Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Axiology

Axiology, is taken from the Greek word “Axia ”, which means “value”, “worthiness”, it is a theory of value. It seems thatthe term was first used byLotze , and they by Brentano, Husserl,Scheler , Nicolai, Hartmann and others , chiefly for general format theory of value.Scheler contrasted it withpraxeology , a general theory of action, but ithas for the most part been contrasted with deontology, a theory of morally right action (Maunter , 2005).

Axiology denotes a value theory that typically indicates the nature, kinds, criteria, and status of values and value judgments and attempts to resolve such disputes as whether values are subjective or objective. Although moral value is important such as religious and aesthetic one, “Axiological ethics” determines right and wrong actions by reference to their ends, consequences, often identical to theological ethics (Findlay, 1970; cited by Childress, 2000).

Agathology is another word, whichcan be used in this field.Agathology is taken from the Greek “agathos ” (good) and “logos” (discourse),agathology is the science or theory of the good (Macquarrie and Childress, 2001).

Yaqar is an adjective occurring about forty times in the Bible with the primary meaning “precious” or “valuable.” The love of God is described as “precious” (Ps. 36:7), as are the people of God (Lam. 4:2).And lady wisdom in prov. 3:15 is declared to be “more valuable “than jewels (Renn , 2005).

In some cases, the word “goodness”has been applied in the Bible in the sense of “perfection” or “completeness” in Gen. 1:4ff, as God’s assessment of his creative endeavors. Other examples of his senseare found in pass. 136:1; 145:9, which point to the goodness of God given at Sinai.

“God” in the sense of high quality is indicated, for example, in reference to gold in the land of Eden (Gen. 2:12); cattle (Gen. 18:7), trees (2Kgs . 3:25); figs (Jer. 24:2); the intelligence of Abigail (1 Sam. 25:3). The fertility of Cancan is also described this way (e.g., Exod. 3:8; Num. 14:7; Josh. 23:13ff; 1kgs . 14:13).

The sense of “goodness” as a moral or spiritual virtue is found in Gen. 2:17; 3:5 in reference to the “tree of knowledge of good and evil.” Material blessing from God is also described as that which is “good” (cf. Gen. 50:20;1 Sam. 24:19; Ps. 107:9).

Also, that which is “good” include the blessing of God in a general sense (e.g. pass. 23:6; 118; Jer. 21:10; Amos 7:4); kindness (cf. 2 Sam. 3:13); God’s protection (cf. Ezra 7:9; 8:18; Neh. 2:8); that which is pleasing to the Lord (cf. 1Kgs . 14:13); and that which brings comfort (cf. 2Kgs . 20:19), (Renn , 2005).

“Doing well”, that is, acting in accordance with God’s character, is mentioned in Gen. 4:7 in relation to the warning God gives to Cain after the murder of his brother Abel. “Doing good” in a general sense in referred to in Lev. 5:4; Ps. 36:3; Jer. 10:5.

The nominal meaning “good” in the sense of “that which is morally upright”, including people, is indicated in Matt. 5:45; 12:35; John 5:29; Rom. 2:10; 7:13, 18; 9:11; Eph. 6:8. Elsewhere, “good” denotes “ultimate spiritual benefit” in Rom. 8:28;2 Cor. 5:10; Heb. 9:11; 10:1 (Renn , 2005).

In relation to ethical standards, data in the Bible refers to the knowledge of right living, wisdom, and understanding in Gen. 2:19, 17; prov. 1:29; 2:6; 6:9ff; 12:1; 13:16; 23:12, prov. 1:7 defines the beginning of knowledge as the fear of God (Renn , 2005). Moral principles are meaningful and unchanging, because they reflect absolute moral realities (Peterson, 1986).

Islam has introduced absolute and unchangeable values. The reason of their unchanged ability is that they are based on man’s unchangeable nature, and since man’s nature does not change, “there is no changing God’s creation” (30:30), therefore, those values do not change as well, that is all men in all times and in all places consider them inherently and naturally valuable.

Islam itself is a collection of these very values, and the reason of eternality and exchangeability of Islamis summarized in the above point: “set thy face to the religion, a man of pure faith - God’s original upon which He originated mankind” (30:30).

Since man’s nature does not change, thus Islam and Islamic values that are quite consistent with man’s nature does not change too.Therefore, it can be deducted that the Divine religion is not an unfamiliar set and, collection for human being, rather it is the very familiar story that all humans has naturally an inherent acquaintance with it, and it was in the light of this very interior union that all men in “the world ofZar ” when God prepared and made present all of them and asked them whether I am not your Lord, they all answered yes, we bear witness that Thou art our Lord: “And when thy Lord took from the Children of Adam, from their loins, their seed, and made them testify touching themselves, ‘Am I not your Lord’? They said, ‘yes, we testify’ (the Qur’an, 7: 172). “With thee will I establish my covenant” (the Bible, Genesis 6:18).

We cannot confine “the world ofZar ” only as word before this nature and this world in which all men were present and inherently answered the question of God, rather when man purifies his soul from all sorts of sins, or has not contaminated his nature by different sins, if he at any moment is asked this question from God that: “Am I not your Lord?”, he verily will answer that “yes, we testify.” Thus, it is not for nothing that one of the names of the prophet of Islam is “the reminder”: “then remind them!Thou art only a reminder” (88:21).

We use the word “reminding”, when we remembered something and then we forgot it, and we remembered God’s message, and forgot it, thus it is the God’s prophet, which reminds us of it. Imam Ali considers natural and inherent rapprochement with men as the main duty and task of the God’s prophets (to get them fulfill the pledges of His creation) (Nahj -al-Balaghah ,Khotheh 1).

The Bible refers to an intimate relationship between God and humankind, sovereignty initiated, maintained and fulfilled by God alone; and involving a commitment to life and death from both God and humankind. The solemn bonding between God and his people lies at the heart of the covenant phenomenon.

This bond testifies to God’s mercy and compassion in nurturing and redeeming his people, guaranteeing them an intimate relationship with himself as well as the prospect of blissful life in the land he had given them. All of this, however, was conditional on the people’s response of gratitude, obedience, and exclusive loyalty (Renn , 2005).

“Take hold of eternal life to which you were called when you made your good confession in the presence of many witnesses” (1 Timothy 6:12). That isbecause: “when you make a vow to God, do not delay to fulfill it. He has no pleasure in fools; fulfill your vow. It is better not to make a vow than to make one and not fulfill it.

Do not let your mouth lead you into sin.And do not protest to the (temple) messenger, ‘My vow was a mistake’. Why should God be angry at what you say and destroy the work of your hands” (Ecclesiastes 5:4-6). “Obey the King’s commands, I say, because you took an oath before God. Do not be in a hurry to leave the King’s presence. Do not stand up for a bad cause” (Ecclesiastes 8:2-3).

This very natural man’s agreement with God, i.e. with Divine values, indicates that these values are in harmony with the man’s nature, and then indicates their being absolute and eternality. Therefore, it can be said that as man does not force himself to enjoy the beauty of a beautiful flower or a beautiful handwriting and painting in the same way, he will not force himself to enjoy and love beautiful morality, behavior and thought (religion in itself is nothing else save these very beauties), unless that man in not normal.

If a man involves in the nature deforming (metamorphosis), that is his Divine nature has deformed, has become lightless or insensible and unfeeling, then it may be that he feels contrary to his nature, i.e. enjoys indecency and obscenity. “Although I want to do good, evil is right there with me. For in my inner being I delight in God’s law” (the Bible, Romans 7:21-22).

This superficial and seeming pleasures of the worldly men are nothing save repelling the pains, such as huger or thirst which are pains and affiliations that food and water remove them, now if that food or water is eaten or drunk more, they in turn change into a pain, while the real pleasures (happiness) are those ones the more the seeker of which reaches them, not only he does not get tired and weary, rather he will become more lovesick, because spiritual pleasures such as the nearness to God have a state that the more the wayfarer of this route is closer to God, and the more feels the pleasure of comprehension of acquaintance with God, and the more he utilizes from immense ocean of Divine love, his thirst will be increased.

It isnot inopportune that ImamSajjad refers to this fact that: “My God, who can have tasted the sweetness of Thy Love, then wanted another in Place of Thee” (Sahifah -al-Sajjadiah , the whispered prayer of the lovers).

Therefore, it can be claimed that one’s soul thirst for God (Psalm 42:2).And according to Jesus Christ: “Love the Lord Your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with your entire mind. This is the first and greatest commandment.

And the second is like it: `love your neighbors as yourself`. All the law of the Prophets hang on these commandments” (Matthew 22:37- 40). Thus, “Love must be sincere. Hate what is evil. Cling to what is good. Be devoted to one another in love. Honor one another above yourselves. Never be lacking in Zeal, but keep your spiritual favor, serving the Lord. Be joyful in hope, patient in affliction, and faithful in prayer.

Share with the Lord’s people who are in need. Practice hospitality. Bless those who persecute you,bless and do not curse. Rejoice with those who rejoice; mourn with those who mourn. Live in harmony with one another. Do not proud, but be willing to associate with people of low position. Do not think you are superior.

Do not repay everyone evil for evil. Be careful to do what is right in the eyes of everyone. If it is possible, as far as, it depends on you, live peace with everyone. Do not take revenge, my dear friends, but leave room for God’s wrath…Do not be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good” (Romans 12: 9-21).

This is happiness if God lightens a minute of man’s life with it, its valueshould surely be known and should not be easily lost because it is alchemy and the world sizes it easily from men. That is the reason why the prophet of Islam emphasizes that for all the people there is breathes for their Lord in the days of their lives breathes, thus it is up to all people to expose themselves to these spiritual breathes and not to turn away from them.

It reminds us of the Hafez’s poem: “In the morning fromLaila’s dwelling, lighting flashed; Alas! With the harvest ofMajnun , heart - rent what it did” (p.134). As if these were parts of the heaven andparadise that God has placed in the earth.

According to the Bible, God will surely bestow joy and happiness to those who aredeserving for it: “You removed my sackcloth and clothed me with joy” (Psalm 30:11). The result of such a holy joy will be praising of God: thatmy heart may sing your praises and not be silent. Lord my God, I will praise you forever” (Psalm 30:12).

Although, on the other hand, it can be said that reaching God and praising Him as it deserves will cause such a joy and happiness: “I will be glad and rejoice in your love, for you saw my affliction and knew the anguish of my soul”(Psalm 31:7).

Those who hope in God achieve a position in which their hearts rest in Him: “Be strong and take heart, all you who hope in the Lord” (Psalm 31:24). That is because “The Lord preserves those who are true to him, but the proud he pays back in full” (Psalm 31:23).

“In Him our hearts rejoice, for we in his holy name, may your unfailing love be with us, Lord, even as we put our hope in you”(Psalm 33: 21-22). “Take delight in the Lord and he will give you the desires of your heart” (Psalm 37:4).

The real faithful do not do the values -related affairs habitually, rather they have reached a position that they have identified and experienced them valuable and have identified the bad affaires as indecent and they have really achieved a state that have become sure and convinced themselves of this fact that goodness causes happiness and man’s deliverance from every grief, affliction and sorrow, and that badness causes all sorrows, and since they have identified God’s ordainment as all wisdom and knowledge, thus they have embraced it most heartily and have acted according to it.

According to the Bible, “This is what I have observed to be good: that it is appropriate for people to eat, to drink and find satisfaction in their toilsome labor under the sun during the few days of life God has given them - for this is their lot.

Moreover, when God gives people wealth and possessions, and ability to enjoy them, to accept their lot and be happy in their toil - this is gift of God. They seldom reflect on the days their lives, because God keeps them occupied with gladness of heart” (Ecclesiastes 5:18-20). “There is nothing better for people under the sun than to eat and drink and be glad.

Then joy will accompany them to their toil all the days of the life God has given them under the sun” (Ecclesiastes 8:15). But contrary to these: “I have seen another evil under the sun, and it weighs heavily on the human race: God gives some people wealth, possessions and honor, so that they lack nothing their hearts desire, but God does not grant the ability to enjoy them, and strangers enjoy them instead” (Ecclesiastes 6:1-2).

“Those who love money never have enough: those who love wealth are never satisfied with their income. This too is meaningless. As good increase, so do those who consume them. And what benefit are they to the owners except to feast their eyes on them?” (Ecclesiastes 5:10-11).

These are the real causes of wars and quarrels: “What causes fights and quarrel among you? Do not they come from your desires that battle within you? You desire, but do not have, so you kill” (James 4:1-2).

Therefore, we should understand this valuable fact,that: “Whoever wants to save their life will lose it but whoever loses their life will find it. What good will it is for you to gain the whole world, yet forfeit your soul? Or what can you give in exchange for your soul?” (Matthew 16:25-26).

“Hypocrisy” will be increased in asociety which an interior transformation has not occurred in its individuals. In such a state, which is frequently occurred in the society, the peoples’ value standards are false and truth less.

Therefore, their standards for pleasure and pain are mistaken, then they enjoy in their minds those things which are not really deserving for pleasure, and they suffer from those things that there is no place for grief and sorrow thus wherever they should enjoy, they do not, and wherever they should regret, they do not.

Imam Ali, in this fieldsays: “What is your condition? You feel satisfied with what little you secured from this world while much of the next world of which youhave been deprived does not grieve you. The little of this world which you lose pains you so much so that it becomes apparent in your faces, and in the lack of your endurance over whatever is taken away from you; as thou this world is your permanent abode, and as though its wealth would stay with you for abode” (Nahj -al-Balaghah ,Khotbeh 113).

ImamJa’far Sadeq believes that the brief and summation of all of the beautiful religion of God is “friendship and affection”, and according to the Bible: “God is love “(1Jn. 4:10). It should also be noted that mancan achieve a position in which not only loves all humans but also he loves all particles of the universe.

God as a creator of the world is at the peak of beauty and He loves the beauty. How is it possible that God is the manifestation of all beauties, and the universe and the world which is the place of manifestation of His being and existence is not at the peak of perfection and beauty: “Who created all things well (the best or the fairest)” (32:7).

As, along with this existence and originating book, His law book (scripture, i.e. the Qur’an) is the best and the most beautiful: “Learn the Qur’an for it is the fairest of discourses” (Nahj -al-Balaghah ,Khotbah : 110), that isbecause: “God has sent down the fairest discourse as Book” (39:23).

The Bible describes the universe as collection of “good” things: “And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind: and God saw that it was good”(Genesis :12).And such a “good” system and process rules over other things of the world, such as day and night (Genesis: 18), every living creature… (Genesis 1:21).

The idea of creation implies that thewhole created word is good (Peterson, 1986). Thomas Aquinas believed that everything in the world that exists is more or less good. There are varying degrees of excellence. There cannot be infinite scale of good. Therefore, there must be something, which is perfection. This is what everyone understands to be God (Dewar, 2002).

The more is man’swisdom and knowledge and his comprehension from the nature and its beauties, his goodness and beneficence will be increased, on the other hand, the more is goodness and beneficence in man, a particular kind of knowledge and wisdom will be increased in him and he will better comprehend the values and beauties of the world.

It is not for nothing that the prophet of Islam do not consider as a Muslim a man who does not try for the Muslim’s affairs, because, as said, “How it is possible for such a man to understand the beautiful facts of the God’s religion and act according to them?” Thus, a real Muslim and religious person, in first place,confirms by his behavior that religiosity and faith is good and beautiful.

It is not desirable that he says only with his tongue that values are valuable while his actions do not confirm this. According to the Bible, “Therefore everyone who hears these words of mine and puts them into practice is like a wise man who built his house on the rock. The rain came down, the streams rose, and the winds blew and beat against that house; yet it did not fall, because it had its foundation on the rock.But everyone who hears these words of mine and does not put them into practice is like a foolish man who built his house on sand.

The rain came down, the steams rose, and the winds blew, and beat against house, and it fell with a great crash” (Matthew 7:24-27). If man does not possess a good personality, and he only establishes prayer apparently, then he will make other people pessimistic to the prayer.

On the contrary, if a man with a lovely personality and sufficient popularity establishes prayer, prayer will become respected and lovely for the other people.

The first criteria for the judgment about a society with a special religion are the behaviors of the individuals of that society. If those behaviors are not confirmable, then the others may dislike such religion.

While it is seen nowadays that there has been created a long distance between the behaviors and cultures of some societies as compared with their religions.

Some people have imagined the religion as an awful and horrible in their mind, escaping from it in a confused state, while religion and its cognition is the most beautiful, the most scientific, the most artistic and the most subtle categories and topics of the world. Thus, it is the artist knowledgeable that can the truth of the beautiful religion of God as it is and transfer it to theothers as it deserves.

As a religion, Islam is much more than just a system of beliefs. It is a way of life, though,word and deed. To the Muslim believer faith without action is meaningless. Faith must lead to action and action brings faith into the outside world where it can grow and deepen (Keene, 2005).

The word “ethics”is related to the Greek ethos habit, custom. Itis used in a number of related senses. The Latin moral is was first used by Cicero, which explains why in many contexts moral ethical morality ethics, moral philosophy ethics are pairs of synonyms (Maunter , 2005).

Ethics is the study of the concepts involved in practical reasoning: good, right, duty, Obligation, virtue, freedom, rationality, choice. Also the second-order study of the objectivity, subjectivity, relativism, or skepticism that may attend claims made in these term (BlackBurn , 2005).

From the Qur’an we learn that God has endowed human beings with values. They are innate in the human Spirit. The Spiritual entity in a human beingcannot therefore be considered as a social product but an innate reality (Ashraf ; quoted inAshraf &Hirst , 1994).

Virtues are general dispositions to do the right thing at the right time. Any list of virtues, therefore, embodies thevalues which prevail in social or cultural traditions. One might have a list ofvirtues which would constitute our views of the thoroughly virtuous person.

It is quite possible for a person to accept the reasons for behaving in a particular way but not be disposed so to act - not to have the relevant virtue. Indeed, such capacity to reason may be put at the disposal of the veryfeelings which are not virtues (Pring , 2000).

Moral and religious behaviorsare based on values: “Jesus replied; you shall not murder, you shall not commit adultery, honor your father and mother, and love your neighbors as yourself …. Sell your possessions and give it to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven” (Matthew 19: 18-19 & 21).

We should really ask God to make us committed to values, according to theBible: “In you, Lord, I have taken refuge; Let me in your righteousness” (Psalm 31:1). (Trust in the LORD and do well) (Psalm 30:3).But as for the evildoers: “The words of their mouths are wicked and deceitful; they have caused to be wise and to do well; even on their beds they plot evil; they commit themselves to a sinful course and not reject what is wrong.”

“How great is your goodness, which you bestow in the sight of all on those who take refuge in you. In the shelter of your presence, you hide them from all human intrigues. You keep them safe in your dwelling from accusing tongues” (Psalm 31:19-20).Therefore: “Turn from evil and do good; then you will dwell in the land forever” (psalm 37: 27).

We refer here to the parable of the sheep and goats, a story that Jesus told (Matthew 25: 31-46) to teach his followers that they would, one day, have to account forthey actions on earth. These are the questions theywill be asked for God according to the parable: have they fed the hungry? Have they given water into the thirsty? Have they invited the stranger into their house? Have they visited the prisoner in his prison cell? Have they looked after the sick? Have they clothed the naked?(Keene, 2005).

The Qur’an also teaches Muslims how they should prepare themselves to appear before God on the Day of Judgment. To help them in this preparation, Muslims are given guidance about matters such as (avoiding) drinking alcohol and gambling; marriage and devoice; the treatment of widows and orphans and the lending of money with interest (avoiding usury) (Keene, 2005).

There are many examples in theHadith of how the prophet of Islam avoided waste, was kind toanimals and respected the earth. All Muslims must follow has example.

What often lies at the hearth of religious behavior, and indeed conviction, is not morality but duty. It is the person’s responsibility to respond in certain ways; to do their duty, to God, to another person, to society, to their community.

Morality, in religious term,is less connected with conventional actions and more with a developing sense of responsibility and commitment. Religion may of course embody ethical principles which arenot unhelpful to moral understanding (Elan and Brown; cited from Best, 2000).

Astley (1994) lists the (overlapping) categories of Christian attributes as follows:

Christian beliefs - that, understanding and knowledge: including beliefs about God, Jesus, the Church, human nature and the world; Christian beliefs -in: including faith and trust in God, or in salvation, baptism etc.; Christian attitudes and values: covering Christian spirituality and moral virtues; the valuing of Jesus, Mercy etc.; Christian emotions and feelings: including awe, thankfulness, pity, joy, etc. (this category may be entitled “subjective religious experiences”).

Christian experiences, in the sense of “objective religious experiences” of God, Christ, the Spirit etc. and their activity; Christian moral actions: e.g. active love, forgiveness, trust, obedience; Christian religious actions: e.g. prayer, profession of faith, evangelism, worship, church membership/ involvement; Christian or theological reflection and criticism: including those interpretative and evaluative cognitive skills and processes - with their related attitudes, unless these are placed in category (3) - that lead to active “Christian reflection” and/ or “doing theology.”

Astley (1994) concludes that Christianity is many - sided. Robert H.Thouless listed a range of factors in the development of a “religious attitude” -viz intellectual, social, the experiential in various forms, and personal. Charles Y.Glock and Rodney Stark designated five core dimensions of religiousness: belief, ritual and devotional religious practice, religious experience, intellectual knowledge, and consequential effects on general conduct.

The empirically - based factor analytic studies of Morton B. King and Richard A. Hunt found various religious dimensions including creedal assent, personal devotion, church attendance, attitudes towards the church, religious belief, subjective religious disposition (measuring the importance of religion in one’s life etc.), spiritual experience and (respect for) moral beliefs.

The psychologist of religion, Laurence Brown, lists knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, experiences, belonging and practice as individual factors of religiousness; together with trust, doctrines,consequence and rituals under the heading of “social contexts.”

Such research has encouraged students of religion to move away from thinking of religion “as a coherent ‘thing’ with rather sharp boundaries.” “Bundle” has the wrong connotations, perhaps, but this cognition of the multiplicity of religious dimensions is surely to be welcomed.

To be religious is to have certain religious attitudes and to engage in certain patterns of behavior that are expressive of such attitudes, the attitude predisposing person to behave in that way. Clearly religious people have such attitudes at least partly because they have learned them.

They have developed themas a result of certain experiences, including their experiences of other people. Veryoften these experiences have been placed in their way by Christian religious education (Astley , 1994).

Christianity introduces people to, and “imposes” on them, certain spiritual values. Those who learn Christianity adopt some elements of Christian spirituality that lead to their (this worldly and/ orother worldly ) “release” and “hearing.”

It is some such form of Christian spirituality, experienced assalvific , that constitutes the hearth of the Christian religion. The word “spirituality”is used here in a very broad sense to describe “those attitudes, beliefs, and practices which animate people’s lives and help them to reach out towards super - sensible realities” (Astley , 1994).

Human beingsare expected to be committed to values because the knowledge of identification of “good and evil” has been given to man: “And the Lord God said, Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil” (Genesis 3: 22).

According to Aquinas, reason is the God - given tool for discerning what is good (Dewar, 2002). Martin Luther and the Reformist insisted that human reason played no part in seeing right and wrong. God’s revelation (in the Bible) was sufficient, and the Bible acts as the source of all Christian morality.

In contrast, the scholastic (such as Aquinas) argued that God - given reason was the tool by which distinction between right and wrongcould be seen (Dewar, 2002).Therefore: “I have set the Lord always, before me: because he is at my right hand, I shall not be moved” (Psalm 16:8).

The result of the above willbe: “Therefore my heart is glad, and my gloryrejoiceth : my flesh rest in hope” (Psalm 16: 9). Because God, only God, is the real source ofhappiness: “Thou wiltshew the path of lie in thy presence is fullness of joy, at thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore (Psalm 16:11).

“I shall be satisfied when I awake, with thy likeness” (Psalm 16: 15). That man who has tried to be committed to values and virtues is defined in the Bibleas: “Blessed is the man thatwalketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, norstandeth in the way of sinners, norsitteth in the seat of the scornful.But his delight is in the law of the Lord; and in his law doth the mediate day and night. And he shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water, that brighten forth his fruit in his season; his leaf also shall not wither; and whatsoever he doeth shall prosper” (Psalm 1:1-3).

But the man who is not committed to these values is described as: “The ungodly are not so: but are like the chaff which the winddriveth away. Therefore the ungodly shall not stand in the judgment,nor sinners in the congregation of the righteous. For the Lord knowledge the way of the righteous: but the way of the ungodly shall Perish” (Psalm 1: 4-6).

Theology has sometimes argued truly to love God or our neighbor requires us to renounce Eros entirely, and with it our desire for the beatitude of God’s presence and our natural reactions to our neighbor’ charms.

In “believing in God”, Gareth Moore wrestled with the problem of rewards, while framing a powerful account of Christian spirituality. He argues there that the talk of reward that we so frequently encounter in the new Testament is often not what it seemed, but is being used by Jesus only “in order to encourage people to forget all about rewards.”

The depth grammar of Jesus’ language is that ‘to seek a reward from God is not to seek a reward at all’, for the Christian life is presented as an end in itself and not as a means to something further. The point is that the reward is not the point; and, in any case, seeking the reward for its own sake is as counter - productive spirituality as seeking happiness for its own sake is psychologically. We must seek first the kingdom of God (Mtt . 5: 33; cited inAstley , 2004).

Anthropology

As the study ofmankind, or humankind, anthropology could encompass many studies that ordinarily fall under some other academic discipline. In theological discourse, anthropology often refers to the doctrine of man, or human beings, as created, fallen, and redeemed (Childress, 2001).

Christians have always believedthat it is their soul that makes human beings different from the rest of creation . Human beings are a body and a soul. Animals are only a body. This is how the Bible describes the spiritual nature of human beings: “…The Lord God formed the man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became living beings” (Genesis 2.7).

The Apostles’ Creed clearly states Christian belief in the resurrection of the body. The 1662 Book of Common Prayer (the defining book of the Church of England) states that Christians expect this body resurrection to occur followed by everlasting life.

There are also Biblical passages that support the idea: “The tombs broken open and the bodies of many holy people who had died were raised to life. They come out of thetombs, and after Jesus’ resurrection they went into the holy city and appeared too many people” (Matthew 27:52-53).

Some thinkers reject the idea that there is any continuation of individual psychological or physical identity. Other theologians have argued that only God is eternal, and any concept of eternal lifeshould be connected to that fact.

Fundamentalists maintain a belief in a bodily resurrection, based on Biblical authority, and some Christians have rejected the idea of life after death completely, seeing it a mythological construction seeking validation of the virtuous life.

The Christian view is that the bodywill be resurrected after death - this is a reward for the righteous. St Paul speaks of a recreation - a resurrection with a glorified body: “so will it be with the resurrection of the death.

The body that is shown is perishable, it is raised imperishable; it is shown in dishonor, it is raised in glory; it is shown in weakness, it is raised in power; it is shown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body. If there is a natural body, there is also a spiritual body” (1 Corinthans 15:42-44) (cited from Dewar, 2002).

The Christian view of life after death involves separate beliefs: 1. the resurrection of the body. Christianity teaches that the body of each believer stays in the grave until the end of the world, when everyoneis brought back to life. In some way, the actual body of each Christianis resurrected .2. The immorality of the soul. This is the belief that when a person dies, their soul continues to survive because it is immortal. It is important to realize that Christians do not believe in reincarnation or rebirth.

John of the Cross (1542-1591) believed that the soul is spiritualized by divine action. The process of the purifying of the soul prepares it for union with God (Dewar, 2002).

Man as a subset of being, is not summarized only in the material aspect, it has also an immaterial aspect that is spirit. Therefore, the man’s resurrection and hereafter is an acceptable fact.He is created by God , and he is a goal -centered creature.

Goals of Man’s Creation

Considering theQur’anic verse, “I have not created jinn and mankind except to serve me” (51:56), we can conclude that the aim of man’s creation has been “worship” or in fact “submission to or servitude of God.”

Tabatabaie (1999) considers the dependencies of worship, such as blessing, forgiveness, etc. as some of the goals of the creation of jinn and man, the most important of which is the particular knowledge that one acquires regarding his Lord. Worship without knowledge will never cause man to reach submission to and servitude of God.

On the other hand, the position of servitude of God and real worship is in itself knowledge - creating.Ja’fari (1981) considers knowledge as an integral part of worship, “as soon as man is delivered from the natural process of his being, and reaches the stage of awareness about his soul - which is of divine and heavenly world - his worship has started.

Whenever man becomes aware of his pure soul and spirit and comes to know that he is a part of the whole being tune played for divine grace, he has become involved in worship.”Mesbah Yazdi (1986) believes in this regard that the ultimate goal of man’s creation is attaining the last ranks of perfection and God’s nearness and utilizing and enjoyment of the highest and the most durable God’s bounty, grace and His eternal paradise and satisfaction.

A goal of the creation has been the accomplishment of worship and obedience to God that in turnis considered as a tool for achieving the ultimate goal. The immediate goal of creation has been the preparation of material and social background, and actualization of necessary cognitions for choosing freely the straight path of the life and extending and development of Godliness and worship of God in society.

That’s why in the Glorious Qur’an, after emphasis on the fact that worlds and man’s creation has not been in vain and “for sport” (23:115) and it has a wise goal, the aim of the world’s creations has been introduced as preparation of divine tests and the freely selection for man on one part, and worshipping of the exalted and sublime God on the other part.

The ultimate goal of man’s creation has been introduced as placing himin the vicinity of the divine grace and utilizing and enjoyment of eternal happiness, triumph and deliverance.Nasri (1989) believes that the ultimate goal of creation has been man and his existence elevation as all the creatures have been created in order that man might be able to use them and reaches himself to divine nearness as the Qur’an says, “It is He who created for You all that is in the earth” (2:29).

Goth (1996) says about the real meaning of worship that worship is not a series of lifeless actions and percepts and limited and definite formal ceremonies, rather it has a very comprehensive meaning that involves all parts, thoughts and actions and feelings of the human being.

In other words, worship means turning to God in all life activities, attaining His satisfaction in all affairs and fearing of all factors that cause God’s anger.Shariatmadarii (1992) states that when man’s goal is nearness to God and Truth, worship, trying for earning a livelihood, effort for solving the problems of fellow creatures, choosing the job and vocation, acquiring moral virtues and sacrifice are all activities that are necessitated by movement towards God.

The most important thing for a Muslim is to live in submission to God. By doing this, each Muslim shows respect for God and finds the Key to true happiness (Keene, 2005).

“Submit yourselves, then, to God. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. Come near to God and he will come near to you… Humble yourselves before the Lord, and he will lift you up” (the bible, James 4: 7-8 & 10).

The word “worship” means “worthiness.” Christians believe that in their worship, they are offering something that is worthy and precious to God - because He is worth it. Worship is important to Christians because God almighty Creator of the universeshould be praised .

It is opportunity to say and show how much God means to loving Him in return -and also by loving their neighbors to express their love for God (Keene, 2005).

Worship in NT usually means expression of Praise or thanksgiving (Luke 17: 15-16). Sometimes it implies obeisance as an attitude for supplication (Matt. 8:2). In any case, it is the appropriate human response to the magnificence glory to God. Summons and encouragement to worship abound (Col. 4: 2; Heb. 13: 15).

The centrality of worship of Christians is evident in a book such as the Gospel of Luke, which opens and closes with scenes depicting worshippers (Luke 1: 8; 24: 52-53) and contains 21 specific references to people glorifying, Praising, or giving thanks to God. Likewise, the book of Revelationis inundated with images of worship.

The NT takes over the concern of OT prophets that worshipbe integrated into the life of faith. Thus, passages that prioritize merry over sacrifice (Hos. 6: 6) or decry worship with lips but not heart (Isa. 29: 13) are quoted in new context (Matt. 9: 13; Mark 7: 6-7).

Genuin worship is not merely for show (Matt. 6: 1-18) but involves surrender of the self to God in faithful obedience (Rom. 12: 1). (Powell; quoted in Freedman, Myers & Beck, 2000). There are general commands for all to “worship” God alone in Matt. 4: 10; Mark 4: 8 (Renn , 2005). “Worship before the Lord my God” (Deut 26: 10). “Worship thou him” (Psalm 45: 11).

At the heart of worship, itis said , is a numinous sense of the presence of the holy God.Thenumen is experienced “outside oneself”’, ‘over against” the worshipper. Worship may serve to prepare for,allow and evoke experience of God.

It may put People in the place, psychologically and epistemologically where God can be “seen” and “heard.” That would be learning - through - experiencewith a vengeance (Astley ; cited fromAstley , Francis & Crowder, 1996).

The teaching of Christian doctrine and the formation of Christian attitudes must take place together. Neither Process can take place authentically without the other. Worship is the paradigm situation for the joint activity (Astley ; cited fromAstley , Francis &Crowder, 1996).

Astley (1996, p. 245) believes that, “worship is not for anything; it has no ulterior point or purpose, least of all an educational one. Religious people do not worship in order to do or become anything else, toteach or to learn. Worship is an end in itself.”

It should be noted that it is quite right worship can be considered as an end, meanwhile, each worship can also considered as a tool and aninstrument which can lead the worshipper to other worship. Forexample “prayer” is a worship that can be considered as an independent goal or end i.e. the people should try to reach the position to establish prayer.

On the other hand, itcan also be considered as a tool or instrument, i.e. the prayer should reach man to such positions (or ends) as he or she helps the poor, not backbite, etc. It is interesting thatAstley refers to this in another part of his article when he says, “Bothworship and meditations have a powerful effect in leading to a loss of self - centeredness” (p. 245).

On the other hand,Astley takes emphasis on the emotional side of worship where he expresses “such an account of worship will lead us to construe the language of worship as performing non - cognitive, rather than cognitive, functions” (p. 246).

In another part of his article, whenAstley tries to describe the Christian education and the emotions, he concludes, “Christian truth is learned both affectively and cognitively. It is when reason and emotion are divorced that religion most rapidly loses its sense and its power for people.Religion is a cognitive - affective activity” (p. 250). Thus, in addition to the cognition, Godshould also be loved : “I will love thee, O Lord, my strength” (Psalm 18: 1).

Loving God is a necessary part for His real worship.Therefore we should thank and appreciate Him that He has guided us to the way to love Him: “Praise is to the Lord, for he showed me the wonders of his love when I was in a city under siege.”

On the other hand, God loves those who love Him and trust Him: “The Lord’s unfailing love surrounds those who trust in him.” Then, it should again be emphasized: “Rejoice in the Lord and be glad, you righteous: sing, all you who are upright in heart!” (Psalm 32: 11), “sing joyfully to the Lord, you righteous” (Psalm 33: 1), “Play skillfully, and shout for joy” (Psalm 33: 3), “The lord loves righteousness and justice; the earth is full of his unfailing love” (Psalm 33: 5).

Man’s Personality

We mean by the Personality here thosecharacteristics which differentiates man from other creatures:

1- Manis breathed with God’s spirit: “And (I) breathed my spirit in him” (Qur’an, 15:29; 38:72). Considering theHadith of the prophet of Islam (Mohammad), “the exalted God created man on His Own Face”, one can conclude that man can become God -like and can actualize the divine and spiritual potentials which have been trusted in him.

“And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul” (the Bible, Genesis 2: 7). The second part of the Genesis creation story (chapter 2-3) involves the creation of Adam and Eve, and the “Fall” and eviction from the Garden of Eden: God is pictured in a more super - human way. Adamis created of dust from the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life (Dewar, 2002).

Image of God (imago Dei): “Then God said, ‘Let us make man in our image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion ….’ So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them” (the Bible, Gen. 1: 26f; cf. 5: 1 and 9: 6).

According to Reformation theology, original sin affects the core of human nature, but there were also disputes among Reformation theologians. As Van Hervey writes, “In general, the Lutheran tradition emphasized the loss of the image of God while the Calvinist tradition regarded it as corrupted but not lost.

Although the image of God is often construed as reason and freewill, it has also been interpreted as spiritual capacities, such as self - transcendence or the capacity for and the call to relationship with God, as excellence, such as righteousness (Childdress , 2001).

The image of God in human beings remains. According to the Bible, human being alone worship God (Keenes , 2005).Being made in God’s image means that human beings share something of His nature. Christians refer to this as their ‘spirit’ or ‘soul’.It is this that worships God. After death, the spirit or soul lives on since it is immortal (eternal) (Keene, 2005).

2- Man is prostrated by God’s angels, “And when we said to the angels, ‘Bow yourselves to Adam’; so they bowed themselves” (Qur’an, 2:34; 17:61; 20:116). Therefore, man can reach a higher position than God’s angles if he keeps his humanistic properties.

3- Man is viceroy of God on the earth: “ I am sending in the earth a viceroy” (Qur’an, 2:34; 17:30).” Therefore, itcan be deduced that man has the most similarity to God, because a “viceroy” should have the most similarity to the one who has appointed him as his viceroy.

Muslims believe that God created the world and everything in it. Human beings are the most important part of creation and theyhave been made so that they alone can serve the God. Theyhave been appointed to act as earth’s ‘guardians’.

The earth belongs to God but He has delegated responsibility for its day-to-day care to the Muslim community. (Human beings are God’s ‘vice-regents’, appointed by Him to look after what He has made.

They must guarantee that the whole of creationis kept healthy so that food is provided for everyone. No one should ever be in want. In Islam, the more the one has, the more one should make sure that itis used properly.

This responsibility is seriously because, on the Day of Judgment, everybody will have to answer to God for howthey have treated the planet. All animals and insects are a part of God’s creation - no matter how big or how small!(Keene, 2005).

As God has dominion over all particles of the world, He has given some authority toman as His viceroy on the earth: “Have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing thatmoveth upon the earth” (the bible, Genesis 1: 28).

4- Man has covenanted friendship with God and has accepted God as his Lord: “And when we took from the Children of Adam, from their loins, their seed, and made them testify touchingthemselves , ‘Am I not your Lord?’ They said: ‘Yes, we testify’” (Qur’an, 7:172). Thus, the man should remain truthful to his covenant with his Lord (God): “With thee will I establish my covenant” (the Bible, Genesis 6: 18).

Faith is a necessary condition of authentic knowledge of God and of the human good. This is faith as belief and believing. Faith as trust, its ties with certifiable knowledge of God and of the human good loosened, is put under heavy pressure to posit it and for itself value absolutes - ideals and/ or beings deemed worthy of unconditional loyalty. In Jesus Christ God makesHimself known; in this transaction, and here alone, the divine moral imperatives for the faithful are ascertained (Hartt , 2002).

5- Man accepted atrust which the heavens, the earth and the mountains feared to take it: “We offered the trust to the heavens and the earth and the mountains, but they refused to carry it and were afraid of it; and man carried it” (Qur’an, 33:72).

If we interpret this trust as man’s freewill in acceptance of God’s ordainments and acting according to them, then it is up to man not to leave down this trust in halfway and not to refrain from doing God’s ordainments even for a moment.

6. Man is at rest by God’s remembrance: “In God’s remembrance are at rest the hearts” (Qur’an, 13:28). The Holy Qur’an emphasizes that it is only possible through God’s remembrance that man’s hearts may feel rest.

On the other hand, the above verse indicates that man has a great and high status and he has similarity with God that his heart is only at rest in God’s remembrance.

Thus, God is the only and the real source of any rest and comfort: “Praise be to God… the God of all comfort, who comforts us in all our troubles, so that we can comfort those in any trouble with the comfort we ourselves receive from God” (Corinthians: 374).

7. Manpossess a moral conscience that blames him when committing a sin: “No! I swear by the reproachful soul” (Qur’an, 75:2). This verse indicates that God considers a great importance for man’s regret and penitence after committing a sin.

It is due to this sacred and holy feeling that man repents. Thus, it is necessary forall mankind not to do those actions which might cause them to become indifferent to committing sins.

8. Manhas been created in best existential conditions: “We indeed created man in the fairest nature” (Qur’an, 95:4). Therefore, man should not do thoseactions which reduce him to the lowest states: “then we restored him the lowest of the low” (Qur’an, 95:5).

In spite of the very high status of man between creatures, he does also suffer from some weak points: “And God saw the wickedness of man was great in the earth and that every imagination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually” (Genesis 6:5).

According to the Qur’an, man’s weaknessescan be divided into three groups (Baqeri , 1991):

1. Those verses in which the words “create” and “man”has been used , and it has been referred to man’s creation. One can conclude from such verses that God Himself has placed these weak points in man, and these weak points canbe removed by man’s endeavor and free will or be utilized positively.

The peak of elevation and luminousness of faithful man is in such a confrontation and utilization, and all of his virtue and skillfulness is to have such an effort. Some of theverses which places in this category, are as follows:

1. “Man was created of haste” (21:37)

2. “Man was verily created greedy” (70:19).

3. “Man was created weakling” (4:23).

All of these verses have the word “man” - that refersto mankind in general - and also the word “created.” In other words, God has created man with such qualities,and so man has not himself chosen them, and since God does nothing in vain, thus man can positively utilize these properties.

For example, if human beings use their “hurry or haste” property in such a manner that instead of they reach their goals sooner, they reach later, or theydon’t reach their goals at all, such haste will be considered as negative and disagreeable haste.

However, if man hurries in the route of goodness so that he might reach faster and better to the good goal of his creation, that is elevation,perfection and submission to God, he has applied a positive and agreeable haste.That’s the reason why the Muslims say several times in day and night before they begin establishing they prayers, “hurry to the prayer”, “hurry to the salvation”, “hurry to the bets action.”

Alternatively, it is said that, “hurry to the prayer before death, and hurry to the repentance before death”, or the Holy Qur’an says, “Vie with one another, hastening to forgiveness from your Lord” (3:133), or “so be you forward in good works” (5:48).

As for the verse, which refers to this fact that manhas been created greedy, it can be said that such a greed and avarice may be applied in the route of the worldly abject comforts in such a manner that forces man to stinginess.

Therefore the Qur’an introduces those who keep themselves from such stinginess as the successful, “And whosoever is guarded against the avarice of his own soul, those - they are the prosperous” (59:9).

It is also possible that every person utilize positively from the “greed or avarice”, for example, he becomes greedy for knowledge, spirituality and guidance. One of the dispositions God attributes to the prophet of Islam is that he was very eager and greedy for people’s guidance (that they may be guided): “Now there has come to you a messenger from among yourselves; grievous to him is your suffering; anxious is he over you, gentle to the believers, compassionate”(9:128).

As for the verses, which referred to this fact that man has been created “weak”, it can be said that from one respect man’s power is not infinite in different aspects such as physical, intellectual, etc.

From anotherrespect it can be said that man in facing God’s ordainments may remain still weak and show weakness, feebleness and disability in doing good affairs or not committing sins if he doesn’t strengthen his religious beliefs and certitude.

But he, on the other hand, can reach a position in which he reduces his weakness by strengthening his faith and piety and becomes, like the disciples of the prophet of Islam who fall under this verse of the Qur’an: “…they fainted not for what smote them in God’s way, neither weakened, nor did they humble themselves” (3:146).But in every case he should feel himself weak and unable before the powerful God: “O men, you are the ones that have need of God” (35:15).

The second category includes those verses in which the word “man” is used, but the word “create”is not seen in them. In other words, the weakness attributed to man in such verseshas not been considered as the weak points created by God in man’s nature. Thus, itcan be concluded that man has a role in such weak points. The following verse is an example of such verses: “Surly man waxes insolent, for he thinks himself self-sufficient” (96:6).

In this verse, this character of most of men has been blamed that when they feel themselves needless of God, they will rebel and disobey.It should also be mentioned that human beings can reach to a position they only see themselves in need of God and feel an absolute freedom from whatever is against God and attains to the real position of magnanimity and loftiness of nature, and then be delivered from all worldly instabilities and agitations, and say, as Hafez, one of the Iranian most famous poets said: “Last night, at morning time, me freedom from grief, they gave” (p. 178)

“Ask of me, and I shall give thee the heathen forthine inheritance, and the uttermost parts of the earth for thy possession” (Psalm 2:8). Therefore, man in such a position reaches a status in which he says: “But thou, O Lord, art a shield for me; my glory and the lifter up of mine head” (Psalm 3: 3). Because he believes that “I will not be afraid of ten thousands of people that have set themselves against me round about” (Psalm 3: 6).

“The Lord foils the plans of the nations; he thwarts the purposes of the peoples.But the plans of the Lord stand firm for ever… Blessed is nation whose God is the Lord, the people he chose for inheritance” (Psalm 33: 10-11). That is because “No king is saved by the size of his army; no warrior escapes by his great strength” (Psalm 33: 16). “This is the very position that Hafez names it as “Kingdom of poverty”, “O heart! If thee, the Kingdom of Poverty, they give, thy least territory will be from the moon to the fish” (p. 471). In fact, the real piety is not anything else save such a position. In other words, piety is “not wanting”, not “not having.”

The third category includes thoseQur’anic verses referring to man’s serious weak points which himself intentionally has acquired them. For example, the Qur’an says that some individuals committed a very great and indecent trick against one of the greatest God’s prophets: “… have devised a mighty device” (71:22). The blameworthy state seen in such verses is more than the verses of the second category.

Determinism and Free Will

We can see the idea of Islam concerning determinism and free will in its most summarized form in this valuable speech of ImamJa’far Sadiq , one of the Muslim Imams, where he says, “There is no absolute determinism, and there is no absolute free will, but it is between these two.”

Tabatabaie (2002) in interpretation of “it is between these two” says that the meaning of this statement is that the exalted God intended that His bondmen do the actions with their own free wills, as God says in the Qur’an: “but you will not unless God wills”(76:30). In other words, if God does not will, there will not be any man, nor will be any knowledge, power, and free will for him (Mesbah Yazdi , 1986).

According toBaqeri (1991), it can be deducted from the Qur’an that no power can take from man his free will and force him, including Satan (17:22), governmental system (4:77), social culture (43:23), penetrating and great figures of society (33:67), family system (66:10) and heredity (31:33).

Thisdoesn’t not mean that society has no influence upon man, in other words although the society cannot seize free will from man, it can definitely affect man’s feelings, emotions and motivation positively or negatively.

If we pay sufficient attention to different verses of the Glorious Qur’an regarding determinism and freewill, we will notice that the Qur’an considers two aspects for man, the individual aspect and the group or social aspect, that is to say some of the Qur’an verses refer to man’s individual aspect, for example the prophet of Islam is addressed that; “establish prayer” (11:114; 17:78). On the other hand, some of the Qur’an verses refer to man’s social aspect, for example: “And do not spy, neither backbite one another” (49:12).

According to this, the Qur’an considers two individual (17:14) and social books (45:28), two individual (19:95) and social summoning (64:9), two individual (6:164) and social punishment (16:25).

For example in man’s social the Qur’an speaks of thoselosses that has a social aspect: “upon the day when He shall gather you for the Day of Gathering; that shall be the Day of Mutual Fraud” (64:9). The word “Mutual Fraud” (Taghabun ) indicates in the Arabic language thoselosses which have a social aspect that is society sometimes causes its members to be cheat and lose, for example the society causes the religious motivation of some of its members to be decreased and they commit some sins, etc.

The question of freedom in relation a specifically Christian ethic becomes acute at two points in particular - where it impinges on the doctrines of original sin and grace. His awareness of this tension found its classic expression in the controversy between Augustinianism and Plagiarism.

The first of these views held that the human will is so disabled by sin that it cannot choose well except through the supervening of divine grace; the second, that a genuine autonomous freedom remains.

In practice, the church seems to have settled for a compromise between these extremes. Even if we allow that our fallen nature pulls us toward bad choices, weare not absolutely determined by this pull, and the very fact that there is a natural awareness of sin itself is in itself a branch in the domination of sin.

On the other hand, if we allow that the human will needs enabling grace, itcannot be supposed that such grace is irresistible or imposed in such a way that we become more puppets . The dialectic of sin and grace is the theological counterpart of the ethical dialectic between freedoms and determinism. In both cases, the dialecticmust be minted and explicated in fully personal terms (Macquarrie , 2001) .

John Calvin (1509 - 1564) is most closely associates with Calvinism, the protestant theological movement that emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the goodness of creation, the authority of scripture, and the sinfulness of humanity. Calvin taught that God is all - powerful and all - knowing.

A logical of this belief is that God already knows which humans will be welcomed into heaven, and which will go to heaven, the humans have moral choice. This ideais known as Predestination, and is supported by several writers, including St Paul: “We know that all things work together for good for those who love God, who are called according to his purpose.

For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed of the image of his Son, in order that he might be the firstborn within a large family. And those whom he predestined he also justified; and those whom he justified he also glorified” (Romans 8: 28-30).

St Augustinesays “will any man presume to say that God did no foreknow those to whom he would grant belief! …This is the predestination of saints; namely, the foreknowledge and planning of God Kindness, by which there are most surely delivered.”

The belief has strong support from several Christian groups, and remains as one of the 39 Articles of Faith of the Church of England: “predestination to life is everlasting purpose of God, whereby (before the foundations of the world were laid) he hath constantly decreed by his counsel secret to us, to deliver from curse and damnation those whom he hath chosen in Christ out of mankind, and to bring them by Christ to everlasting salvation, as vessels made to honor” (Article 17, Articles of Religion, Book of Common prayer, cited from Dewar, 2002).

Augustine (354 - 430) based his theory on his reading of Key Biblical passage: Genesis 3 and Romans 5:12-20. He also based it on two assumptions: 1. Evil is not from God - God’s creation was faultless and perfect. 2. Evil came from within the world. Augustine accounts for evil by ascribing it to human agency. Evil came about because of the misuse of “free will.”

All suffering is therefore a consequence of this abuse of free will. “Natural evil”is caused by the imbalance in nature brought about by the “fall.” “Moral evil”is caused because the world has become estranged from God, and immorality has been able to thrive. However, God has not relinquished the responsibility for the world.

If God were simply just, everyonewould be suitably punished . Instead, God’s grace brought about the possibility of reconciliation through Jesus Christ, whose crucifixion saved a certain number from eternal punishment (Dewar, 2002).

Aquinas believed that goodnessis wrapped up in cause and purpose. An act is good as far as it achieves its potential. Aquinas’s application of Aristotelian causation is the foundation of Roman Catholic morality. Every action has a purpose given it by God (Dewar, 2002).

According to these materials, we understand well why the Bible explicitly applies such words as free and freedom for humankind: “It is for freedom that Christ has set us free. Stand firm, then, and do not let yourselves be burdened again by a yoke of slavery” (Galatians 5:1).

Man’s Responsibility

Since man is a free and authorized being, thus he should undertake the responsibility of his actions (Ebrahim Zadeh , 1990).Albahi (translated bySajjadi , 1993) says that this idea of Islam that everyone is responsible of his actions is due to distinction and privilege of man as compared with other creatures because of his intellect and understanding.

Responsibility is an inner question when a person has for example ability, whether he or she has done his or her duties according to his or her ability. Human beings, because of possessing intellect, power of thinking and their other inner and natural characters, entered into an agreement with their Lord (Qur’an, 7:172), that they act according to their characteristics and potentials.

Therefore, in this a position, it is not only that ask themselves such a question, but also the others, too, have the right for asking this question, that’s the reason why God addresses the men this question that: “Where then are you going?” (81:26).

Evidentially the wise God asks man this question when He has given man the ability of identification and distinguishing between the right way from the wrong way, and this ability has surely been given to the humans: “Surely we guided him upon the way whether hebe thankful or unthankful” (76:3).

Therefore in the light of the very ability for identification of the right way from wrong way, it is necessary for man to see himself obliged to do good deeds and avoid from doing bad things, that is, feels responsibility since such a feeling responsibility comes from the man’s nature, and religion is nothing else but the message of man’s nature, thus these two are consistence with each other, and then: “No compulsion is there in religion.”

Particularly when the truth of the religionis comprehended and understood considering its harmony with the man and its matchless attractiveness and brightness, then there would be no force and compulsion for human beings to accept it.

Within the word for response is hidden the Greek word for “promise”, recalling the practice of reliably performing one’s part in a common undertaking. In this sense, responsibility refers, not merely to the conditions for immutability, but to the trustworthiness and dependability of the agent in some enterprise.

This meaninghas been explored by theologians rather than by philosophers.God as creator dictates a law and will judge accordingly ; human beings must know God’s law and freely obey it. They are responsible, that is, accountable before God’s judgment (Jonsen , 2001).

The poem of creation speaks of humanity’s God-given responsibility for looking after the earth. The human race is to “rule over” the earth. Itis told : “Be fertile and increase, fill the earth and master it, and rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky and all the living things that creep on the earth” (the Bible, Genesis 1: 28).

Christians today believe that human beingshave been called by God to be “stewards” of the world that He has created. This simply means that each generation is responsible for passing on God’s good gifts to the next generation in a good shape. The earth does not belong to us. It belongs to God: “The earth is the Lord’s and everything in it, the world, and all who live in it” (Psalm 24:1-2).