) will begin. Henceforth; no one will see me, unless and until Allah makes me appear. My reappearance will take place after a very long time when people will have grown tired of waiting and those who weak in their faith will say: 'What! Is he still alive?' When men will become cruel and inconsiderate, and the world will be full of injustice and violence. Very soon some men will claim to have seen me. Beware! Anyone who makes such a claim before the coming out of Sofyani and the heaven sound is a liar and an imposter. There is neither might nor strength except of Allah, the Magnificent. "45

As can be seen from this, it is the last order, in which the door of special deputation is closed by the death of 'Ali ibn Muhammad; hence, anyone who claims to be a mediator, or claims that the Imam can be seen, is a liar. In the period of the major occultation no-one has made the claim that he has been in the presence of the holyImam-e Zaman.

The people would not accept the deputation of the four special deputies unless they had been shown the miracles of theSahib'l-Amr to verify their trustfulness and accuracy, although they acknowledged them as reliable and trustworthy and had not the smallest doubt in their piety, faith, and knowledge.46

The special deputies presented the problems and questions of the Shia scholars, and the Imam answered those that were necessary in letter form, and delivered them through the same deputies.

In these letters, the most important and difficult problems on different subjects were cleared up.

One of those problems was a question as to what would be the responsibility of the Shi'ites who would be faced with new events during the period of occultation, and what should they do to face them?

In the letter issued byImam-e Zaman to the celebrated and distinguished Shia, Is'haq ibn Ya'qub, he recounted duties, methods, and guidance for the Shi'ites in the period of occultation. This direction was carried out for many centuries, and it is one of the proofs of the comprehensiveness ands eternity of Islamic rule.

In one of the letters toImam-e Zaman which he sent through the second special deputy of the Imam, Is'haq ibn Ya'qub asked him some different questions, among which was a question which is the subject of our discussion. The Imam said that in such new affairs one must refer to those who really understand their (Imams') traditions and have truly related them:

"But as for the problems which will occur in the future, you should refer to the narrators of our traditions for their verdicts, as they are my proofs on you, and I am Allah's proof (Hujjatu'llah ) on them."47

Other letters of Imam Mahdi (a.s.) were issued during the minor occultation (ghaybatul sughra ), each one of them solved difficulties and gave instruction in the boundless sea of wisdom. All these letters were conveyed through the holy Imam's special deputy to the desirous seekers.

Yes, the four deputies, who were at the highest level of faith and confidence for many years, were the blessed mediators between the Imam and the people till in the year 329 A.H. when this deputation was closed, and on the basis of the Divine Will, the major occultation ofImam-e Zaman commenced. This was the very occultation which was prophesied a long time before by the holy Prophet and the Shia Imams; and Muslims keep patient in this period of test, till by the order of Almighty Allah, the Awaited Imam will appear and the Divine Aim will reach its fulfillment.

The Major Occultation

After the year 329 A.H., when the major occultation commenced, the special deputation ofImam-e Zaman terminated. If any body claims during the major occultation to be a mediator and a deputy, then, according to the declaration ofImam-e Zaman , that claimer is a liar.

In the holy Imams' traditions, the purpose of the Imam's going into occultation is compared to the sun being behind the clouds yet being the source of vitality and life for living creatures. Likewise, while the Imam is behind the curtain of occultation, he is still a source of the existence and remaining of the world.48

During the major occultation, many people have visited Imam Mahdi (a.s.), but non of them have claimed to be able to see him again or to represent him; because only the four special deputies (Nawwab khass ) of the Imam had the honor of meeting the holy Imam whenever they wished.

Some of the names of these fortunate persons who have had the honor of meeting the Imam are mentioned in the authentic books.49

Among these personalities are -'Allamah Hilli - a famous scholar and a rhetorician of the Islamic world; Muqaddas Ardibili - the most pious person and most acknowledgeable jurist of his time; Seyed ibn Tawus - a pious and a virtuous narrator; seyed Bahru'l-Olum - a distinguished scholar; and other great and notable figures in Islam.

They saw the "sun" (Imam) with their own eyes, and their hearts were filled with the faith ofImamu'l-'Asr (the Imam of the time), and with sympathetic explanations they informed others about their meeting with him.

As an example, we can examine part of the will of Seyed ibn Tawus which he wrote to his son in the year 650 A.H. in this own words he explained to his son, implying the truth of the matter without claiming to have perceived him:

"O' my son! If success in discovering the truth and mysteries has been granted to you, then I will inform you regarding Imam Mahdi (a.s.) in such away that you will never have any doubt, and you will not need intellectual proofs and recorded traditions; because His Eminence is certainly alive and exists, and as long as Merciful Allah does not allow him to plan events, he is excused from revealing and declaring his workings. And this matter is not exclusively to him, but was usual among many prophets and their successors. Then you must know with confidence and consider it as your faith and creed. And know that the insight of your father into His Eminence is brighter than his knowledge of the world ."50

The honor of seeingImam-e Zaman was not exclusive to some special Shi 'ites scholars only, but many devout and common people have also had this honor. We are completely amazed when we see people who at one time used to commit sinful and indecent acts, but who after their repentance, and after having their hearts filled with love forImam-e Zaman , also jad an opportunity to meet him, and among them were our Sunni brothers. One of the Sunni brothers was Hasan Iraqi who lived a life of immorality when he was young. One day, he suddenly awoke from the slumber of heedlessness and asked himself, "Was I created to commit evil deeds?" Then he left the immoral place he was in and went directly to the mosque. By chance, a preacher there was speaking about Imam Mahdi (a.s.). 'Iraqi's fully disturbed soul turned into a heart flaming with enthusiastic love of the Imam. Henceforth, he invoked Allah after every prayer to give him the opportunity to see the Living Imam (Baqiyyatu'llah ). Finally, his requests were answered and within seven days and nights he learned the path of salvation in his presence.

Thereafter, he became known as one of the great scholars of Islam. 'Abu'l-Wahhab Sha'rani, one of the great Sunni scholars, and t5he original narrator of this anecdote, used to call him by the title, "My great master Shaikh Iraqi. "51

During the major occultation, letters were issued by His Eminence to individuals and great scholars of Islam. In those letters new difficult problems were solved, and necessary guides were given. Among these letters there was one issued in the year 410 A.H. praising a distinguished scholar of Islam, Muhmmad ibn Muhammad ibn Nu'man, alias Shaikh Mofid.

Shaikh Mofid has enjoyed a special rank for his acknowledge and devoutness and that letter was an acknowledgement of his efforts and worthy services. Even after the passing of many centuries, people still admire him with honor and respect.

The importance of this letter indicates the awareness of the Imam about the mistakes and immoral actions of some of the Shi'ites, and at the same time it gives hope about his existence:

"We are well informed of all your affairs and none of them is hidden from us. We are aware of the problems which have occupied you from the time when you found pleasure and kept committing indecent deeds which your predecessors had avoided. We are aware from the time when your predecessors broke the covenant made with them, as if they knew not about it. We will not neglected or forget you, lest calamity and troubles would fall on you, and enemies have the opportunity to overpower you. Therefore, remember Allah and fear Him. "52

The valuable writings of Imam Mahdi (a.s.) during the major occultation are the most important guidance fro his followers. These writings can be referred to in the authentic Shia books.53

However, we are now passing through a very sensitive period in the major occultation.

In Islamic traditions, when the subject of the occultation of the twelfth Imam is discussed, reference is made to the complex nature of this Divine test. In this Divine test, the sincere and faithful Shias are distinguished from others "and become as pure as pure gold."54

In Islamic traditions, a comparison is made between the sincere faith of the Shias and the faith of a few flowers of the Prophet Nuh (Noah), who remained faithful despite their very difficult test, and by boarding the ark with Prophet Noah, was saved from the Deluge.

Therefore, blessed are those who have passed this Divine test. We hope to be among their rank.

TRADITIONAL, MODERNIST, AND “FUNDAMENTALIST” INTERPRETATIONS OF ISLAM TODAY

All that has been said thus far provides the necessary context and framework for understanding the recent developments in the Islamic world. Until the impact of European colonialism on the heart of the Islamic world, there were those who fought against Western rule in the extremities of the “Abode of Islam,” but there were no Muslim modernists or fundamentalists. Muslims were all traditional and fitted into the complex pattern of the spectrum of Islam outlined above. But with the advent of European domination of the heartland of Islam, represented by the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt in 1798, the period of diverse reactions and interpretations leading to the contemporary period began.

The European encroachment upon the Islamic world had actually begun over two and a half centuries earlier with the Portuguese and later Dutch and British domination of the Indian Ocean, which had been a major economic lifeline for Islamic civilization. There had also been European invasions of North Africa, the decisive defeat of the Ottoman navy in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, which cut the Ottomans off from the western Mediterranean, and the defeat of the Ottomans in their siege of Vienna in 1683, which marked the beginning of the waning of their power. But none of these events, nor the Dutch colonization of the East Indies, nor British penetration into India, moved the minds and souls of Muslims as did the conquest of Egypt. That event awakened Muslims to a challenge without precedence in their history.

The Quran states, “If God aideth you, no one shall overcome you” (3:159). In the eyes of Muslims, twelve centuries of Islamic history had demonstrated the legitimacy of their claim and the truth of their call. God had been “on their side” and aided them over all those centuries, notwithstanding the defeat of Muslims in Spain and the destruction of the Tartar kingdom by the Russians, because these were at the margins of the world of Islam and lack of internal unity was considered as the reason for these defeats.

Otherwise, wherever Islam had gone, it had become victorious; even the powerful Mongols had soon embraced Islam. But these Europeans, whom Muslims had neglected for so long and considered their cultural inferiors, were now dominating the Islamic world and there was no possibility of their accepting Islam as the Turks or Mongols had. They claimed themselves to be superior and were so proud of their own culture that they showed no interest in anything else. This situation created a crisis of cosmic proportions with eschatological overtones.

Several attitudes could have been taken in face of this crisis, and in fact every one of them was adopted by one group or another. One view held that Muslims had become weak because they had strayed from the original message of the faith and had become corrupted by luxury and deviations.

This was the position of the so-called puritanical reformists, of whom the most famous, the eighteenthcentury Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab from Najd, lived in fact before the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt at the end of the

eighteenth century, but whose message sought to respond to causes for Muslim weakness. Although his message remained mostly in Arabia, this type of puritanical reformism, which was usually against Sufism, Shi‘ism, Islamic philosophy and theology, and the refinement of classical Islamic cities as demonstrated in the arts, became known as the Salafiyyah, that is, those who follow the early predecessors, or salaf, disregarding the thirteen or fourteen centuries of development of the Islamic tradition from its Quranic and Prophetic roots.

A second possibility was to turn to eschatologicalhadiths concerning the end of the world, when, it was said, oppression would reign everywhere and Muslims would become weakened and dominated by others. As a result of this focus, a wave of Mahdiism swept across some areas of the Islamic world in the early nineteenth century, ranging from the Brelvi movement in the northwestern province of present-day Pakistan; to the movements of Ghulam Ah.mad and the Bab already mentioned; to uprisings by major figures in West Africa, of whom the most significant, although his career began somewhat earlier, was ‘Uthman Dan Fadio, the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate, whose influence spread even to the Caribbean; to the Mahdiist movement of the Sudan, which inflicted the only defeat on the British army in the nineteenth century. As with every millennialist movement, this Mahdiist wave gradually died down, in this case by the second half of the nineteenth century.

The third possibility was to say, in the manner of European modernists, that the regulations of Islam were for the seventh century and times had changed; therefore religion had to be reformed and modernized. The modernists began in Egypt, the most famous of whom were Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, who was of Persian origin, and Muh.ammad ‘Abduh. They also appeared in Ottoman Turkey, especially within the Young Turk movement; in India, with such figures as Sir Sayyid Ah.mad Khan; and in Persia, which produced several other figures besides al-Afghani, whose effect was, however, more local. These modernists varied in their degree of modernism and approach, but in general they were great admirers of the West and of rationalism, nationalism, and modern science. The most philosophical of all of them was Muh.ammad Iqbal, who belongs to the end of this first period of response to the West, which lasted until World War II. When Western scholars speak of Islamic reformers, they have mostly such figures in mind, along with the so-called puritanical reformers. From the ranks of the modernists rose nationalists and liberal thinkers, men who sought to modernize Islamic society, on the one hand, and fight against the West in the name of national independence, on the other. The colonial wars fought against Western powers for national independence by such figures as Ataturk, Sukarno, Bourgiba, and others were carried out in the name of nationalism, not Islam.

Consequently, when Western powers left their colonies, at least outwardly, in many areas they left behind them ruling groups who were Muslim in name, but whose thinking was more like that of the colonizers they had replaced.

There were, of course, also groups of fighters for independence who were not modernists at all, but traditional Muslims, often associated with various Sufi orders. They usually carried out military resistance to preserve their homelands with a degree of nobility and magnanimity that deeply impressed their European enemies. One can cite as a supreme example of this type Amir ‘Abd al-Qadir, the great Algerian freedom fighter and Sufi sage; his opponent, a French general, wrote back to Paris saying that fighting against the Amir was like confronting one of the prophets of the Old Testament. Another notable example is Imam Shamil, who fought for years in Caucasia against Russian encroachment. The example of the saintly nature of these men and the manner in which they treated their enemies as well as noncombatants, no matter what the other side was doing, is of the utmost importance for Muslims as well as Westerners to remember in the present-day situation.

Most of the Islamic world in the period between, let us say, 1800 and World War II did not react in any of the three manners described above. They were the traditional Muslims for whom the life of theShari‘ah as well as the Tariqah continued in its time-honored manner. There were, of course, continuous renewals from within that must not, however, be confused with reform in its modern sense. Many great scholars of Law continued to appear and Sufism was rejuvenated in several areas, especially in the Maghrib and West and East Africa, as we see in the rise of the Tijaniyyah and Sanusiyyah orders as well as the appearance of such great masters as Shaykh al-Darqawi, Shaykh Ahmad al-‘Alawi, and Shaykh Salamah al-Rad.i, all of whom revived the Shadhiliyyah Order. Nevertheless, the modus vivendi of traditional Muslims was not reaction, but continuation of the traditional Islamic modes of life and thought.

After World War II most Islamic countries had become politically free, except for Algeria, which gained its independence in 1962 after a war that cost a million lives, and Muslim areas within the Communist world. The general population of Muslims had expected that with political independence would come cultural, social, and economic independence as well. When the reverse occurred, that is, when with the advent of political independence Westernized classes began ruling over a deeply pious public, as can be seen in countries as different as Turkey, Iran, Egypt, and Pakistan, major reactions set in that can be seen throughout the Islamic world to this day.

The old modernist and liberal schools of thought became discredited, as did the modernists as a political class, which had failed to solve any of the major problems that society faced in addition to suffering humiliating defeats, especially in the several Arab-Israeli wars. Nevertheless, modernism continued, often with a new Marxist component, and remained powerful because it controlled and still controls the state apparatus in most Muslim lands. But its intellectual and social power began to wane and weaken nearly everywhere except in Turkey, where Ataturk’s secularism remains strong, held in place by the force of the army. Iran was the first country in which a political revolution removed the modernist government in favor of an Islamic one. A process of internal Islamization also took

place, gradually and without revolutionary upheaval, in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Malaysia, the Sudan, Jordan, Egypt, and some other countries, and that process continues.

As for what is called “fundamentalism,” the earlier form of it as found in Saudi Arabia became transformed in many ways. By the 1960s there was a general malaise in the Islamic world caused by the simple emulation of a West, which, according to its leading thinkers, did not know where it was going itself. Many people, even among the modernized classes, turned back to Islam to find solutions to the existential problems posed by life itself and more particularly the actual situation of Muslims. The desire of the vast majority of people was to be left alone to solve the problems of the Islamic world, to preserve the religion of Islam, including the revival of theShari‘ah , and to rebuild Islamic civilization, but the dominant civilization of the West hardly allowed such a thing to take place. Many organizations were nevertheless established to pursue these ends by peaceful means, chief among them the Ikhwan al-Muslimin, or Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in the 1920s by H. asan al-Banna’, and the Jama‘at-i islami, founded by Mawlana Mawdudi in 1941, both of which remain powerful to this day.

In the past few decades this desire to preserve religion, re-Islamicize Islamic society, and reconstruct Islamic civilization has drawn a vast spectrum of people into its fold, all of whom are now branded indiscriminately in the West as “fundamentalist.” The majority of such people, however, pursue nonviolent means to achieve their goals, as do most Christian, Jewish, or Hindu “fundamentalists.” But there are also those who take recourse to violent action, nearly always when they are trying to defend their homeland, as in Palestine, Chechnya, Kashmir, Kosovo, or the southern Philippines, or sometimes in exasperation to defend their faith and traditional cultural values, as one sees in occasional violent eruptions in Indonesia, Pakistan, and elsewhere.

But to act Islamically is to act in defense. Those who inflict harm upon the innocent, no matter how just their cause might be, are going against the clear teachings of the Quran and theShari‘ah concerning peace and war (to which we turn later in Chapter 6). In any case, the unfortunate use of the term “fundamentalism,” drawn originally from American Protestantism, for Islam cannot now be avoided, but it is of the utmost importance to realize that it embraces very different phenomena and must not be confused with the demonizing usage of the term in the Western media.

Disappointment among Muslims with the lack of true freedom after the attainment of political freedom after World War II also led to a new wave of Mahdiism, as seen in the coming of Ayatollah Khomeini to power in Iran at the time of the Iranian Revolution of 1979 (which was a major event in modern history and which definitely possessed eschatological overtones), the taking over of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1980, and the appearance of Mahdi-like figures in Nigeria during the last two decades.

There is no doubt that there is again a presence of Mahdiism in the air throughout the Islamic world, as there are millennialist expectations among both Jews and Christians today.

As for traditional Islam, in contrast to the first phase of the encounter with the West, from the 1960s onward it began to manifest itself in the public intellectual arena and to challenge both the modernists and the so-called fundamentalists.

Scholars deeply rooted in the Islamic tradition but also well acquainted with the West began to defend the integral Islamic tradition, the Tariqah as well as theShari‘ah , the intellectual disciplines as well as the traditional arts. At the same time they began in-depth criticism not of Christianity or Judaism, but of secularist modernism, which was first incubated and grew in the West, but later spread to other continents. Such scholars base themselves on the universality of revelation stated in the Quran and seek to reject the substitution of the “kingdom of man” for the “Kingdom of God” as posited by modern secularism. Their criticisms of the modern world have drawn much from Western critics of modernism, rationalism, and scientism, including not only such traditionalists as René Guénon, Frithjof Schuon, Titus Burckhardt, and Martin Lings, but also such well-known European and American critics of the modernist project, including modern science and technology, as Jacques Ellul, Ivan Illich, and Theodore Roszak. The traditional Islamic response began with those trained in Western-style educational organizations, but during the past two decades has come to also include figures from among the class of religious scholars, or ‘ulama’, and traditional Sufis. These scholars and leaders seek to preserve the rhythm of traditional Islamic life as well as its intellectual and spiritual traditions and find natural allies in Judaism and Christianity in confronting the challenges of modern secularism as well as globalization.

The great majority of Muslims today still belong to the traditionalist category and must be distinguished from both secularist modernizers and “fundamentalists,” as the latter term is now used in the Western media. In fact, it would be the greatest error to fail to distinguish the traditionalists from the “fundamentalists” and to include anyone who wishes to preserve the traditional Islamic way of life and thought in the “fundamentalist” category. It would be as if in contemporary Catholicism one were to call Padre Pio and Mother Teresa “fundamentalists” because they insisted on preserving traditional Catholic teachings. It is essential to realize that the notion of extremism implies a center, or median, of the spectrum; phenomena are judged “extreme” according to their distance, on either side, from this designated center. Unfortunately in the Western media today, that center is usually defined as the modernizing elements in Islamic society, and it is forgotten that modernism is itself one of the most fanatical, dogmatic, and extremist ideologies that history has ever seen. It seeks to destroy every other point of view and is completely intolerant toward any Weltanschauung that opposes it, whether it is that of the Native Americans, whose whole world was forcibly crushed by it, or Hinduism, Buddhism, or Islam, or for that matter traditional Christianity or Judaism. Orthodox Jews have as much difficulty resisting the constant assault of modern secularism upon their worldview and religious practices as do Hindus or Muslims. If one is going to speak of “fundamentalism” in religions, then one must include “secularist fundamentalism,” which is no less virulently proselytizing and aggressive

toward anything standing in its way than the most fanatical form of religious “fundamentalism.”

In the case of Islam, there are today certainly religious extremists of different kinds, but they do not define the mainstream, or center, of Islam. That center belongs to traditional Islam. And that center is the one against which one should view fanatical religious extremism, on the one side, and the rabid secularist modernism found in most Islamic countries, but especially in such places as Turkey, Tunisia, and Algeria, on the other. Traditional Islam is not opposed to what the West wishes to do within its own borders, but to the corrosive influences emanating from modern and postmodern Western culture, now associated so much with what is called globalization, that threaten Islamic values, just as they threaten Christian and Jewish values in the West itself. But the philosophy of defense of traditional Islam has always been to keep within the boundaries of Islamic teachings.

Its method of combat has been and remains primarily intellectual and spiritual, and when it has been forced to take recourse to physical action in the form of defense of its home and shelter, its models have been the Amir ‘Abd al-Qadirs and Imam Shamils, not the Reign of Terror of the French Revolution or homegrown models of Che Guevara.

To understand events in the Islamic world today, even the most outrageous and evil actions carried out in the name of Islam, it is necessary to have a context within which to place these actions, in the same way that Westerners are able to place Jonestown, Waco, bombs by the Irish Republican Army, Serbian ethnic cleansing, or the killings carried out by Baruch Goldstein or Rabbi Kahane’s group in context and not to identify them simply with Christianity or Judaism as such. This context can only be provided by looking at the vast spectrum of Islam outlined above. Yes, there are those in the Islamic world today who have taken recourse to military action and violence using modern technology with the supposed aim of ameliorating real or imaginary wrongs and injustices. Considering the history of the recent past, it is hardly surprising that such extremist illicit and morally reprehensible actions by a few using the name of Islam should take place, especially when injustices and suppressions within Islamic societies are added to external ones. Nor does asking why despicable actions take place in the name of Islam by the few and coming to understand the background of these actions in any way condone or excuse them.

The vast majority of Muslims still breathe in a universe in which the Name of God is associated above all with Compassion and Mercy, and they turn to Him in patience even in the midst of the worst tribulations. If it seems that more violence is associated with Islam than with other religions today, it is not due to the fact that there has been no violence elsewhere-think of the Korean and Vietnam wars, the atrocities committed by the Serbs, and the genocide in Rwanda and Burundi. The reason is that Islam is still very strong in Islamic society. Because Islam so pervades the lives of Muslims, all actions, including violent ones, are carried out in the name of Islam, especially since other ideologies such as nationalism and socialism have become so bankrupt.

Yet this identification is itself paradoxical because traditional Islam is as much on the side of peace and accord as are traditional Judaism and Christianity. Despite such phenomena, however, if one looks at the extensive panorama of the Islamic spectrum summarized below, it becomes evident that for the vast majority of Muslims, the traditional norms based on peace and openness to others, norms that have governed their lives over the centuries and are opposed to both secularist modernism and “fundamentalism,” are of central concern. And after the dust settles in this tumultuous period of both Islamic and global history, it will be the voice of traditional Islam that will have the final say in the Islamic world.

CHAPTER THREE: DIVINE AND HUMAN LAWS

And now We have set thee (O Muhammad) on a clear road (Shar‘) of Our Commandment; so follow it, and follow not the whim of those who know not.

Quran 45:18

It is the Law of God which has taken course aforetime. Thou wilt not find any change in the Law of God.

Quran 48:23

THE PHILOSOPHY OF LAW IN ISLAM

One of the most difficult aspects of Islam to understand for modern Westerners is the “philosophy of law,” which provides the conceptual foundation for theShari‘ah (literally, “road” or “path”), or Divine Law, in Islam. Since Christ did not promulgate a law like those of the prophets of the Old Testament and the Prophet of Islam, but rather came to break the letter of the law in the name of the Spirit, religious law in the West developed in a very different manner than it did in Islam. Even during the Middle Ages, when Western society was thoroughly Christian, everyday laws were drawn from Roman sources or common law. These sources were clearly distinguished from Divine Law, which in the Christian context involved spiritual principles and not ordinary laws dealing with society in general. Moreover, Christian theologians developed an elaborate doctrine of natural law, which does not have an exact counterpart in Islam, although there are striking developments worthy of comparison in this domain within the two traditions.

Originally, natural law meant a system of rights or justice common to all human beings and derived from nature. St. Thomas Aquinas provided the greatest elaboration of this concept, stating that eternal law exists in God’s mind and is known to us only in part through revelation and in part through reason. For St. Thomas, the law of nature is the “participation of the eternal law in the rational creature.”

Human law, based on precepts that human beings can derive by their own reason, must be a particular application of that law. Now, although Muslim theologians also debated among themselves whether our God-given reason can know the good without revelation, they did not develop a theory of natural law such as one finds in Thomism. Their view was closer to that of John Duns Scotus and Francisco Suarez, who believed that the Divine Will, rather than reason, was the source of law. In any case, even in the Middle Ages there were differences between the Islamic and certain of the predominantly Catholic schools of theology concerning the philosophy of law.

From the Renaissance onward laws became more and more secularized in the West, and they came to be seen as ever-changing regulations devised and defined by society to be made and discarded as circumstances dictate. And with the rise of parliamentary democracy, these laws came to be made and abrogated by the representatives of the people.

Within the context of such a background, it is easy to see why the understanding of the Islamic, and more generally the Semitic, concept of law, which is associated with the Will of God and is meant to determine society rather than be determined by it, poses such a problem for modern Westerners.

Yet such a view should not be so difficult to understand in the West if one only turns to Jewish Law and the Old Testament, which is of course also a part of Christian sacred scripture. In the Old Testament is stated a clear theology that determines the meaning of law for human society.

According to it, God is the Transcendent Reality Who is all powerful and sovereign over human beings. He is the only ultimate sanction of law, and

the laws of human society are the embodiments of His Will. In the Bible, law is designated as God’s commandments (mitsvah; as in Deut.11:13), teaching or instruction (torah; Gen. 26:5), utterance (davar; Deut. 4:13), and norm (mishpot; Exod. 21:1), along with other expressions. Violation of law is seen not only as an offense against society, but also as a moral sin and a violation of God’s order to humanity, for which human beings are accountable to God (Gen. 20:6; Lev. 19-

20, 22). The Bible makes no distinction between religious and secular offense against the law, and the law is seen as a norm by which not only men and women, but all beings must abide (Gen. 2:11-17; 9:1-7). For the rabbis, there was no distinction between fas, God-given laws, and lex, human laws, as claimed by the Romans; all laws were seen as expressions of God’s Will.

Now, this whole understanding of the meaning of law in the Bible corresponds very much to that of the Quran. If modern Westerners were only to grasp what the Old Testament says about law or how contemporary traditional Jews comprehend and practice Talmudic Law, it would be much easier to understand the “philosophy of law” in Islam. For Muslims also, God as the supreme and transcendent Sovereign has revealed His Laws through His prophets. TheShari‘ah is the concrete embodiment of the Divine Will, and in its most universal sense it embraces the whole of creation; what we call laws of nature are “theShari‘ah ” of various orders of corporeal reality. There is no distinction between the religious and secular realms, although the existence of non-Shari‘ite laws are recognized in practice, as we shall see later.

In the Islamic perspective, Divine Law is to be implemented to regulate society and the actions of its members rather than society dictating what laws should be. The injunctions of Divine Law are permanent, but the principles can also be applied to new circumstances as they arise.

But the basic thesis is one of trying to make the human order conform to the Divine norm, not vice-versa. To speak of theShari‘ah as being simply the laws of the seventh century fixed in time and not relevant today would be like telling Christians that the injunctions of Christ to love one’s neighbor and not commit adultery were simply laws of the Palestine of two thousand years ago and not relevant today, or telling Jews not to keep Sabbath because this is simply an outmoded practice of three thousand years ago.

Modern secularists might advance these arguments, but it is difficult to understand how Jews or Christians who still follow their religious tradition could do so. As far as Christianity is concerned, how Christians hold the spiritual teachings of Christ to be immutable can be a key for the understanding of how Muslims regard theShari‘ah . As for Jews, such an understanding should be even easier, because the Islamic understanding of Divine Law is so similar to that found in Judaism, and theShari‘ah and Halakhah hold very similar positions in the two religions, respectively.

As in Judaism, for Islam Divine Law is more central than theological thought to the religious life. One can be a very serious Muslim without interest in kalam, or Islamic theology, but one cannot be a serious Christian

without interest in Christian theology unless one is a mystic or pietist. One could, in fact, say that what theology is to Christianity, theShari‘ah , or Divine Law, is to Islam. To be a Muslim is to accept the validity of theShari‘ah , even if one is too weak to practice all of its injunctions, and to understand theShari‘ah is to gain knowledge of the formal religious structure of Islam. Even those who have sought to go beyond the formal level, through the Tariqah to the absolute Truth, which transcends all forms, have never ceased to revere theShari‘ah and to practice it. The greatest philosophers of Islam from Avicenna to Averroës practiced theShari‘ah ; so did the greatest saints and mystics, such as Ibn ‘Arabi, who wrote that his heart was the temple for idols and house for the Torah, the Gospels, and the Quran, but who never broke the Divine Law or stopped saying his daily prayers, promulgated by theShari‘ah , until his death.

The transcending of the Law in Islam in the direction of the Spirit has never been through the flouting of the Law, through breaking or denying its formal structure, but by transcending it from within. If there have been exceptions for those crazed by the love of God and in a paranormal state of consciousness, they have been there as exceptions to prove the rule. To speak of Islam on the level of individual practice and social norms is to speak of theShari‘ah , which has provided over the centuries guidelines for those who have wanted or wish today to live according to God’s Will in its Islamic form. When we hear in the Lord’s Prayer uttered by Christ “Thy Will be done on earth as it is in Heaven,” for the Muslim His Will is expressed in theShari‘ah , and to live according to this Will on earth is, first of all, to practice the injunctions of the Divine Law. It is on the basis of this practice, meant for all Muslims, that the saintly can then surrender their whole will to the Will of God.

God, then, is the supreme Legislator (al-Shari‘ ).

Through His Laws, before which according to Islam all men and women are equal, human life is sanctified. The Divine Law embraces every aspect of life and removes the distinction between sacred and profane or religious and secular. Since God is the creator of all things, there is no legitimate domain of life to which His Will or His Laws do not apply. Even the most ordinary acts of life carried out according to theShari‘ah are sanctified, and persons of faith who live a life according to the Divine Law live a life immersed in grace, or what in Arabic is called barakah.

Their life gains meaning, and they move through the journey of life certain that they are following a road (shar‘) designated by God, a road that leads to salvation and felicity in the ultimate encounter with Him. To live according to theShari‘ah in both form and inner meaning is to live an ethical life in the fullest sense.

THE SOURCES OF THE SHARI‘AH AND THE METHODOLOGY OF ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE

The most important source of theShari‘ah is the Quran, which some scholars claim to be the only basic source; all other sources serve only to elucidate and elaborate the roots and principles contained in the Sacred Text. There are some 350 legal verses, or what Western law calls juris corpus, in the Quran. Some of them deal with specific legal issues and penalties for illicit and illegal acts. A large number deal with the principles of the acts of worship and in some cases the details of such actions. Another group of verses deals with commercial and economic issues. In addition, many verses deal with the questions of justice, equality, evidence in law, legal rights, and so forth. Together these verses constitute only a small part of the Quran, but they are essential as the roots of Islamic Law.

The injunctions of the Quran would not, however, be fully understood without theSunnah and Hadith of the Prophet, which constitute its first commentary. The Quran orders Muslims to pray, but how to pray was learned from the model established by the Prophet. After the Quran, therefore, theSunnah and Hadith are the second most important source of theShari‘ah . All schools of Law, Sunni and Shi‘ite alike, accept these two as the absolutely necessary sources for Islamic Law. It is important to note that it was only after the canonical collections of Hadith were assembled in the ninth century that the definitive work on the methodology of jurisprudence was produced by Imam al-Shafi‘i.

OtherShari‘ah sources are accepted by some schools and not by others. They include qiyas, or analogy, in its juridical sense, which technically means the extension of a Shari‘ite ruling or value from a known and accepted case (asl ) to a new case with the same effective cause, legally speaking. These sources also include ijma‘, or consensus, which is usually considered to be the consensus on a legal matter of the legal scholars who are specialists in theShari‘ah , but which in Islamic history has also been the consensus of the whole community over a long period, as in the case of the banning of slavery and the acceptance of tobacco as being halal, that is, legally acceptable rather than forbidden. There is, in fact, a hadith of the Prophet that asserts: “My community shall never agree on error.”

Then there is istihsan, or equity, which differs from equity in Western law in that in the latter equity relies on the concept of natural law, whereas istihsan relies on theShari‘ah ; otherwise, they are similar in that both are concerned with the idea of fairness and conscience in law. Finally, in this brief account one must mention mas.lah. ah mursalah, or considerations of public interest that are harmonious with theShari‘ah and the objectives of the Lawgiver.

An important point here is the position within theShari‘ah of human custom and law as distinct from the Divine Law. What in classical texts is called ‘urf or ‘adah, meaning human custom or habit, is considered valid in theShari‘ah itself if such a custom or habit does not contradict or contravene theShari‘ah . Therefore, human laws not derived from the Divine Law can become integrated into the Islamic legal system as long as they do not oppose the edicts of theShari‘ah . This occurred often

throughout Islamic history. Divine Law is referred to asShar‘ , and human law is referred to asqanun (from the Greek word kanon, which is also the source for the word “canonical” in Western law). Paradoxically, nonreligious law in Islam uses the same term as religious or ecclesiastical law in Christianity.

From the point of view of theShari‘ah , to follow theqanun of any country in which one finds oneself is itself commended as long as thatqanun or law does not contradict the injunctions of theShari‘ah .

Historically and in contrast to the modern period, there was much harmony betweenShar‘ andqanun in the Islamic world, and traditional Muslims did not feel any appreciable tension between Divine Law and human law.

This tension is a modern phenomenon that began in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with the abrogation of theShari‘ah in certain Muslim countries and the forced implementation of various European legal codes, for example, in Persia, Egypt, Turkey, and North Africa. In these and similar countries, needless to say, the substitution of European laws for theShari‘ah created a tension between private religious life and the public domain and drew the majority of the population further away from their governments, which they began to view as anti-Islamic or at best indifferent to Islam.

In the hierarchy of the sources mentioned above, the Quran stands at the highest level, followed by theSunnah andHadith . An elaborate methodology was developed to deduce rulings from these sources and create the body of Islamic laws. This science of deriving juridical decisions from sources is called the “principles of jurisprudence” (us.ul al-fiqh ) and is central to Islamic Law. Althoughfiqh itself originally meant “understanding” or “knowledge” in general, gradually it came to be associated with the “science of the law,” or jurisprudence, corresponding to what the Romans called iurisprudentia. It deals with the body of the law and ways of concluding legal views from the principles and sources of the law.Fiqh has, therefore, a more technical legal meaning than theShari‘ah , which includes moral laws and the general framework for the religious life of Islam.

Fiqh, according to traditional authorities, is knowledge of the practical regulations and rules of theShari‘ah acquired by reference to and detailed study of the sources.

Although the fifth and sixth Shi‘ite Imams, Muh.ammad al-Baqir and Ja‘far al-Sadiq, said much aboutfiqh and its principles, it was Imam al-Shafi‘i who, in his Risalah (“Treatise”), established the systematic methodology for deriving laws from the sources. To exercise such an intellectual undertaking is called ijtihad, and the person who can give fresh views on matters of law by going back to the sources is called a mujtahid. In the Sunni world the “gate of ijtihad” closed after the tenth and eleventh centuries, when the major schools were established, whereas in the Shi‘ite world it has remained open to this day and in each generation the mujtahids have derived the laws from the established principles and sources, which for

Shi‘ites are the Quran, theHadith of the Prophet, and the teachings of the Imams.

Through the meticulous following of the methodologies elaborated inus.ul al-fiqh , the major schools of Sunni Law already mentioned, that is, the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi‘i, and Hanbali, came into being, as did the Twelve-Imam Ja‘fari School and the Zaydi, Isma‘ili, and ‘Ibadi schools. Since the last century, a great debate has taken place in the Sunni world about opening the “gate of ijtihad” again, and in both the Sunni and the Shi‘ite worlds, fundamental discussions are taking place today about the future development and application of theShari‘ah to Islamic society facing major new challenges, including those issuing from biotechnology and all the problems that it poses for ethics.

In this domain the recent responses of Jewish and Christian thinkers are close to Muslim ones, and the followers of the three monotheistic faiths can certainly collaborate together on many issues in the fields of bioethics and environmental ethics.

TheShari‘ah can best be understood through the use of the symbol of the tree, mentioned in the Quran: “Seest thou not how God coineth a similitude: A good saying, as a goodly tree, its roots set firm, its branches reaching into heaven” (14:24). This symbol has many levels of meaning, one of which concerns theShari‘ah . Divine Law is like a tree whose roots are sunk firmly in the ground of revelation, but whose branches extend in different directions and have grown in various ways. The firmness of the roots does not mean that the tree is not living. On the contrary, it is the very firmness and immutability of the roots that guarantee the flowing of the sap into the branches and the continuous life of the tree. TheShari‘ah has developed in many different cultural and political climates over the centuries.

It has harbored many differences of interpretation, and yet it has remained theShari‘ah . Today it is faced with unprecedented challenges both from within the borders of the “Abode of Islam” and from outside, but it remains a living body of law that Muslims consider the concrete embodiment of God’s Will for them to follow on the basis of their faith and free will.

TO WHOM DOES THE SHARI‘AH APPLY?

According to all schools of Islamic Law, the injunctions of theShari‘ah of Islam apply to all Muslims, male and female, who have reached the legal age and only to them. All Muslims are in principle equal before the law, whether they are kings or beggars, women or men, black or white, rich or poor. The Quran especially emphasizes that its injunctions concern both men and women in several verses where both sexes are addressed clearly and in a distinct manner, as when it says:

Verily, men who surrender unto God, and women who surrender, and men who believe and women who believe, and men who obey and women who obey, and men who speak the truth and women who speak the truth . and men who give alms and women who give alms, and men who fast and women who fast, and men who guard their modesty and women who guard (their modesty), and men who remember God much and women who

remember-God hath prepared for them forgiveness and a vast reward. (33:35)

In a society ruled by theShari‘ah and in which Muslims are the majority, accepted religious minorities are absolved from following the IslamicShari‘ah except in that which concerns public order. According to the IslamicShari‘ah itself, Jews, Christians, and other “People of the Book,” which in India included Hindus and in Persia the Zoroastrians, have their ownShari‘ah , and therefore their personal and communal affairs should be left to them. This is how the “community system,” or millat system, of the Ottoman world functioned for many centuries. In the millat system the central government, although Islamic, recognized fully the social, economic, and especially religious rights of established minorities, so that there was no danger of the majority destroying the presence or identity of minority groups. Under the Ottomans the rights of Jews and Christians were guaranteed by the state itself. Although there were occasionally social frictions, by and large there was certainly much greater tolerance between various groups than what we have observed in Yugoslavia since its breakup, with all those horrendous acts of ethnic cleansing and genocide that followed.