Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Alhassanain (p) Network for Islamic Heritage and Thought

The Philosophy OfAlfarabi And Its Influence On Medieval Thought

By REV. ROBERT HAMMOND

THE HOBSON BOOK PRESS

New York.

[1947]

www.sacred-texts.com/

www.alhassanain.org/english

Table of Contents

PREFACE 5

LIFE AND WORKS 6

INTRODUCTION 7

CHARACTERS OF ALFARABI'S PHILOSOPHY 7

WHAT MUST PRECEDE THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY 7

DEFINITION AND DIVISION OF PHILOSOPHY 8

I LOGIC 8

II THEORETICAL 8

III PRACTICAL 8

PART I: LOGICAL 9

Chapter I: LOGIC 9

MENTAL OPERATIONS 9

THE CATEGORIES 9

CERTAIN QUESTIONS ON THE CATEGORIES 10

Part II: THEORETICAL PHILOSOPHY 12

Chapter II: METAPHYSICS 12

MEANING AND DIVISION 12

1- ONTOLOGY 12

UNIVERSALS 12

DESCRIPTION OF BEING 13

TRANSCENDENTAL PROPERTIES OF BEING 14

DIVISION OF BEING INTO NECESSARY AND CONTINGENT 14

METAPHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF BEING POTENTIALITY AND ACTUALITY 14

THE FIRST PRINCIPLES 15

2- METAPHYSICAL THEOLOGY 16

THE KNOWABILITY OF GOD 17

PROOFS OF GOD'S EXISTENCE 17

PROOFS ADDUCED BY ALFARABI 17

1. The Proof of Motion 17

PROOFS ADDUCED BY ST. THOMAS 17

1. The Proof of Motion 17

2. Proof of Efficient Cause 18

ALFARABI 18

ST. THOMAS 18

Another form of the same proof: 18

ALFARABI 18

3. Proof of Contingence 18

ALFARABI 18

ST. THOMAS 18

HOW MAN ACQUIRES KNOWLEDGE OF GOD'S NATURE AND OF HIS ATTRIBUTES 19

(A) Process of Exclusion 20

SIMPLICITY OF GOD 20

ATTRIBUTES CONSIDERED BY ST. THOMAS 20

ATTRIBUTES CONSIDERED BY ALFARABI 21

INFINITY OF GOD 21

ALFARABI 21

ST. THOMAS 21

IMMUTABILITY OF GOD 21

ALFARABI 21

ST. THOMAS 21

UNITY OF GOD 21

ALFARABI 21

ST. THOMAS 22

(B) Process of Pre-eminence 22

GOD IS INTELLIGENT 22

ALFARABI 22

ST. THOMAS 23

GOD KNOWS ALL THINGS THROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF HIMSELF 23

ALFARABI 23

ST. THOMAS 23

GOD IS TRUTH 23

ALFARABI 23

ST. THOMAS 23

GOD IS LIFE 23

ALFARABI 24

ST. THOMAS 24

3- METAPHYSICAL COSMOLOGY 24

RELATION OF GOD TO THE WORLD 24

ETERNITY OF MATTER AND ETERNITY OF THE WORLD 25

DUALISM OF GOOD AND EVIL 25

4- METAPHYSICAL PSYCHOLOGY 26

THE SOUL IS A BEING QUITE DISTINCT FROM THE BODY 26

SPIRITUALITY OF THE HUMAN SOUL 26

IMMORTALITY OF THE HUMAN SOUL 26

Chapter III: PSYCHOLOGY 28

GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE POWERS OF THE SOUL 28

1- THE POWERS OF KNOWLEDGE 28

SENSE-KNOWLEDGE 28

ALFARABI 28

ST. THOMAS 28

ALFARABI 29

ST. THOMAS 29

PERCEPTIVE KNOWLEDGE AND PERCEPTS CONTRASTED WITH CONCEPTS 29

ABSTRACTIVE KNOWLEDGE 30

ALFARABI 31

ST. THOMAS 31

ALFARABI 32

ST. THOMAS 32

2- POWERS OF ACTION 32

SENSITIVE APPETITE 32

INTELLECTIVE APPETITE 33

PART III: PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY 34

CHAPTER IV: ETHICS 34

ACTIONS--GOOD, BAD, INDIFFERENT 34

CHAPTER V: POLITICAL SOCIETY 35

DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL STATE 35

CONCLUSION 38

BIBLIOGRAPHY 40

Notes 41

PREFACE

The purpose of this book is to present, in as brief and systematic a way, the whole philosophy ofAlfarabi and the influence it exerted on Medieval Thought. My efforts in this field were prompted by a sincere desire to render service to philosophy and to those who are fond of philosophy. Therefore, in outliningAlfarabi's Philosophy I shall bring out, as far as possible, the elements it has in common with Scholasticism.

My efforts will have been amply rewarded if the study of this book enables the reader to find through its pages two facts: first, thatAlfarabi was well acquainted with Greek philosophy; so well acquainted, in fact, that he was able, through diligent study, to perfect some of its old theories and work out new ones. Second, that the Schoolmen borrowed from him a great amount of material which hitherto has been regarded by many as a product of their speculation, while in reality it is not. In all justice toAlfarabi and other Arabian thinkers, we should candidly admit that Christian philosophy owes a great deal to them.

It is good for the reader to know that in writing this book, I used the Arabic works ofAlfarabi . I read them with care, and when anything attracted my attention, I tried to examine it closely.

My heartfelt thanks are due to my many friends for their kind encouragement and valuable suggestions. To Father Arnold Rodriguez, O. F. M., of St. Francis Cathedral, Santa Fe, I am especially indebted for his kindness in editing and typing this manuscript.

Robert Hammond

Tucumcari, New Mexico

August 10, 1946

LIFE AND WORKS

Alfarabi , Muhammad BenTarkhan Abu NasrAlfarabi , was born atFarb (nowOtrar ) toward the end of the ninth century of our era. Though of Turkish descent, he received his philosophical training under the tutorship of the Christian philosopher,Yuhanna BenHailan . Later he went to Baghdad, at that time the center of Greek philosophy. Going to Aleppo, he lived at the court ofSeif-Eddaula Ali BenHamdan , arousing the admiration of all by his skill in dialectics. After a lengthy stay at Aleppo he went to Damascus with his patron, where he died in December of the year 950 A.D.

In logic he wrote Introduction to Logic and Abridgment of Logic. In the natural sciences he wrote commentaries on Aristotle's Physics, Meteorology, DeCoelo etMundo . He also wrote an essay on The Movement of the Heavenly Spheres.

In Psychology he wrote a commentary on Alexander ofAphrodisias ' De Anima as well as various treatises on the Soul, the Power of the Soul, the Unity and the One, on the Intelligence and the Intelligible (i.e. on the various meanings of the word“intellect” as found in Aristotle.)

In Metaphysics he wrote essays on Substance, Time, Space and Measure, and various treatises entitled The Gems of Wisdom, A Letter in Reply to Certain Questions, The Sources of Questions, The Knowledge of the Creator.

In Ethics he wrote a commentary on theNicomachean Ethics of Aristotle. Of his original works the following are best known:

Encyclopedia, in which he gives a brief account and definition of all branches of science and art.

Political Regime, which is known as the Book of Principles. The reading of this book is recommended by Maimonides in these terms:“I recommend you to read no works on Logic other than those of the philosopher Abu NasrAlfarabi , since all that he wrote, especially the Book of Principles, is as fine flour.”

INTRODUCTION

CHARACTERS OF ALFARABI'S PHILOSOPHY

Alfarabi is a Neo-Platonist inasmuch as his mystic tendencies are numerous in his Metaphysics, Psychology and Political thought. As a Neo-Platonist, he follows the groundwork of the Neo-Platonic doctrine made of religious Mysticism andEmanatist Monism. Thus,Alfarabi's philosophy is entirelytheocentric in the sense that it holds God as the center of the universe. God is One; this One is the Absolute which transcends everything. From the One flows the plurality of things gradually coming down the scale of perfection to the existence of matter. The goal of man is to return to God. This return is to be accomplished by virtue and philosophical thought.

Like the Neo-Platonists,Alfarabi holds in his treatise on The Agreement Between Plato and Aristotle, that there is no essential difference between the philosophy of Plato and that of Aristotle.1 Therefore, theEmanatist Monism as well as the reconciliation of Plato and Aristotle may be regarded as the outstanding features which makeAlfarabi's philosophy depend on that of Plotinus. But outside of these Neo-Platonic features, all the philosophy ofAlfarabi may he said to be saturated withAristotelism which, by its empirical method, suited better his scientific mind.

WHAT MUST PRECEDE THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY

Alfarabi lays down several rules for teachers honestly striving to train youth in philosophy. No youth should start the study of philosophy before he is well acquainted with the natural sciences. For, human nature requires a gradual rise from the imperfect to the perfect. Mathematics is a very important subject in training the mind of the young philosopher because it helps him pass easily from the sensible to the intelligible, and also because it familiarizes his mind with exact demonstrations.2

The study of Logic, as an instrument to distinguish the true from the false, is of great educational value before beginning the study of philosophy proper.3

The training of one's own character, instincts and tendencies must come before entering into philosophy, for unless that is done, the chances are that the student will never fully grasp the higher and more solid truths, because his mind is still clouded by sensibility.4

Philosophy is studied primarily to obtain a knowledge of God as the Creator and Efficient Cause of all things, the One, Immovable.5

The student of philosophy must be instructed in the sources from which the different philosophies take their names. For example, he should be told that some philosophies derive their names from the manner in which they are taught, such as the philosophy ofPeripateticism , which was discussed with students while walking up and down a garden. He should be taught that other philosophies take their names from the author, such as Platonism from Plato andAristotelism from Aristotle; and that others take their names from the goal they propose, such asEpicurism , setting pleasure as an end.6

In teaching, two extremes must be avoided. The teacher must be neither excessively strict nor excessively lenient. For, if he is too strict he errs through excess and if he is too lenient, he errs through defect. If the teacher becomes unpopular be-cause of his severity, his excessive leniency will also tend to make him unworthy of respect. The teacher, therefore, should avoid excess as well as defect.7

The young man must be persuaded to persevere in the study of philosophy by calling his attention now and then to the old Arabic saying,“The drop wears away the stone” ,--”Gutta cavat lapidem ”.8

The teacher should see that his student attends only to one thing at a time. For, only one thing can be well mastered at a time. The reason for this rule is to have the student concentrate his attention upon the object of study and make a success of it.9

DEFINITION AND DIVISION OF PHILOSOPHY

ForAlfarabi , philosophy is nothing else than thought, that is, the science of concepts. The end of philosophy is to know God as the Creator of heaven and earth.

Alfarabi's philosophy can be divided into Logic, Theoretical philosophy and Practical philosophy. The Theoretical could be subdivided into Metaphysics and Psychology, while the Practical philosophy into Ethics and Politics.

I LOGIC

II THEORETICAL

--Metaphysics

--Psychology

III PRACTICAL

--Ethics

--Politics

PART I: LOGICAL

Chapter I: LOGIC

In LogicAlfarabi follows Aristotle. He has, however, his own original views. His Logic deals with concepts, judgments and reasoning.

MENTAL OPERATIONS

According toAlfarabi , a concept is an idea that represents the objective essence or the essential notes of a thing. It is the object of the first mental operation, called conception.“Concepts,” saysAlfarabi ,“are determined by definition; definition declares what a thing is. Through definition concepts are so arranged and systematized that they imply one another until we arrive at the most universal ones, which do not presuppose others, such as Being, Necessary Being, Contingent Being. Such concepts are self-evident. A man's mind may be directed to them and his soul may be cognizant of them, but they cannot be demonstrated to him. Nor can they be explained by deriving them from what is known, since they are already clear in themselves, and that with the highest degree of certitude.” 10

ForAlfarabi , judgment is the combination of a particular entity with a universal idea. The synthesis of the particular with the universal is never evident of itself. That explains why we must seek a second universal with which the first universal and the particular agree. Once we find a second universal with which the two terms of the judgment agree, both of these will agree too, between themselves, according to the principle which is the supreme law of every syllogism,“Two things which are equal to the same thing, are equal to each other.” Thus, for instance, the judgment,“The world is made” is not so clear as to permit the union of the particular“world” with the universal“made” . There is a term of mediation for both, and this is the universal“Composed” .11

InAlfarabi's opinion, the process of reasoning by which we start from what is known and well established and proceed to a knowledge of the unknown, is Logic strictly speaking.12 Philosophy, therefore, is mediation, reasoning and demonstration. Is philosophy only that and nothing else? Certainly not. There is something that cannot be mediated or demonstrated, namely, the First Principles.

The First Principles are those of Contradiction, Causality and of Excluded Middle. Such principles are self-evident, be-cause they have in themselves their own demonstration.

THE CATEGORIES

All our concepts could be classified under ten headings, called categories. For, the categories are a complete enumeration of everything that can enter into judgment, either as a subject or predicate.Alfarabi , following Aristotle, enumerates ten: Sub-stance, Quantity, Quality, Relation, Place, Time, Action, Passion, Posture and Having. Such categories, inAlfarabi's view, have been empirically gathered by Aristotle. Observing the things which make the universe, Aristotle found that some of them exist in themselves and are basis of certain accidents or differences. The things existing in themselves he called“substances” and the differences he called“accidents.”

Aristotle then asked,“How many kinds of accidents are there?” He noticed that substance is divisible and therefore capable of more or less; thus he named Quantity the first accident-category. Realizing that substance has capacity of acquiring certain characteristics, like,“Peter is good,” Paul is a philosopher,” Aristotle lost no time in selecting Quality as the second accident-category.

Because substances are inter-related in the sense that the concept of one implies the other, Aristotle lost no time in choosing Relation as the third accident-category. The relation between time and a thing in time led him to name Time in the fourth place. Because of the relation between different objects in space or the relation between place and the thing placed, Aristotle set aside Place as the fifth accident-category. The ability of substance to take various positions helped him select Posture as the sixth accident-category. The physical influence of substance on the production of another substance made him call Action as the seventh accident-category. Since substance is influenced by the efficient cause, he chose Passion as the eighth accident-category. Finally the relation of the thing having and the thing had made him pick Having as the ninth accident-category.13

CERTAIN QUESTIONS ON THE CATEGORIES

In treating the Categories,Alfarabi gave the answer to certain questions that had worried the Logicians of his time. First of all, he believes that not all the ten Categories are absolutely simple. Each is simple when compared with those that are below it. But only four are absolutely simple, namely, Sub-stance, Quality, Quantity and Posture. Action and Passion come from substance and quality; time and place from substance and quantity; Having occurs between two substances; Relation between two of the ten categories.14

There are degrees in the simplicity of the Categories. For instance, Quantity and Quality depend directly on substance, so much so that to exist both need only a substance. On the contrary, Relation needs several things, perhaps two substances, or a substance and an accident, or two accidents.15

When asked whether Action and Passion, which are found together, should be classified in the category of Relation,Alfarabi answers in the negative. For“when we find one thing always with another,” he says,“it does not follow that there is a dependence of relation between them.” For example, we find respiration only with the lungs, the day only with sunrise, accident only with substance, the spoken word only with the tongue. Now all these things are not to be classified in the dependence of Relation, but rather in that of necessity. Necessity may be essential necessity, as that of the birth of the day upon the rising of the sun; and accidental necessity as that of the departure ofZeid upon the arrival ofAmron . Furthermore, there is complete necessity when one thing exists by reason of the other, as father and son; while it is incomplete necessity when the dependence of relation is unilateral, as one and two, the two depends on the one, but the one does not depend on the two.16

We ask whether the Equal and the Unequal are a property of Quantity, and the Similar and Dissimilar a property of Quality. According toAlfarabi , each of the two terms Equal and Unequal, taken separately, is a property of Quantity, while if both terms are taken together, they are descriptive of Quantity. The same is true of Similar and Dissimilar in reference to Quality.17

In regard to the theory of Contraries,Alfarabi makes some very profound observations.“Is the contrary the absence (privation) of its contrary? Is white the absence of black?” asksAlfarabi . He answers saying,“It is not. For, white is something and not merely the absence of black. Since the absence of black is a fact in the existence of white, we are led to say that every contrary is the absence of its contrary.” 18

People say that the science of the contraries is one. ButAlfarabi says that a distinction must be made, for“If we deal with the science of something which happens to have a contrary, then that science is not identical with that of its contrary. The science of the Just is not that of the Unjust, the knowledge of White is not the knowledge of Black. On the other hand, if we deal with the science of something insofar as it has a contrary, then this science is one with that of its contrary, because in this sense the two contraries are really and truly two relatives.” 19

“Opposites and Contraries differ and must be distinguished one from the other,” saysAlfarabi .“Opposites are two things which cannot exist in the same object at the same time and in the same respect, as the quality of father and son. Opposites are a part of Relatives proper. Contraries are odd and even, affirmation and negation, sight and blindness.” 20

Some ask how many things are necessary to the knowledge of the unknown.“Two things are necessary and sufficient,” answersAlfarabi .“If there are more than two, this means that they are not necessary to the knowledge of the object under investigation.” 21

“Is the proposition, “Man exists” a judgment with or without a predicate?” asksAlfarabi .“If man is considered from the natural and objective viewpoint,” he answers,“the judgment is without a predicate because the fact of existence is one with man and cannot be distinguished from him, while the predicate denotes distinction from the thing to which it is referred. From a logical point of view, the judgment has a predicate, because it is made up of two terms which may be either true or false.” 22

In Logic tooAlfarabi makes some brilliant and original observations, and gives evidence of a great knowledge of theOrganon andIsagoge .