Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Alhassanain (p) Network for Islamic Heritage and Thought

The Role Of Islamic Scientists In The Advancement Of Science

This text offers us a short and comprehensive history of how Muslims Scientists have made a contribution to the advancement of science. Muslim scientists are known to have put the founding stones in sciences like chemistry, math and medicine.

Author(s):Ayatullah MuhammadMufatteh

Publisher(s): Islamic Thought Foundation

www.alhassanain.org/english

In The Name of Allah

Table of Contents

The Role Of Islamic Scientists In The Advancement Of Science 4

1. Campaign Against Illiteracy 5

2. Development Of Ideas 5

3. Emphasis On Scientific Matters 6

Establishing Islamic Primary Schools- Schooling in Mecca 6

Schooling in Medina 7

Compilations, Collections and Codifications 7

Where Did The Islamic Scientific Movement Begin? 9

Hajj As a Scientific Congress For Islamic Schools 9

Miracles of Muslims 10

Nizamiyyah University Of Baghdad 11

Palaces and Mosques Become Schools 11

Is Nizamiyyah The First School In Islam? 11

How Nizamiyyah Was Established 12

The Safa Brotherhood 13

Mourning Meeting in Baghdad 13

The Goals And Constitution Of The Brotherhood of Clarity 14

Members Of The Society And Their Contributions 14

The Four Levels of The Safan brotherhood 15

Islamic Scientists' Methods Of Research 16

Methods of Thinking 16

Method of Experience 16

How The Method of Experiment Was Founded In The 17th Century 16

Bacon: The Famous English Philosopher's Methods 17

Islamic Scientists' Attention To The Experimental Methods 18

Muslims And Other Sciences 18

The First Translated Book 20

Muslims' Learning And Research In Medical Field 21

The Research Period 21

A Distinguished Scientist And Doctor In Islam 22

The Role Of Religion In Muslim Physicians 22

The Valuable Works Of Razi 24

Al-Hawi- A Medical Encyclopedia 24

Abu Raihan Muhammad lbn Ahmad al-Biruni- Another Muslim Scientist 25

Notes 27

The Role Of Islamic Scientists In The Advancement Of Science

The movement initiated by the Prophet of Islam which changed the history of the nations, despite the assumptions of a number of people, wasn't confined within the framework of a moral movement; it caused a fundamental scientific metamorphosis in human society as well. Even moral and social matters are based on logical, scientific reasoning.

Islam breathed new life in to the dying body of society and steered it in the direction of economic, scientific, and political progress. As a result, many surprising initiatives and discoveries came in to existence and, in numerous ways the positive aspects of today's civilizations are indebted to this Islamic movement.

As we know, before Muhammad's (S.A.W) appointment to theprophethood ignorance prevailed to such an extent that, as noted by historians, if among the Arabs a man knew how to read and write a little, he would have been called“ perfect” . Today, we can still find people with this nickname.

The Christian world was not much better off. They were so imprisoned by their ignorance that when a man was once appointed Pope who accidentally had some knowledge and started to spread that knowledge, he was viewed with suspicion, because it was against their nature to be knowledgeable, and the Pope was accused of being possessed by the Devil. They declared that Satan had entered his body and had led him astray from the path of God and Jesus.

Yes, under such circumstances the holy call of:

Allah will exalt those of you who believe, and those who are given knowledge, in high degrees (Holy Qur'an, 58: 11)

echoed throughout the darkness of that age and it did not take long for a revolution to take place and such renowned scientists asAvecenna ,Farabi ,Zakaria Razi ,Ibn Rushd and hundreds like them shined among the Muslims.

In Islamic countries, schools and libraries were established where many people studied to become scientists while, at the same time, Europe was ruled by ignorance.

Dr.Gustave Le Bon, a Christian scientist, has stated,

“When Islamic civilization was at its highest peak in Andalusia (Spain) our scientificcentres were castles, our masters and rulers were living in a semi-barbaric state and they felt pride in not having any system of writing being illiterate. Among we Christians, the most knowledgeable one was the ignorant priest, who was extending his utmost effort just to take out the old Greek and Roman religious books, clean them and write some ambiguous comments on their pages.”

In order to clarify the moral level of the Christians' civilization and also to prove what has been said, I refer to an interesting event from the Middle Ages1.

In Italy, a man calledIstan Mura voiced his doubt that Jesus was alive. The Committee for Investigation of Ideas detained him and reported his infidelity to the Pope. The Pope, after due consideration declared the man to be '' legally dead”.

Mr. Mura was then called before the Committee for the Investigation of Ideas and his forehead was branded by a red-hot iron so that everyone would see his“dead” status. Afterwards, the miserable man was not allowed to speak to anyone. His wealth was confiscated, his wife was married to another man and his children were also taken away from him. The night that his wife was married again, after much difficulty he met them and said:” You are my wife: how can you marry someone else?” The woman did not reply, and the crowd of people nearby laughed. The condemned man ran through the streets, crying:“Just because I expressed my opinion on a matter, the followers of Jesus have taken away my wealth and have taken my wife away!”

Before we discuss further the ways that Muslims have contributed to the spread of the sciences, it is necessary to outline the factors which caused this scientific revolution.

1. Campaign Against Illiteracy

The first and foremost factor in the spread of Islam was writing and reading, because verses of the Qur'an were not written down at first, and those with the ability to recite the verses taught the Qur'an to others.

The Prophet of Islam (S.A.W) encouraged people to seek education. After the Battle ofBadr , each prisoner of war was told to each the art of reading and writing to ten children from Medina, in order to gain freedom.

This is a clear example of the line of thought of the founder of Islam.

The Prophet of Islam (S.A.W.) even compelled some of his followers to learn foreign languages. One example isZayd-ibn-Thabit , who was sent on a mission to learn Hebrew, as he himself stated:

“I was taken to the Prophet of Islam (S.A.W), and when he was informed that I knew seventeen verses of the Qur'an by heart, the Prophet was surprised. I recited them all, and when the Prophet saw that I possessed this talent, he commanded me to learn Hebrew, the language of the Jews, and added that ‘I fear that the Jews may change the Book (the Qur'an).’ I applied myself and learned Hebrew in a short time. I was put in charge of writing the Prophet's letters to the Jews and translating the letters they sent to us.”

Other Muslims also were ordered by the Prophet (S.A.W.) to learn theSyriac language. When the Arab Muslims expanded their conquests toneighbouring countries, they had to learn the art of their writing and reading in order to better govern those countries. This was also another reason for the increase in the number of literate people. In addition, foreigners who accepted Islam had to learn and to understand their religious duties. This was another factor which brought the civilization of other countries to Islamiccentres .

2. Development Of Ideas

Another important factor for this movement was the teachings of Islam. The Qur'an, by narrating the history of other nations and the histories of Adam, Abraham, Jonah , Moses, Joseph and other prophets, could move the icy and stony brains of the people.

The Holy Qur'an, by elaborating on the principles of belief and explaining the power of Almighty Allah and His unity, also attracted the attention of thinkers and prompted them to contemplate about the world in accordance with such verses as:

Do they not consider the kingdom of the heavens and the earth and whatever things Allahhos created (Holy Qur'an 7:185),

So let man consider of what he Is created: (Holy Qur'an 86:5),

and, Most surely in the creations of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day there are signs for men who understand. Those who remember Allah standing and sitting and lying on their sides and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth: Our Lord! Thou hart not created this in vain! Glory be to Thee; save us then from the chastisement of the fire: (Holy Qur'an 3: 89,190)

which could stimulate the people's minds and direct them towards the secrets of nature, the wisdom of the creation of the world and other matters concerning nature.

3. Emphasis On Scientific Matters

The most important matter is that, in the early days of Islam , all or most scientific matters were interrelated. For instance, those who were authorities in theology also knew philosophy, narration and interpretation, while those who were authorities in narration and interpretation were knowledgeable about literature, poems and phrases explaining the meaning of the Qur'an. Not many people could be found in those times, whospecialised in only one subject, because specialty came from an orderly discussion in a technical or scientific manner, which did not exist at that time.

The most popular discussions were about religious matters such asQur'anic interpretation, narration and jurisprudence. Discussions were also often held about history, philosophy, logic, chemistry and medicine.

Establishing Islamic Primary Schools- Schooling in Mecca

After the dawning of Islam, Mecca and Medina became two important scientificcentres . The city of Mecca was the birthplace of Islam and Islamic legislation.

After the migration of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W), the increased power of Islam and the conquest of Mecca, the Holy Prophet (S.A.W) appointedMu'az to teach Islamic jurisprudence and the Qur'an.Mu'az was one of the best youths of Ansar2 for he possessed knowledge and excellent morals and participated in most of the Muslims' battles. He was well-acquainted with Islamic precepts and had collected all of the verses of the Qur'an which had been revealed to the Prophet (S.A.W).Mu'az was the best person to be appointed to teach and educate the inhabitants of Mecca. Unfortunately, it did not take long for the disease of the plague to claim his life, and he passed into the next world. Thus, this great man of wisdom and knowledge bid farewell to earthly life.

AbdullahIbn Abbas was appointed to succeedMu'az , and he began teaching and educating people right away. The fame of this city concerning learning and science is because of his efforts.

Schooling in Medina

Medina was the centre of Islamic propagation and was the second city of the leader of Muslims. It was the home of many of the Prophet's followers and, most importantly, many historical and political events took place in this city.

The majority of the laws of Islam were explained in Medina and then spread to other regions, therefore, those interested in learning and understanding Islamic instructions had to travel to Medina in order to realize their aims.

After the passing away of the Prophet (S.A.W.), Medina became the centre of the caliphate and Muslim leaders resided there. In each war after, the victory of the Islamic troops, some of the prisoners of war, by the Caliph's order, were transferred to the capital city of Medina, and since among these prisoners of war, in particular those from Rome and Iran, many were knowledgeable and educated, as a result, Medina became familiar with the customs, traditions, sciences and other aspects of other nations' civilizations.

It did not take long for Medina to become an important centre of science and knowledge and those who were educated there became specialists in subjects, such as jurisprudence, narration, and history.

For many years, from all corners of the world, students travelled to this city for education, as stated byIbn -al-Athir :

“ Abdul AzizIbn Marwan sent his child to be educated in the educationalcentres of Medina. After learning religious studies and expanding his research, he travelled to other places and continued his advancement of knowledge with amazing speed.”

The way the Muslims were conquering lands was really surprising and perhaps unprecedented in other nations' histories. Their acquisition of knowledge was also surprising, as will be discussed in a later chapter.

Compilations, Collections and Codifications

Some historians believe that compilation in Islam began in the second half of the first Islamic century, but it can be said that the writing and collecting of articles started from the beginning of the first century and at the time of the Prophet, because the Prophet appointed some people to write down theQur'anic revelations. They wrote it on paper, bones and flat stones. Several Muslims also collected the Prophet's (S.A.W) narrations, including AbdullahIbn Abbas , who wrote the narrations he himself heard, and Muslims' historical accounts of war and the Prophet's participation in the Muslims' wars. An example of these Muslims is:Wahab-ibn-Monabbeh , who throughout the years 110-134 A.H. (afterHijra ), wrote about the history of Islamic battles.

Urwat-ibn-Zubayr , who was one of the most famous jurisprudents of Medina in 23 to 94 A.H. wrote the biography of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) and also about his battles.

Abdur rahman Ibn Mughirah , who was the student ofUrwat , wrote and compiled the Prophet's (S.A.W) way of life.

Ibn -Shahab -al-Zohari , who lived from 51 to 124 A.H., also wrote a book about the Prophet's battles.

Where Did The Islamic Scientific Movement Begin?

In the preceding chapter we noted that in every city the Muslims entered, their first objective was to establish mosques and schools. Therefore, in all the Islamic cities, schools were established, but in Islamic history, some schools were mentioned more frequently and werecentres of research in various scientific subjects. The first and most important of these schools is Baghdad Academy, which is also known asBaitul-Hikmah (House of Wisdom).

This scientific centre was established byHarun ­ al-Rashid, the Abbasid Caliph, and completed by his successor,Ma'amun , collected literature and was a centre of attraction to interpreters and researchers from many countries. The various scientific theories and practices developed in Baghdad Academy found an atmosphere conducive to scientific research.

Ma'amun greatly developed and assisted in the expansion of the House of Wisdom and spent three hundred thousand gold coins in translating Greek books. One of the conditions of the peace convention betweenMa'amun and the Emperor of Rome was that the Roman Emperor ceded the Constantinople libraries toMa'amun . Ptolemy's book on astronomy was among these books whichMa'amun ordered for translation.

The translators of the Baghdad Academy were a group of knowledgeable and educated men from Iran, Syria, and India and most of them wereSyriac , who were very learned in Greek science and philosophy. Some of the famous men were from a family calledBukhtishoou , the son of theSyriac Bukhtishoou , who wasMansoor's physician, and some were Nestorian.

There were also translators from the family ofHanin Ibn Ishagh ,Karkhi ,Sabet Harani Sa'ebi . The most famous translators in Persian and Hindi languages included:Ibn al-Muqaffa , the astrologist family ofNobakht and Ali-Ibn Ziad Tamimi , (who translated the books ofZeyjol-Shahriar ), HassanIbn Sahl andBelazari AhmadIbn Yahya (the chief director ofBararnakah Hospital).

In other parts of the Islamic world, scientificcentres similar to the House of Wisdom were established, particularly after the downfall of the Caliphate and the resultant independence of small and large countries. This political separation was an important factor for scientific and non­scientific competition among different courts in various countries and each and every one of them tried to establishcentres like the one in Baghdad. As a result of this competition, manycentres were established in cities such asSarnarghand , Marv,Harat ,Tous ,Nayshabur , Rey, Isfahan, Shiraz, Damascus,Quds (Jerusalem), Cairo,Ghirvan , Fez,Eshpilieh ,Gharnateh , and elsewhere.

Hajj As a Scientific Congress For Islamic Schools

The religious duty of Hajj was an opportunity for great Muslim scientists from different schools to gather in Mecca and meet each other. In this way, they became enthusiastic about visiting each other's schools and educationalcentres in order to discuss and exchange their ideas and inform each other of their discoveries. Very often, after performing their pilgrimage, Muslim scientists stayed in cities like Andalusia or Maghrib3 in Egypt, held discussions with their colleagues and took notes from the scriptures and books available. Through this common scientific language, knowledge spread in all four corners of the Islamic world with tremendous speed. Due to these relations between educationalcentres , they progressed towards a brighter civilization.

Miracles of Muslims

As a result of this cultural and educational relation a new scientific civilization was created for the whole world and it all came into existence in less than two centuries and spread all over the world.

Researchers and historians viewed this phenomenon with surprise and they called it the“Muslim Miracle.” In other words, they confessed to the creative power of this movement and admitted it was greater than the movements which had taken place before the thirteenth Christian century. In a short time, the Muslims achieved amazing success in different subjects which we shall briefly mention:

Islamic scientists studied algebra and trigonometry on the basis that the Indians and the Greeks established and they revealed them and expanded them. In addition, they also conducted some studies in astronomy.

They have criticized Ptolemy's delegation, which paved the way for scientific movements in the sixteenth century. Muslims contributed new medical observances, founded new methods of chemistry, introduced new information regarding measurements, weights andatmospherical effects in physics.

Their research in geography included the whole world at that time, and they wrote many useful books about civilized countries and also introduced a new way to analyze the philosophy of history.

Nizamiyyah University Of Baghdad

The spirit of Islam spread from Mecca and changed darkness into light; ignorance into knowledge and civilizations like that of the Romans, Greeks, Indians and Persians which were becoming extinct were revived and valuable books which had been gathering dust were put into use again. In this universal scientific movement, universities were once again established in Islamic lands and scientific works were also revived.

Palaces and Mosques Become Schools

Although in the early days of Islam there were no special places for propagating science and culture and since there were no schools or universities as was explained in the previous chapter, study groups were formed in mosques and gradually even in the Caliph's palace, the minister's house. Work areas and farms were converted into scientific, cultural or literarycentres . Many people became scientists and writers and young and old, masters and slaves, were all busy learning. Some slave-owners even taught their slaves poems, narrations, history and literature and after learning these subjects, they were wonderful gifts.

Zubaidah , the wife ofHarun Al-Rashid, had hundreds of female slaves and all of them knew the Qur'an by heart. In the early mornings they recited the Qur'an and filled the air with its pleasant sound4 .

IsNizamiyyah The First School In Islam?

In the next stage of history, Islamic schools, universities and researchcentres were established.

Some writers, such asIbn Khalkan , believed thatNizamiyyah University in Baghdad was the first college for Muslims, which was established byNizamal-Mulk , ShahMalik's Prime Minister. These writers added that the“House of Wisdom” in Baghdad, which had been opened during the lifetime ofHarun Al-Rashid, was merely an important library.

Nevertheless, many experts and historians believed that prior toNizamiyyah , there were many colleges and universities in Islamic lands. A quotation from a British Encyclopedia states:

“WhenMa'mun was a crown prince, he established a university inKhorasan and for lecturing he invited experienced and educated professors from different countries.”

Chambers Encyclopedia writes that inMa'mun's time, important universities were established in Baghdad,Basrah andKufa .

In the year 400A.H.,Hakem , theFatimi Caliph, established a large college in Egypt, dedicating many books and he also appointed a group of jurisprudents and professors for lecturing.

King Mahmud ofGhaznavi dedicated a substantial portion of his wealth to the establishment of amagnificient university and built a great library filled with valuable books. He paid for its daily expenses and endowed many acres of land and villages.

In history it can also be found that while Baghdad was waiting for the greathonour of the inauguration of its university byNizam al-Mulk in the city ofNayshabur , great colleges and universities were established, includingSaiedieh College andBayhaghieh , which ImamGhazali graduated from.

From what has been said so far, it can be concluded that beforeNizamiyyah , there were several colleges and universities in existence, yet the fame ofNizamiyyah was so great that it overshadowed all the other scientific and educationalcentres .

HowNizamiyyah Was Established

Nizam al-Mulk at-Tusi , the Minister of AlbArsalan and ShahMalik , was determined to spread knowledge among the people. He did a lot towards fulfilling his aim and built several schools in villages in which he spent six thousand gold dinars and also endowed a tenth of his wealth for establishing libraries and colleges and most important of all, was the establishment ofNizamiyyah in Baghdad.

The foundation ofNizamiyyah was laid in 487 A.H., at a cost of two hundred thousand golden dinars, and it was completed in the year 489 A.H. It was inaugurated with amagnificient ceremony and if what has been written in history is true, all the people in Baghdad and the royal family hastened to attend the ceremony, which illustrated the Muslims' enthusiasm towards the development of knowledge.

AbuIshaq , head lecturer, was nominated forrectorship in the university. He finally accepted after twenty days of insistence. As long as the Baghdad caliphate was in power, theNizamiyyah was glorious and many famous scholars graduated from this university.Sa'adi , the famous poet, was one of them.

For the scholars and scientists of that time, there was no greaterhonour than being a lecturer atNizamiyyah . For 200 years, no one was appointed to that position unless he was the most knowledgeable in related subjects.

AbuZakaria Tabrizi , a well-known writer of that era, was the director of the central library ofNizamiyyah .

In 589 A.H.,Nasiruddin issued an order to establish another great library to which he dedicated many rare and valuable books, which were transferred from the caliph's library. Students were allotted a certain amount of money as a monthly allowance, which was one of the advantages of this university. Another advantage was that both poor and rich people could send their children to study at this university and six thousand students graduated from it with high qualifications.

TheSafa Brotherhood

The history of mankind has been witness to countless wars and revolutions, many of which reveal the exploitative nature of man.

The underlying aim of any revolution or movement can be understood by thebehaviour of its leaders and the results of their achievements. With the passage of time, the true face of these leaders and their goals can be determined.

Expanding the almost daily establishment of schools, universities and libraries and collecting and compiling many books on Islam is clear proof of the good intentions of this Islamic scientific movement. The leaders of the Islamic lands following this aim did their best to present these God-given gifts to scholars and scientists, and the attention paid to students was in accordance with this policy.

For instance,Sharafuddin Ayubi , the ruler of Damascus, once declared that anyone whomemorised the book of Almofassal written byZomokh -Shari would win a prize worth a hundred dinars, and as a result, many learned that book by heart.

Public opinion was so concerned about the development of science and knowledge that rulers occasionally were obliged to do something, to show that they, too, cared.

Mourning Meeting in Baghdad

In order to have a clearer picture of the public's views at that time, this surprising event of history is sufficient:

When Iraqi scholars were informed of the students financial facilities atNizamiyyah , they gathered together and held amourning meeting, lamenting the fact that from that time onwards, seeking knowledge was not purely a matter of knowledge itself, because materialistic matters were also concerned.

The formation of theSafa brotherhood is one example of the deep effect of the scientific movement on the people. Those involved in forming this educational centre abandoned government support and to show their sincerity towards science they refused to print their names on their publications and hence rejected fame.

In the fourth century afterhijra , a secret society was formed in Baghdad and Basra; the members of this society were among the great Islamic scientists and scholars. They called themselves the“Safa brotherhood” which means the brothers and followers of clarity.

They had much influence in scientific and culturalcentres . The scholars and scientists who belonged to the Brotherhood were learned in most of the subjects known at that time.

In their meetings, they held detailed discussions about various matters, such as the social and religious histories of nations. An agreement was reached to publish their conclusions in a series of articles.

Although the brothers and followers of clarity did not sign their names to these papers and books, they occupied an elevated position in the history of science and they performed a valuable and admirable service to the advancement of science, introducing new initiatives and ideas concerning different scientific subjects. Even after the passing of thousands of years, scientists still recognize their contributions. The level of human thinking after the tenth century was at its zenith.

Ikhwanul Safa were very popular among people and they usually nominated representative from different classes of society to guide them and tell them what they had learnt fromIkhwanul Safa .

The Goals And Constitution Of The Brotherhood of Clarity

By reading theatticles written by the Brotherhood's members it can be concluded that they were not motivated by political aims, but were concerned with scientific and moral matters. A member once wrote:

“We do not have any intention of competing with the kings and our activities are not directed towards securing positions or gaining wealth, but we surely seek the positions of angels in the heavens.” It was also stated:

“Weharbour no hostility or enmity towards any of the subjects of religious science and every book by any scientist deserves to be valued and respected, but our reliance rests mainly on the books of prophets and matters which are revealed.”

In their constitution, it was written that the religion of Islam had become mixed with the superstitions and ideas of the people and in order to purify this great religion from these corruptions, the only way to do so was by propagating Islamic culture, science and, in particular, philosophy. People would then become enlightened and Islam would be of use to them when theyrealised the truth of this divine religion purified from any superstition.

They must apply scientific methods and discoveries which have been discussed in Islam in order to assist and influence the advancement of Islam until it is accepted by the scientists of other nations.

Other opinions of this group which have been explained in a number of their articles include the acknowledgement that since philosophical matters had been translated from one language into another, some of the translated facts were rendered ambiguous and complicated. Perversions and deviations have also affected philosophical matters, and therefore the original meanings of philosophy must be understood directly from the original texts.

Members Of The Society And Their Contributions

Since the members of this society never printed their names, different opinions emerged in understanding the mentality of different authors most of whom were usually determined by guessing. Sometimes an article was believed to be related to one of the Imams descended from Imam AliIbn Abi Talib (A.S) and some believed differently. Others said that the writer of the article was from theMutakallim ofMu'utazilite . But from what AbuHayyan Tawhidi told the Minister ofSamsam-ud-Dolah , some of the writers of these articles and members of this society are known.

WhenSamsam-ud-Dolah asked AbuHayyan who was one of the professors and brothers of this society he explained aboutZaid Ibn Rafa'ah and said that the people whomZaid was close towere AbuSulayman Muhammadibn Ma'ashar al-Basti , who was nicknamed Al-Qudsi ,Abul -Hassan AliIbn Harunul Zanjani , Abu-AhmadMehrejani , andAbul -Hassan AliIbn Raminas al-Ufi .

The Four Levels of TheSafan brotherhood

1.Ikhwanul Abrar andAr-ruhama (after fifteen years),

2.Ikhwanul Akhyar and Al-Fuzala (after thirty years),

3.Ikhwanul Fuzala'ul Kiram (after forty years)

4. The highest level consisted of members who, with the support of the unseen power, increased their writing ability and this level could be reached after fifty years. Over fifty articles were written by theIkhwanul Safa . The articles dealt with such subjects as natural matters, divine matters, matters of logic and social matters.

Islamic Scientists' Methods Of Research

The real importance and value of methods of research were only discovered in Europe after the Middle Ages in the 18th and 19th centuries when the fundamentals of scientific evolution were being introduced. Thence forward the Europeans made use of philosophy and science and paid much attention to Islamic thoughts.

They then replaced the old methods of comparison and intellectual deductions by a new method of practice and experience. Later on, they achieved wonderful results and discoveries that we witness today. Generally speaking, a method is defined as a collection of means and ways of the feasibility of an aim and scientific method is the one which makes an exploration achievable.

Descartes has written much about the value and importance of applying the correct method in his books. For instance, in one of his books called Articles About The Correct Use of Our Intellect, he wrote that,“In order to solve scientific problems, not only a clear and intellectual mind is necessary, but, more important, is the application of correct methods in using the mind.”

Descartes also believed that without comprehensive awareness of the method which we must use, the results of our thoughts are meaningless and the mind just makes itself tired. Without adopting a procedure, no one can research into the truth, because it is a fact that unorganized study and research only cripple our ideas and minds and all efforts will be in vain.

Descartes places much importance on methods and, like Bacon, believes that the great differences which- can be seen between intellects is the result of the various methods that they adopt.

Methods of Thinking

Before the new period of science, the methods which were used by scientists were mostly the methods of comparison and of intellect. They attempted to solve all matters and problems, whether philosophical, mathematical, physical or concerning astronomy, within the framework of reasoning and logic and they believed all these matters could only be determined in this way.

Method of Experience

By using this method scientific theories can be proved or disapproved, because it includes close observations and repetitive experiments, therefore a definite result can be achieved. In this way usually an experiment is repeated several times, under different conditions.

For example, to know whether heat is the main factor in the expansion of a piece of metal, a scientist can repeat the experiment on different metals, such as iron or copper, and can prove that the main cause of expansion in metals is heat.

How The Method of Experiment Was Founded In The 17th Century

In the Middle Ages, the Church had tremendous power in Europe. Scientific research and discussions and in fact reading any reports of scientists of that era was totally forbidden by Church leaders throughout Europe.

It was also forbidden to reason and discuss, and they wanted human beings to forget that they possessed brains and intellects, and wanted them to convince themselves only by what they could find in the divine book and what they could comprehend with their external senses. But even through this restricted way, science made itself known.

The searchers of the truth thought it was better just to observe nature and its effects. This occupation was not forbidden by the church leaders and therefore was not dangerous, because in their opinion, it was better than attacking Ptolemy's theories. They observed how the matters in nature worked and there was no harm to the church in counting the stars.

Bacon: The Famous English Philosopher's Methods

A young researcher named Francis Bacon used to think that the methods which were taught at that time in the universities belonged to the olden days and that those methods could not convince students. They never spent any time on experiments or observation. Throughout his lifetime Bacon, although busy with various jobs, considered the introduction of new methods of science to be an important duty. In two of his famous books, one which concerned the progress and value of science and another, called New Organ, Bacon attempted to attract the attention of people to scientific research by experiment. Bacon's method was to collect as many facts as possible about a given thing, and then evaluate and classify them.

In every case, he conducted different experiments and reached the result in accordance with their qualities and divided them into different groups in a table called“attendants” and another one of“absents” , and he called them the graded table. By this grading, classification andlevelling he formed several rules.