Table of Contents
Translator’s Introduction. 12
The Author 17
The Translation. 20
References 22
Part I: Introductory Discussions 23
Lesson One: A Glance at the Course of Philosophical Thought: (From Its Origins to the Islamic Epoch) 24
The Beginning of Philosophical Thought 24
The Appearance of Sophism and Skepticism. 24
The Period of the Flourishing of Philosophy. 25
The End of Greek Philosophy. 26
The Dawn of the Sun of Islam. 26
The Development of Philosophy in the Islamic Epoch. 27
References 29
Lesson Two: A Glance at the Course of Philosophical Thought (from the Middle Ages to the Eighteenth Century) 30
Scholastic Philosophy. 30
The Renaissance and the Comprehensive Change in Thinking. 30
The Second Phase of Skepticism. 31
The Peril of Skepticism. 32
Modern Philosophy. 32
The Fundamentality of Experience and Modern Skepticism. 33
Kant’s Critical Philosophy. 33
Lesson Three: A Glance at the Course of Philosophical Thought (in the last two centuries) 35
Objective Idealism. 35
Positivism. 36
Rationalism and Empiricism. 36
Dialectical Materialism. 37
Pragmatism. 37
A Brief Comparison. 38
Reference 40
Lesson Four: The Technical Meanings of “Science” and “Philosophy” 41
Introduction. 41
Homonymity. 41
The Technical Meaning of “Science” 43
The Technical Meaning of “Philosophy” 44
Scientific Philosophy. 44
Reference 46
Lesson Five: Philosophy and The Sciences 47
The Philosophy of the Sciences 47
Metaphysics 47
Science, Philosophy, Metaphysics and The Relations among Them. 48
The Division and Classification of the Sciences 49
The Standard for Distinguishing among the Sciences 49
Whole and Universal 50
The Branches of the Sciences 51
Lesson Six: What is Philosophy?. 52
The Relation between Subjects and Problems 52
The Principles of the Sciences and their Relationships with Subjects and Problems 54
The Subjects and Problems of Philosophy. 54
The Definition of Philosophy. 56
Lesson Seven: The Position of Philosophy 57
The Essence of the Problems of Philosophy. 57
The Principles of Philosophy. 59
The Aim of Philosophy. 60
Lesson Eight: The Method of Philosophical Inquiry 62
The Evaluation of the Rational Method. 62
Analogy, Induction and Deduction. 63
Rational Method and Empirical Method. 64
Conclusions 65
The Scope of the Rational and Empirical Methods 65
Lesson Nine: The Relation between Philosophy and the Sciences 67
The Relations among the Sciences 67
The Assistance given by Philosophy to the Sciences 67
The Assistance given by the Sciences to Philosophy. 69
The Relation between Philosophy and Gnosis (‘Irfān) 71
The Assistance given by Philosophy to Gnosis (‘Irfān) 72
The Assistance given by Gnosis (‘Irfān) to Philosophy. 72
Lesson Ten: The Necessity of Philosophy 73
The Man of the Age 73
Social Schools 74
The Mystery of Humanity. 75
The Solution to Some Problems 76
Part II: Epistemology. 79
Lesson Eleven: Introduction to Epistemology 80
The Importance of Epistemology. 80
A Brief Overview of the History of Epistemology. 80
Knowledge in Islamic Philosophy. 81
The Definition of Epistemology. 83
References 85
Lesson Twelve: The Self-Evidence of the Principles of Epistemology 86
The Nature of the Dependence of Philosophy on Epistemology. 86
The Possibility of Knowledge 87
A Survey of the Claims of the Skeptics 88
The Rejection of the Doubts of the Skeptics 89
Lesson Thirteen: The Divisions of Knowledge 91
In Search of the Cornerstone of Knowledge 91
The First Division of Science 91
Knowledge by Presence 92
The Reason Behind the Infallibility of Presentational Knowledge: 94
The Concomitance of Acquired Knowledge with Presentational Knowledge 94
Gradation in Knowledge by Presence 95
References 97
Lesson Fourteen: Acquired Knowledge 98
The Necessity for the Survey of Acquired Knowledge 98
Idea and Affirmation. 98
Elements of the Proposition. 98
Divisions of Ideas 99
Universal Ideas 100
A Study of Universal Concepts 101
A Response to a Doubt 102
A Survey of Other Views 103
References 104
Lesson Fifteen: Types of Universal Concepts 105
Types of Intelligibles 105
Characteristics of Each of the Types of Intelligibles 106
Respectival (I‘tibārī) Concepts 107
Ethical and Legal Concepts 107
Ought and Ought Not 108
Legal and Ethical Subjects 109
References 111
Lesson Sixteen: Empiricism. 112
Positivism. 112
A Critique of Positivism. 112
The Priority of Sensation or Intellect 113
Lesson Seventeen: The Role of the Intellect and Sensation in Ideas 116
The Fundamentality of the Intellect or Sensation for Ideas 116
The Table of the Categories 117
Critique 117
Inquiry into a Problem. 118
Lesson Eighteen: The Role of the Intellect and Sensation in Affirmations 121
Points about Affirmations 121
Inquiry about a Problem. 123
Reference 126
Lesson Nineteen: The Value of Knowledge 127
Return to the Original Problem. 127
What is Truth? 127
Criteria for the Recognition of the Truth. 128
Inquiry into a Problem. 129
The Criteria of Truth and Falsity of Propositions 130
The Case Itself (Nafs al-Amr) 131
Lesson Twenty: The Evaluation of Ethical and Legal Propositions 133
Features of Ethical and Legal Knowledge 133
The Criterion for the Truth and Falsity of Evaluative Propositions 133
A Review of the Most Famous Opinions 134
Inquiry about a Problem. 135
Answer to an Objection. 137
Relativism in Ethics and Law. 137
The Difference between Legal and Ethical Propositions 138
Part III: Ontology. 139
Lesson Twenty-One: Introduction to Ontology 140
Introduction to the Lesson. 140
Warnings about Concepts 140
Warnings about Language 142
The Self-evidence (Badāhat) of the Concept of Existence 143
The Relation between Existence and Perception. 143
Reference 145
Lesson Twenty-Two: The Concept of Existence 146
The Unity of the Concept of Existence 146
The Substantival Concept and the Copulative Concept of Existence 147
Existence and Existents 148
Lesson Twenty-Three: Entified Reality 150
The Self-evidence (Badāhat) of Entified Reality. 150
Ways to Deny Reality. 150
The Secret of the Self-Evidence of Entified Reality. 152
The Source of Belief in Material Reality. 153
Reference 155
Lesson Twenty-Four: Existence and Whatness 156
The Relation between the Topics of Existence and Whatness 156
How the Mind Becomes Acquainted with the Concept of Existence 158
How the Mind Becomes Acquainted with Whatness 159
Lesson Twenty-Five: Precepts of Whatness 161
Respects of Whatness 161
Natural Universals 162
The Cause of the Individuation of Whatness 164
Lesson Twenty-Six: Introduction to the Fundamentality of Existence 167
A Brief Look at the History of the Problem. 167
Explanation of Terms 167
Explanation of the Point of Contention. 170
The Benefits of the Discussion. 171
References 173
Lesson Twenty-Seven: The Fundamentality of Existence 174
Arguments for the Fundamentality of Existence 174
Philosophical Metaphor 175
The Resolution of Two Doubts 177
References 180
Lesson Twenty-Eight: Unity and Multiplicity 181
Remarks on Some Issues Pertaining to Whatnesses 181
Types of Unity and Multiplicity. 182
The Unity of the Concept of Existence 183
The Graduated and the Uniform. 184
Reference 186
Lesson Twenty-Nine: Unity and Multiplicity in Entified Existence 187
Individual Unity. 187
The Unity of the World. 190
Lesson Thirty: The Levels of Existence 192
Positions on the Unity and Plurality of Being. 192
The First Argument for Graduated Levels of Existence 194
The Second Argument for Graduated Levels of Existence 196
Part IV: Causality. 198
Lesson Thirty-One: Cause and Effect 199
Introduction. 199
The Concepts of Cause and Effect 199
The Ways in which the Mind becomes Acquainted with these Concepts 200
Types of Cause 201
References 204
Lesson Thirty-Two: The Principle of Causation 205
The Importance of the Principle of Causation. 205
The Purport of the Principle of Causation. 206
The Criterion of the Need for a Cause 207
Reference 210
Lesson Thirty-Three: The Causal Relation 211
The Reality of the Causal Relation. 211
Knowledge of the Causal Relation. 212
Distinguishing Features of Cause and Effect 213
Lesson Thirty-Four: The Causal Relation among Material Things 216
The Cause of Belief in the Causal Relation among Material Things 216
An Evaluation of the Above-mentioned Belief 217
The Way to the Knowledge of Material Causes 218
Lesson Thirty-Five: The Dependence of the Effect on the Cause 220
The Mutual Implication of Cause and Effect 220
The Simultaneity of Cause and Effect 220
The Persistence of the Effect is also in Need of a Cause 222
Lesson Thirty-Six: The Relations of Cause and Effect 225
The Homogeneity (Sinkhiyyah) of Cause and Effect 225
The Removal of a Doubt 226
Unity of an Effect for Unity of a Cause 227
Unity of Cause for Unity of Effect 228
Lesson Thirty-Seven: The Principles of Cause and Effect 230
Some Points regarding Cause and Effect 230
The Impossibility of a Causal Circle 231
The Impossibility of an Infinite Regress 233
Lesson Thirty-Eight: The Efficient Cause 235
Introduction. 235
The Efficient Cause and its Types 235
Points Regarding the Types of Agent 237
Will and Freedom. 238
Will 238
Freedom. 238
Reference 241
Lesson Thirty-Nine: The Final Cause 242
An Analysis regarding Free Actions 242
Perfection and Goodness 243
The End and the Final Cause 244
Reference 248
Lesson Forty: The Purposefulness of the Cosmos 249
Introduction. 249
Aristotle’s View regarding the Final Cause 249
Criticism. 249
The Solution to Several Problems 250
The Purposefulness of the Cosmos 252
Reference 254
Part V: The Material and the Immaterial 255
Lesson Forty-One: The Material and the Immaterial 256
Introduction. 256
The Meaning of ‘Immaterial’ and ‘Material’ 257
Characteristics of Corporeal and Immaterial Beings 258
References 260
Lesson Forty-Two: What is Location? 261
Introduction. 261
The Problem of Space and Time 261
The Difference between ‘Space’ and ‘Spatial Location’ and between ‘Time’ and ‘Temporal Location’ 262
The Reality of Space 263
Reference 265
Lesson Forty-Three: What is Time?. 266
Discussion about the Reality of Time 266
Lesson Forty-Four: Kinds of Substances 269
Theories about the Kinds of Substances 269
Corporeal Substances 270
Psychic Substances 271
Two Proofs for the Immateriality of the Soul 272
Lesson Forty-Five: Continuation of the Discussion of the Kinds of Substance 273
Intellectual Substance 273
The Doctrine of the Nobler Contingent 273
Imaginal Substance 275
Reference 278
Lesson Forty-Six: Matter and Form. 279
Views of the Philosophers on Matter and Form. 279
An Argument for the Aristotelian Theory. 280
Critique 281
References 285
Lesson Forty-Seven: Accidents 286
Views of Philosophers about Accidents 286
Quantity. 286
Relational Categories 287
Reference 290
Lesson Forty-Eight: Quality. 291
The Category of Quality. 291
Psychic Qualities 291
Sensible Qualities 292
Qualities Specific to Quantities 292
Dispositional Qualities 293
Conclusions 294
References 296
Lesson Forty-Nine: The Reality of Knowledge 297
Introduction. 297
A Review of the Types of Knowledge 297
The Reality of Knowledge by Presence 298
The Nature of Acquired Knowledge 299
The Immateriality of Perception. 300
Lesson Fifty: The Union of the Knower and the Known 303
Introduction. 303
The Controversy. 303
Explanation of the Topic 303
Types of Union of Existence 304
A Review of the Theory of Ṣadr al-Muta’allihīn. 305
Inquiry into a Problem. 307
References 308
Part VI: The Immutable and the Changing 309
Lesson Fifty-One: The Immutable and the Changing 310
Introduction. 310
An Explanation Regarding Change and Immutability. 310
Types of Change 311
The Positions of the Philosophers Regarding the Types of Change 312
Lesson Fifty-Two: The Potential and the Actual 314
Introduction. 314
An Explanation of the Concepts of the Potential and the Actual 314
The Division of Existents into the Actual and the Potential 315
The Relation between the Potential and the Actual 316
Reference 319
Lesson Fifty-Three: A Continuation of the Discussion of the Potential and the Actual 320
The Correspondence of Potentiality and Actuality in the Case of Change 320
Infinite Regresses of Material Events 321
The Principle of the Necessity of the Priority of Matter to Material Events 321
The Temporal Creation of the Material World. 322
Reference 324
Lesson Fifty-Four: Generation and Corruption 325
Introduction. 325
The Concepts of Generation and Corruption. 325
The Presence of Two Forms in a Single Matter 326
The Relation of Generation and Corruption to Motion. 328
Lesson Fifty-Five: Motion. 330
The Concept of Motion. 330
The Existence of Motion. 330
Problems Raised by those who Deny the Existence of Motion and their Solution 331
Lesson Fifty-Six: Properties of Motion 334
The Constituent Factors of Motion. 334
The Features of Motion. 334
The Requirements of Motion. 335
Lesson Fifty-Seven: Divisions of Motion 339
Introduction. 339
Divisions of Motion on the Basis of Acceleration. 339
The Evolution of the Moved due to Motion. 341
Lesson Fifty-Eight: Motion in Accidents 344
Introduction. 344
Spatial Motion. 344
Motion in Position. 345
Motion in Quality. 345
Motion in Quantity. 346
Lesson Fifty-Nine: Motion in Substance 348
Introduction. 348
Objections to Substantial Motion. 348
Answers to the Objections 348
Arguments for the Existence of Substantial Motion. 349
Lesson Sixty: Further Discussion of Substantial Motion 353
A Reminder of Some Points 353
Types of Substantial Motion. 354
The Relation between Substantial Motion and Actuality and Potentiality. 354
The Continuity of Substantial Motion. 356
Vertical Continuity. 356
Horizontal Continuity. 357
Part VII: Theology. 358
Lesson Sixty-One: The Way to Know God 359
Introduction. 359
The Science of Theology and its Subject 359
The Innateness of Knowledge of God. 360
The Possibility of Demonstrating the Existence of God. 361
Demonstrations from Cause to Effect and from Effect to Cause 362
References 363
Lesson Sixty-Two: Demonstrations of the Necessary Existent 364
Introduction. 364
First Demonstration (The Argument from Contingency) 365
The Second Demonstration (Ibn Sīnā’s Demonstration) 366
The Third Demonstration (Mullā Ṣadrā’s Demonstration) 367
References 369
Lesson Sixty-Three: Tawhīd. 370
The Meaning of Tawhīd. 370
Tawhīd in the Necessity of Existence 370
The Negation of Actual Parts 371
The Negation of Potential Parts, Time and Space in God. 371
The Refutation of Analytic Parts 372
Reference 374
Lesson Sixty-Four: The Unity of Divine Actions 375
Introduction. 375
Unity in Creation and Lordship. 375
Unity in the Emanation of Existence 377
The Refutation of Compulsion and Delegation. 377
Lesson Sixty-Five: The Divine Attributes 379
Introduction. 379
The Limits to Knowing God. 379
The Role of Reason in Knowing God. 380
Positive and Negative Attributes 380
Attributes of Essence and Attributes of Action. 381
Lesson Sixty-Six: Attributes of Essence 384
Introduction. 384
Life 384
Knowledge 385
Knowledge of Essence 385
Knowledge of Creatures 386
Power 387
References 389
Lesson Sixty-Seven: Attributes of Action 390
Introduction. 390
Hearing and Seeing. 390
Speaking. 390
Will 391
The Concept of Will 391
The Reality of Will 391
Wisdom and the Best Order 392
Reference 395
Lesson Sixty-Eight: The Purpose of Creation 396
Introduction. 396
Purpose and Final Cause 396
Some Points 397
The Purposefulness of God, the Supreme 398
References 401
Lesson Sixty-Nine: Divine Decree and Destiny 402
Introduction. 402
The Concepts of Destiny and Decree 402
A Philosophical Explanation of Destiny and Decree 402
Levels of Action. 403
The Relation of Destiny and Decree to Human Volition: 405
The Benefits of this Discussion. 406
Reference 408
Lesson Seventy: Good and Evil in the Cosmos 409
Introduction. 409
The Concepts of Good and Evil 409
A Philosophical Analysis of Good and Evil 410
The Secret of the Evils of the Cosmos 412