Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Chapter Four: Baqir al-Sadr on Capitalist Economy

4.1. Capitalism: A General Overview

Capitalism is an economic system in which the production and distribution of goods and services are privatively owned.296 It is often called the “free enterprise system”, as in this system individuals are free to invest their capital. Sometimes it is also referred as “free market economy”, because in this system buyers and sellers are free to exchange goods and services297 . According to Louks, “capitalism is a system of economic organization featured by the private ownership and the use for Private profit of manmade and nature made capital.298 ”

Capitalism in its industrial form first developed in England in the late nineteenth century299 . Thereafter it spread over Europe, North America, Australia, Newzealand and South Africa. It along with colonial manifestations dominated the world during the nineteenth century. Presently it is one of the dominant economic systems of the world.

Under capitalism, all farms, factories and other means of production are the property of private individuals and firms. They are free to use them with a view to make profit, or not to use them, if it so suits them. The desire for profit is the sole consideration with the property owners, in the use of their property. Besides free and unfettered use of their property, everybody is free to take up any line of production he likes and is free to enter into any contract with fellow citizens for his profit. In this way capitalism provides unlimited freedom of ownership, exploitation and consumption.

In a capitalist economy, what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce, all these central problems of economics are settled by the free working of the forces of demand and supply.

4.2. Outstanding Features of Capitalism

Following are the outstanding features of capitalism.

4.2 (a) Right to Have Private Property

The most outstanding feature of capitalism is the existence of private property and the system of inheritance. Everybody has a right to acquire private property, to keep it, and, after his death pass it to his heirs. The result of this system is that inequalities of wealth distribution are perpetuated. The rich people become richer and the poor people become poorer.

In a capitalist economy, instruments for production are privately owned by individuals. They are managed by the owners of farms and factories, who carry on the business for their own personal profit and not for the benefit of the society. Generally the masses are exploited and do not get a fair return on their labour.

4.2 (b) Economic Freedom

A very important feature of the capitalist order of the society is economic freedom. This freedom implies three things;

a. Freedom of enterprise

b. Freedom of contract and

c. Freedom to use one‟s property.

In a capitalist system, everybody is free to take up any occupation that he likes, or start any business he wishes and enter into contracts or agreements with his fellow citizens, in a manner most profitable to him. Every citizen has the freedom to form any firm, any where he likes provided, he has the requisite capital and ability.

4.2 (c) Freedom of Choice by the Consumers

Another important feature of capitalism is that in this system every consumer enjoys a freedom of choice of the commodities and services that he wishes to consume. One cannot be forced to consume any particular commodity or service in this system. The consumer is sovereign. Of course; his sovereignty is limited by his income and the availability of goods. Finally it is his likes and dislikes which determine the magnitude and pattern of production.

4.2 (d) Profit Motive

Another remarkable feature of capitalism is that the profit motives of individuals govern business enterprise. It is the profit motive which motivates people to undertake any particular activity. To make profit is the primary motive of entrepreneurial activity and not love of society or social services. Those commodities and services are produced under this system, which are expected to yield maximum profit, hence, what to produce and how much to produce is determined by individual profit, rather than by social benefit. It is the profit motive which induces business men to make the optimum use of the factors of production. This profit motive is the mainspring of all economic activities under capitalism.

4.2 (e) Class Conflict

Another feature of capitalist economic order is the class conflict. The society is divided into two major classes; one possesses the capital and means of production and the other does not possess them. The gap between the rich and the poor is on an increase and there seems to be no solution of the problem in this system.

4.2 (f) Uncoordinated Nature

A remarkable feature of this economic system is its uncoordinated nature. There is no conscious regulation or central direction of economic activities of the people in this system. Production is conducted as a result of the decisions of numerous isolated entrepreneurs. It is also influenced by a vast number of individual consumers who make their decisions without consulting one another.

4.2 (g) Role of Entrepreneur

A very distinguished feature of this economic order is the vital role which the entrepreneur plays under this system. The entire production machinery of the country is under his direction. It is he who hires the other factors of production and undertakes to pay them. He is the soul agent of the community in the matter of production. In fact, it is difficult to see, how the present system can work in his absence. He is the pivot round him revolves the entire system.

4.2 (h) Control with Risks

Another important feature of this system is that the control of business goes with risk. This is called as the Golden Rule of Capitalism.300 He, who risks his money, must also control the business.

4.2 (i) Competition and Cooperation

This is another characteristic feature of capitalism. The producers compete with one another to get the consumers choice. They use different technique for this purpose. They may cut the price or improve the quality of the product or offer other concessions to the purchasers. Besides competition among the produces, there is also competition among the buyers to obtain the commodity. They bid against one another and offer high prices for this purpose. Similarly, there is competition among the workers for jobs.

On one hand there is competition, on the other, there is cooperation among various groups of the people. The buyers compete with buyers and the sellers with sellers; the laborers compete with one another in order to get jobs, but they also combine in trade unions to fight against the capitalists. Similarly, the employers not only compete among themselves but, they also combine to form associations to safeguard their interests. Thus, under capitalism competition and cooperation go side by side.

4.2 (j) Importance of Price System

Capitalist economy is governed by price system. It is the price mechanism, which facilitates the functioning of capitalism. It is the price which equates the demand and supply of commodities and factors of production. If supply is short, price rises and the demand is cut to size of supply. If supply is large, the price comes down, so that the extra supply is taken off from the market. In fact, price is a signal, which guides the producers as to what to produce and what not to produce. The higher price is also a warning to the consumers to cut down their consumption.

4.2 (k) Economic Inequalities

An outstanding feature of capitalistic countries is the glaring inequalities of wealth and income. A few are very rich indulging in all sorts of luxuries, where as the masses do not get even two square meals a day. What is more painful is that the gulf between the rich and the poor is ever widening. The inequalities arise from unearned incomes which are due to uneven distribution of wealth. Larger wealth yields higher income.

4.3. Sadr on Capitalist Economy

Sadr on Capitalist Economy & Its Nature

Baqir al Sadr divides the capitalist economy into scientific aspect and doctrinal aspect in a similar way as he divides the Marxist economy into science and doctrine. In its scientific aspect according to Sadr, it tries to explain the course of economic life and its events in an objective way based upon stability and analysis.301

The capitalist doctrine is a social system towards which capitalism calls and for its materialization it leads humanity.302 Sadr remarks that, at the emergence of the capitalist economy there were two notions pervading among the economists. First: The economic life proceeds in accordance with some natural laws, which dominate all economic entities of the society. Therefore, the job of economists is to discover those laws, in order to explain different economic Phenomena and events accruing in human lives.

Second: These natural laws constitute a guarantee for human happiness; provided they are enforced in a free environment and all the members of the society enjoy freedom of ownership, exploitation and consumption.303

The first notion, according to Sadr, lays down scientific foundation of the capitalist economy, while as the second one lays its doctrinal foundation.304

The economic thinkers of that time, states Sadr, believed that the two notions were closely linked to each other. Therefore, restricting individual’s freedom and interference in his economic affairs by the state was regarded as a crime against the natural laws.305 However, this sort of thinking no more appears to be sound because the natural laws never fail in any circumstances. It is therefore, mistake to regard the capitalist freedoms as an expression of natural laws and consider their violation as a crime against them.306

The natural laws, according to Sadr, work uninterrupted in all conditions irrespective of the degree of freedom enjoyed by individuals in the field of ownership, exploitation and consumption. Sometimes, it is however possible that the effect of these laws differ, in accordance with the difference in the conditions and circumstances. This is possible in the same way as the natural laws differ in their effects and results with the difference in circumstances and conditions.307 Therefore, according to Sadr unlike the Marxist doctrine, the capitalist economy is not the result of the science of economy set up by the capitalists, nor is its destiny linked with the extent of success in its scientific aspect in explaining the objective reality. The doctrine depends upon some moral and some practical values which must alone be regarded as the criterion for giving verdict in favour or against it.308 Besides this, Sadr also emphasizes that although the capitalist doctrine does not derive its justification and existence from the scientific laws in economics; however, the scientific laws in the capitalist economy are influenced by the capitalist doctrine.309 In order to explain it, Sadr classifies scientific laws of economics into two groups, natural laws; which are similar to other scientific laws discovered by the natural sciences and do not show any link with the human will like the general law of limitation310 and the law of increasing produce.311 Second type of laws have link with the will of man like the law of supply and demand312 and the iron law of wages.313 Man’s will remarks Sadr, is determined and conditioned in accordance with his ideas and understanding as well as the doctrinal ideology prevailing in the society in which he lives, therefore, these second type of laws can change from society to society because, societies differ from one another in respect of factors which determine their impulses of character and practical values in life. He observes that the laws in the capitalist economy are of second type in nature. They are influenced by all the factors that interfere in man’s will and his tendencies. For instance; the iron law of wages, according to which, when the wages of the workers increase, their supply also increases due to the improvement in their living standard, but when the situation is contrary, the wages falling down to the natural level, this results into wide spread misery and disease, consequently decreases their number and the wages increases.314

Sadr observes that such a law does not apply in a society in which the principle of general assurance for a respectable level of living prevails like the Muslim society.315

So far as the first type of laws is concerned; Sadr states that they are universal in nature, applicable in all societies and all times to come.316

Based upon this view Sadr concludes that the scientific laws in the capitalist economy are scientific only in the framework of a particular doctrine and not general laws that might be applicable in every society and at every place like the scientific laws of natural sciences.317

4.4. Sadr on General Framework of the Capitalist Doctrine

The capitalist economy, according to Sadr, is based upon three elements. These are freedom of ownership, freedom of exploitation and freedom of consumption.318 This freedom is granted to every Individual in the capitalistic economic system equally, without any limitation or restriction and to all of them equally. Thus, every individual has the full freedom to pursue any approach and to take up any path for acquiring, enlarging and multiplying his wealth in accordance with his personal interests and benefits.319

Apparently there is a huge difference between the capitalist doctrine and the Marxist doctrine. The former acknowledges the private property and provides unlimited freedom to the individual while as the later abolishes the private property and sacrifices the individual for the sake of the society. However, according to Sadr, it is wrong to make a distinction between the two doctrines on the basis of their attention towards the individual and the society and regard the capitalist doctrine as an individual doctrine and the Marxist doctrine as a collective doctrine. He argues that, both the doctrines are individualistic in nature. Because, both of them rest on individual views and depend upon personal views and ego. The capitalism ensures fortunate individual’s ego by providing him an unlimited freedom of ownership, exploitation and consumption and the Marxism focuses upon the unfortunate individuals. It prepares them against the exploitation of rich people and provides them a hope for a better future.320

According to Sadr, the doctrine which deserves the title of the collective doctrine is one which should depend on powers other than the ego and personal impulses. Such a doctrine cultivates in every individual a deep consciousness of responsibility towards the society and its interests. Such a doctrine makes incumbent upon an individual to forgo some of the fruits of his work, efforts and some private wealth for the sake of the society. Indeed, such a doctrine safeguards rights of individuals and ensures their welfare. All these characteristic features, according to Sadr, are present in Islamic economic doctrine.321

4.5. Sadr on Capitalist Freedom

The cornerstone of the capitalist doctrine is the freedom of man in the economic field in its various branches such as ownership, exploitation and consumption. Capitalism according to Sadr provides three reasons for such an unlimited freedom.

First: Freedom is an instrument to ensure good and welfare demanded by the society.

Second: Freedom causes growth of production.

Third: Freedom is the real expression of human dignity.322

4.5 (a) Freedom Ensure Good and Welfare of the Society

Capitalism believes that, in a free society, man struggles for the materialization of his personal interests which in the long run, leads to the promotion of general interests. Personal interest, which is a strong incentive and the real goal of an individual in his work and activity, is the best insurance of the general social welfare. Personal interests always motivate the individual to think of ways to increase and improve production, while decreasing its cost and expenses. This fulfils the interest, of society, while at the same time it is also considered proper for the individual. Therefore, according to capitalism, individual is the basis on which the social system must be established.323 Capitalism does not consider it necessary to inculcate moral and spiritual values among the people. According to it, every human being even he who does not know anything about these values proceeds in accordance with his own interests, when freedom is granted to him. Consequently, the social interests are automatically materialized.324

Sadr argues that the capitalist freedom devoid of moral and spiritual values has shown dangerous consequences during the past history and is likely to show the same in the future. He remarks that, one cannot underestimate the crimes and cruelties brought by its (Capitalism’s) unbridled freedom and the emergence of moral and spiritual bankruptcy as a result of its neutrality towards these values.325 The absolute freedom became a weapon in the hands of the powerful to suck the blood of the weak. As a result of this freedom human dignity was spoiled to such an extent that man himself became a commodity and was subjected to the law of supply and demand. Oppression, tyranny, greed and exploitation were the expression of such an unbridled freedom. Even the situation became so much worse, that there was no harm for the workers to perish and die of starvation as long as the capitalist economy provided them a ray of hope and an aperture of light. It was the hope of the iron law which states, “wait a bit until starvation and misery make a large number of you fall down (die) so that your number decreases whereby supply equaled demand resulting in the rise of your wages and the consequent improvement in your condition.”326

As a result of this freedom the sentiments of goodness and doing well to others disappeared and the tendencies of selfishness and greed emerged. Instead of cooperation and solidarity, the struggle for existence became the trend of the society. Due to this freedom, there started a mad race among the European countries to subjugate peaceful humanity and to exploit it towards the service of the capitalists.327 In this way, Sadr concludes, that humanity suffered terribly at the hands of capitalism due to its unrestricted freedom moral emptiness and spiritual vacuum.

Sadr believes that it is not possible to materialize the public interests without inculcating in man the moral and spiritual values.

4.5 (b) Freedom Causes Growth of Production

The second reason in favour of the freedom is that it causes growth of production. Capitalism believes that Economic freedom opens the field of free competition in different Projects of production. The owner of the project improves his project in order to excel others. One of the important means to achieve that excellence is to bring about technical improvements in the project. In this way new inventions take place and the society is benefited as a whole.

According to Sadr, this statement is based upon two mistakes, one in understanding the results of the capitalist freedom and the another in assessing the value of the production.328 So far as the first mistake is concerned, Sadr argues that, project units in the capitalist society are not similar, operating with equal degree of competence, but are different in terms of size and competence. Such a nature of these projects leads to violent struggle in which the strong projects crush the weak ones and finally results into monopolization.329 So far as the second mistake of the notion is concerned, Sadr argues that, manifold increase in the production level is not the guarantee of welfare and happiness of the society. It is not the increase in production but, its proper distribution, which constitutes the entire impression of general social welfare.330

4.5 (c) Freedom is the Real Expression of Human Dignity

The third reason in favour of freedom, put forth by the capitalists is that, freedom is the real expression of human dignity. Man loses his dignity when he loses his freedom. According to Sadr, the capitalists use the concept of freedom in a wrong way. Sadr classifies freedom into two kinds; Natural freedom and Social freedom.

The natural freedom is bestowed by nature while as the social freedom is granted by the social system in which a person lives. The natural freedom according to him is rightly the essential element of human dignity; however, it has no doctrinal character. It is a boon bestowed upon man by God and not a gift provided by any doctrine. As for the freedom, which carries doctrinal character is the social freedom which an individual gets from the societsy.331

This social freedom is again divided by Sadr into two forms; one, essential social freedom and the other formal social freedom. The essential social freedom is a power which an individual earns from the society to do a certain work and the society provides the individual all the means and conditions required for it, So, if the society assures an individual to possess the price of a commodity and makes it available in the market. Further it does not let anyone to monopolize it and an individual is free to purchase it. Then according to Sadr, he enjoys the essential social freedom.332

The formal social freedom according to Sadr means that, the society allows an individual within the scope of his possibilities and opportunities to adopt any method to purchase a certain commodity. On the basis of this freedom an individual is free to purchase anything, if he possesses the means to purchase it. A person enjoying this freedom is free to buy a pen or a big company. Thus, formal freedom is a means of strength in an individual to reach higher levels, although it does not offer any guarantee of success to him.333

According to Sadr, it is the formal freedom which is provided by capitalism, so for as the essential social freedom is concerned capitalism expresses its inability to provide it. It is because; the essential social freedom and the formal social freedom are contradictory to each other. Capitalism therefore, adopts a negative attitude towards the essential social freedom and considers it as the capability to benefit from the freedom and not the freedom itself. Sadr regards this negative attitude of capitalism towards the essential social freedom as an inevitable result of its positive attitude towards the essential social freedom.334 According to Sadr, it is not possible for any economic doctrine, to provide both the freedoms simultaneously because, the essential social freedom demands curb and pressurization on the formal social freedom. It is this curb which provides an assurance of better living to the economically backward classes. There are three ways according to Sadr, to justify this curb. One: it is justified as a historical need, as believed by Marxism in the light of historical materialism. Second: The pressurization derives its justification from the belief in a higher authority, which possesses the right to organize the entire humanity, like religion.

Third: The limitation and curb emerges as a result of one’s conscience: which enjoins upon man moral values and definite limits. However, capitalism neither believes in the historical materialism, nor it exhibits any relation with religion or conscience.335

Based upon the above view, Sadr argues, that there are only two ways open before capitalism. Either the wealthy people are allowed to work as they want and are provided the formal social freedom; hence, sacrifice the interests of economically backward people for their sake or to provide the assurance of better life to the economically weaker people, so that the wealthy people are not allowed to act according to their free will. This however, would mean violation of the principle of the formal social freedom.336 Thus, Sadr concludes that the concept of freedom before capitalism is incomplete. With regard to the conception of freedom, Sadr argues that it is not the social freedom but the natural freedom, which is the real expression of human dignity.

The First Inevitability

The first inevitability pertains to man’s individualbehaviour and the history of nations and human communities.

Inevitability theories tackle this field and that, or pertains to individualbehaviour one time, and to man’s history another.

These theories sometimes adopt the belief in Allah as a base and a resource for inevitability; theories as such are the Divine inevitability theories.

In othercases these theories adopt other basic resources to explain inevitability in the individualbehaviour and the movement of history; such theories might be called (Material Necessity Theories). Theories that rely oninevitability as a foundation to understand man’sbehaviour , history, thought and development are old and deep rooted in the history of human culture.

Many elements (namely religious,philosophical and political elements) commingle to shape these theories; it will be very difficult to understand these theories within the framework of science and thought exclusively; political and religious factors that have participated in forming the philosophical formula of these theories must be taken into consideration too.

The Divine Inevitabilities in Man’sBehaviour :

To the religious, the theories of inevitability often pertains to the individualbehaviour of man heading to negate his will in his deeds andbehaviour , viz. man has no role in his deeds and no sovereignty over them.

This theoryis well known by the name of (determinism). The most famous Islamic sect that adheres to determinism is (AlAshairah ) whose founder and leader was (Abul Al Hassan binIsmaeel ALAsha'ary ) who died in the year 330Hejrah .

This doctrine does not negate man’s will and potency directly, rather it believes that man’s action is not begotten by his own will and potency, ratherit is created by Allah the Sublime .

Man has no role in begetting andinnovating any deed; his role is only limited to gain the deed, never to invent it. (AlShaikh AlAsha'ary ) thus tries tojoin together two fundamental origins of religion namely; monotheism (AlTawheed ) and Justice (AlAdl ).

In the first place, he believes that Allah the Sublime creates all man’s deeds, and man has no role in begetting,innovating or inventing them, for Allah the Sublime says:

[But Allah is the One who has created you and the material from which you make your Gods] [4] revised by translator.ASaffat v. 96.

Thus, mankind has no role in begetting or innovating their deeds, for this is related to Allah the Sublime, He is the Creator of deeds and things and creatures. This according to (AlShaikh AlAsha'ary ) is the connotation of (Monotheism doctrine).

Actually, this man believes in the doctrine of casualty, never negating its origin, but he also believes that Allah the Sublime is the direct cause for allcauses which does not mean that He begets something which will be the cause for other things, replacing only one cause for the many causes that all creatures demand.

In the secondplace he thinks that trusting the role of man’s will and potency in begetting any deed is a kind of polytheism, which the following gracious verse completely negates:

[But Allah is the One who has created you and the material from which you make your gods]AsSaffat v. 96.

The Origin of Gain (AlKasb )

What we have mentioned above is the first origin to which (AlShaikh AlAsha'ary ) was committed; his second origin is Gain (AlKasb ) to which he was committed for fear of turning to determinism which might retard the doctrine of reward and punishment, hence man will no more be responsible for his deeds which will result into denying Allah the Sublime’s quality of Justice.[5]

For, assuming that man has no role in his deeds neither sovereignty over them will lead to cripple the doctrine of reward and punishment, for it is unfair to punish a man for committing an act that he had no role and authority whatsoever in begetting it.

(AlAshaa'irah ) differed in explaining the word (AlKasb ); the best one among their theorists who tried to explain this word was the famous (AbuBakr AlBaqulany ).

His opinion about (AlKasb ) in short was:

Every deed has two aspects: the aspect ofbegetting, and the aspect of particularity and title which Allah the Sublime made a criterion for reward and punishment.

These are two diverse aspects, each of whichis definitely attributed to.

The first aspect is begetting which belongs to Allah the Sublime, attributing this aspect to anything otherthat Him is a kind of polytheism.

The second aspect is the title that brings man reward and punishment; (Prayer) for instance, (fasting) (pilgrimage) (Backbiting) and (lying)… etc.

The way the first aspect should not be attributed to man, the second one too should not be attributed to Allah the Sublime, man’s will and potency is only related to the second aspect - never to the first - and it is the criterion for reward and punishment.

Thus, this school - as its proponents believe - conjoins both origins (Monotheism) and (Justice) i.e. deserving reward and punishment.

Hence each deed has two directions - never one -; these two directions belong to two different potencies, that of Allah the Sublime, and that of man. No Problem about this, for diversity of directions justifies the multiplication of potencies to which a deed pertains.

DiscussingAlkasb (gain) as an Origin

We may not attain a clear sight of (AlKasb ), for these titles which man gains are themselves begotten - and (AlAshaa'irah ) attributes begetting a deed to Allah the Sublime, i.e.: praying, pilgrimage means begetting these acts and gestures which when joined together get the title of prayer and pilgrimage. Other deeds like (fasting) which is achieved by not eating or drinking can actually be attained by forsaking these things that break fasting, (forsaking) is something that man does as much as the rest of the acts done by the senses.

(Al Sheikh AlBaqulany ) believes that man’s intention (AlNiah ) is the only thing that determines his responsibility for what he does. He claims that a certain act (deed) differs from one intention to another; killing if intended for aggression is a crime, but the same act with the intention (Niah ) of legal punishment (Quasas and Had) is a legislative duty, for which Allah the Sublime rewards man.

The act itself is from Allah, but the intention ofman which puts the act in a certain direction comes from man, thus reward and punishment do not concern the act itself, they rather concern man’s intention of killing.

We say, if this speech happens to be true, then intention itself is an act of the senses, and there is no difference between one deed and another; I do not know really why should we attribute the intention to man and not the deeditself? An act is an act whether it is done by the senses or by other faculties of man; and if we accept attributing the intention to man himself, we - on the same criterion and justification - ought to attribute to him every deed he commits whether it was done by means of his senses (prayer and pilgrimage) or by his inner faculties (like forsaking food and drinks in the intention of fasting).

Whatever the case might be we do not mean to simplify discussing a theological theory that engaged many Islamic scholastics exerting a lot of time and effort in this way. We only mean to get a sight of this subject. If the reader demands elaboration aboutit we refer him to theological encyclopedias like (Sharh AlMaquasid ) (Altaftazani ), and (Sharh AlMawaquif ) by (AlJurjany ).

Contemporary Material Inevitabilities

When we speak about the (Material Theories)- we do not mean those theories which deny faith in Allah the Sublime -, rather we mean the theories that contradict the theory of (Divine Inevitability) adopted by (AlAsha'irah ), attributing every act and deed in the individual’s lives and movement of history to Allah the Sublime.

These theories attribute the inevitability which governs thebehaviour of individuals and communities to resources other that Allah the Sublime. Some of the advocates of this theory in the west are (Montesquieu) in his book (The Essence of laws), (Spiengler ) in his book (The Decline of the Western Civilization) and (Durkheim) the famous French sociologist who believes that the social life is determined separately from the individual’s will and desires.

Social relations and affairs like manners, knowledge’s, social culture, ease (yusr ) and distress (Ausur ) are characterized by three inseparable qualities namely: (being external), (being inevitable), (being general).

Social affairs by all their particularities are produced by external factors, they never rise from inside the individuals,neither from their will or desires, an individual is obliged to fall under the pressures of social life. Social life as well falls under its own factors of external compulsion, and this is the nature of the relation between causes and results in the movement of history.

The movement of society is (inevitable) so that (results) can never stay behind their (causes). If we may have a look through the reasons and causes of events, we would no doubt have been able to forecastthem, this is (being inevitable).

The third quality (being general). Every thing that takes place at a certain time and a certain place may possibly take place any other time at any other place under the same conditions and causes.

One of the most famous contemporary material inevitabilities is the theory of (Karl Marx) - (Fredrick Ingles) which tries tolegislate laws for the movement of history arranging them into five stages through the factor of (the struggle of classes) between the exploiting class and the exploited one.

But this theory relapsed at the dawn of its emergence at the stage of appliance; reality proved opposite to it, it became a mere theoretical study today.

Criticism of Historical Inevitability

Whatever the way these material inevitabilities follow to interpret history, some of them proved righteous and others proved wrong, regardless of their scrupulous details.

Righteousness lies in the fact that these theories dedicate history to some scientific laws, causes, and reasons that dictate its movement.

A historical event - similar to any other phenomenon in the universe - is conditioned to its causes and reasons, therefore casualty law governs historical events the way it governs the physical, chemical, mechanical phenomena, accurately reigning over all their familiar reasonable essentials like, inevitability, originality and so on.

This is righteousness, whichcan never be suspected , except in the Marxist theory, which fundamentally rejects casualty law replacing it with Dialectical Materialism, which has been extracted from (Hegel).

The wrong aspect of these theories lies in negating man and his independent decision that makes history, considering him a piece of wood floating on the ever flowing waves of history; determining only one destiny for history and man, a destiny that never multiplies or shifts. Certainly, this is wrong,

for man (the individual, society, history) is not conditioned to one cause as a choice, rather he is usually conditioned to fall on a cross way; selecting the right way is related to his will, consciousness, culture and to his own decision to a great extent; so if ever he follows one of these ways according to his own will, decision and opinion he would find no way to get rid of compulsory impacts dictated on him by casualty law. Let us state two examples for this, the first concerns the individual; and the other pertains to society.

In regard to the example of the individual; if ever he moves, activates himself, and learns he will see his way in life; on the other hand, if ever he idles residing to ignorance and laziness he will remain minor, weak, worthless and powerless in life.

Both results are conclusive and inevitable if ever man chooses the right way to attain them.But it does not mean that man faces a one-dimensional inevitable (destiny and fate) in his life.

In the example of society, a society that resists, makes sacrifices, endures the agony of confrontation and the severity ofresistance, it will definitely come safe out of oppression, political suppression and terrorism.

A society that surrenders and does not resist is doomed to the worst kind of political suppression and terrorism. Both are inevitable laws that condition the lives of nations.But society in its political life stands at a crossway, if it chooses the first way the result will be inevitable, and if it chooses the second way the result two would be inevitable. Selecting this way or that falls under man’s will and option,never under the inevitable system of things. Within the course of this research we shall come back to tackle this point again.

The Political Exploitation of Inevitability

Most negative results thatare brought about by belief in these inevitabilities cripple man’s role and movement in history suspending his role in determining his destiny.If man believes that his movement and acts are subject to a chain of inevitable factors foreign to his will and option, he will start feeling that he is a useless element who has no role in making his destiny and the destiny of his society; with such a belief and satisfaction man can never be a resource for movement and change in his individual and social life.

Therefore, faith in inevitability (historical or individual)has all the way through the history of Islam been adopted by oppressive regimes. Such a belief mobilizes people to political surrender taming them to accept injustice.

Benu Aumyah used to adopt the theory of (determinism); (AbuHilal AlAskary ) says: (Muawiah ) was the first to claim that Allah dictates all deeds on mankind;[6] and when Abdullah binOmmar objected toMuawiah’s assignment of his son (Yazeed ) as a successor to govern after him;Muawiah answered him (I warn you, do not segregate the Muslims, disintegrating their unity, spelling their blood. (Yazeed’s ) assignment has been predestined by fate, people have no choice about it).[ 7]

Muawiah adopted the same logic when (Aiyshah ) objected to assigning (Yazeed ) as a successor to caliphate; he told her: (Yazeed’s assignment has been predestined by fate, people have no choice about it).[ 8]

Some scholars took the initiative to confront that trend of determinism, whichBenu Aumyah adhered to, the most prominent of them were (Ma'bed AlJahny ) in Iraq and (Ghaylan AlDamashquy ) in Sham; they advocated free choice and free will.

(Ma'bed ) with his ally (Ibn AlAshaath ) rebelled against (Beni Aumyah ), thus (AlHajaj )killd him. (Ghaylan ) was summoned by (Husham bin AbdulMalik ) theAumayah Caliph to Damascus to be interrogated; he then was condemned and nailed on the cross after having his hands and feet cut.

Apparently (Al Hassan AlBassry ) used to adhere to this opinion too, i.e. free choice.

AlMuquriezy says: (Attaa ' binYessar ) and (Mabed AlJahny ) came to (Al Hassan AlBassry ) and told him:

ThoseAumyah rulers are shedding blood claiming that Allah has predestined their deeds. Al Hassan said:

Foes of Allah are lying. (He was condemned for this statement) [9] . Al Hassan ALBassry used to propagate openly his opinions that oppose the government ofBeni Aumyah ; then some people threatened him by the Caliph, thus he kept quiet.

Ibn Sa'ad in his (AlTabaquat ) relates from (Ayub ) saying: (I challenged Al Hassan AlBassry to discuss fate and destiny more than once,then I threatened him by the caliph. He said: I shall never say anything anymore.[ 10]

(Benou AlAbbas ) did not deviate from following (Benou Aumyah )’s line, they too adhered to AlAshairah’s approach to destiny; except (AlMamoon ) and (AlMutasem ) who chose to adopt (AlMutazilah )’s approach of free choice and authorization.

When (AlMutawkil ) seized reign he adopted AlAshairah’s faith in determinism again, he even used to punish people who do not follow this ideology; his successors too were committed to his line.

Authorization “Free Choice”

Two contradictory trends pertaining to man’s individualbehaviour dominate the Islamic history:

Determinism and Authorization.

The first of which is adopted by (AlAsha'irah ), the second by (AlMutazilah ).

AlMutazilah’s approach of authorization was: Allah the Sublime authorized man to choose whatever he likes, thus man istotally independent in what he does.

This belief completely contradicts the first one.

If the philosophical and ideological justification of the first doctrine was meant to maintain the origin of (monotheism) thus attributing all things and deeds in this universe to Allah the Sublime (But Allah is the one who has created you and the material of which you make your gods).

AsSaffat v. 96; the ideological justification for this doctrine (the second) was meant to deem Allah the Sublime far above compelling man to do things hecan not do, meanwhile Allah the Sublime’s destiny was paradoxical to what He commands or prohibits; it was meant to deem Allah the Sublime far above creating wrong doings, wicked deeds, heathenism, polytheism injustice, aggression in man’sbehaviour .

AbdulKhader AlBaghdady in his book (AlFarqu Bain Al-Firaqu ) demonstrates the dogmas of (AlMutazilah ):

(Some of their dogmas claim that Allah the Sublime is not the Creator of people’s gains (deeds); neither of the acts of animals; they claim that people themselves determine their deeds, and Allah the Sublime has no role or hand neither in their deeds nor in the acts of animals).[11]

AlSayied Al Sharif ALRadhy in his book (Sharh AlMwaqif ) said: (AlMutazilah deduced that many things are attributed to one origin and that is; but for man’s independence to act the way he chooses, assignment (commands) and punishment (which are dictated by the legislations of Allah) would have been suspended, thus there will be no meaning in praising or blaming anybody).

Zuhdi Jar Allah about (AlMutazilah ) relates:

(They have agreed that man is the creator and originator of his deeds, and that Allah the Sublime has no role or hand in man’s deeds (that are gained).) [12]

The lateSadrul Muta'lihien says: (Some groups such as AlMutazilah and the like advocated that Allah the Sublime hascreated mankind enabling people to act; authorizing them to act according to their free choice, thus they are independent to do these deeds according to their own will and potency.

Further they said: Allah wanted people to obey and believe in Him abhorring their disbelief and disobedience.Also they said: The case being thus, some matters become clear:

First: the benefit of commands and prohibitions, and the benefit of promises and threats.

Second: Deserving reward and punishment.

Third: Deeming Allah the Sublime far above ugly and wicked deeds, far above various kinds of atheism, disobediences and bad deeds).[ 13]

AlShahristany in his book (AlMilal wal Nihal ) thinks that (AlMutazila tend to consider people as creators and innovators of their deeds, and that Allah the Sublime has no hand or role in their deeds (which they have gained).[ 14]

AlMutazilah use to advocate authorization (free choice) independence of man in his deeds just to escape from the mistake that (AlAsha'irah ) have committed by claiming that man deserves Allah the Sublime’s punishment for a sin or a crime he made in spite of himself; further they wanted to escape from AlAsha'irah’s claim that Allah the Sublime commands man to do things over his power opposite to what destiny and fate dictate.

In order to deem Allah the Sublime far above this and that (Be He Exalted and raised far above all that) they resorted to advocate authorization and the belief that Allah the Sublime has authorized man to handle all his affairs, bestowing on him absolute potency to be independent in all his deeds andbehaviour , thus entrapping themselves in something worse than the mistake that (AlSha'irah ) made, namely (polytheism), isolating man’s deeds and acts totally from Allah the Sublime’s will, permission, wish and innovation, is equal to polytheism, if not itself polytheism.

There is a clear difference between the theory of Divine authorization and man’s independence to act apart from Allah the Sublime’s will,permission and wish; and between the doctrine of free choice.

Thiswill be thoroughly explained later in this research.

Notes

[1] Behar Al Anwar: 5: 56/120.

[2] AlKafi : Al-Tawheed : 8/362.

[3] AlKafi 1: 3/147 AlBedaa ' -Ketab AlTawheed .

[4] This gracious verse has nothing to do with what they claim for it concerns the conversation that took place betweenIbrahiem (A.S.) and the Polytheists among his people; before it he told them in denouncement [Do you worship things that you have carved by your own hands?]

[5] Though they do not frankly admit this.

[6] ALAwail . AbuHilal AlAskry 2: 125.

[7] (Imamah andSyasah )Ibn Qutaibah : 210 -Bairut 1990.

[8] Ibid.

[9] AlKutat .Almuquriezy 2: 356.

[10]Tabaquat Ibn Sa'ad 7: 167.pb .Bairut .

[11] (AlFarqu Bain AlFiraq ) pub 1994Bairut .

[12] AlMutazilah : 99.Same meaning in (AlMilal Wal Nihal ) 1: 91.

[13] AlAssfar 6: 369 - 370.

[14] AlMilal wal Niha . AlShahrestany 1: 91.

Chapter Two: Al Quran PositionTowards (Inevitability) and (Man’s Independence)

Now we shall try to explore Al Quran stance of the question of Inevitability. A first reading, AL Quran will acquaint us with two important points:

- Al Quran denies the doctrine of inevitability in the way AlAsha'irah present.

- AL Quran as well denies the doctrine of authorization in the way ALMutazilah choose to believe.

In the first point, Al Quran clearly confirms the doctrine of free will; in thesecond it confirms the doctrine of man’s independence and freedom of choice.

These two points do not contradict each other; rather they integrate each other revealing a third doctrine that is neither the first approach nor the second.This is the doctrine that the progeny (A.S.) advocate . We shall declare that later.

Now we move to read theQuranic verses that pertain to both doctrines:

1. The Doctrine of Free Choice in Al Quran

Hereafter we demonstrate the verses taken from the Book of Allah, which confirm the principle of free choice in man’s life.This is a dossier of verses we chose from a vast collection of the Book of Allah verses.

At the first place, Al Quran frankly and clearly determines the principle of assigning Allah’s command-ments to man; such an assignment of course would have no meaning if it does not affirm the principle of free choice.

The Sublime says:

[It is incumbentupon mankind to pay pilgrimage to the Holy House, for those who can afford to make the journey regarding their financial and physical ability] revised by translator.AlImran v. 97.

[Fastingis decreed for you as it was decreed for those before you] ALBaquarah v. 183

[O, you who believe! When the call is proclaimed for the congregational prayer of Friday, thenhasten to Allah’s remembrance, and quit your trade and every business]. Al-Jumah v.9 .

At the secondplace All Quran determines that:

Allah the Sublime did not assign toman his duties only after he had bestowed on him, brain, consciousness and the ability to distinguish things.

The Sublime says:

[Have we not made for him two eyes?And a tongue and two lips?And we did show him the two ways [of truth and falsehood] AlBalad - 8, 9, 10.

[ThenWe showed him the straight path, whether he chooses to be grateful or be in grateful and disbeliever]. Revised by translator AlInsan v.3 .

At the third place AL Quran states that: Allah the Sublime does not charge mankind with their duties only after He perfects His clue on them by giving them a previous note, and after sending His prophets heralding and warning them.

The Sublime says:

[And We do not chastise any people before we send a messenger (for guiding them to the right path] AlIsra'a v. 15.

[And say (O, Messenger), verily evident proofs have come to you from your Creator and Nurturer (to give you) insight about the truth, so whoever keeps his eyes closed on the truth will harm himself.] AlAna'm v. 104.Revised by translator.

[And neveryour Creator and Nurturer did destroy a town before sending a messenger to recite to them our revelations, and we never destroy a land unless its population is transgressors]AlQassas v. 59 revised by translator.

At the fourthplace al Quran states that: Allah the Sublime does not force mankind to do things theycan not do, He only assigns to them duties fit to their potency.

The Sublime says:

[Allah does not put a task on a person beyond his ability. Man gets reward for that good which he has done and he is punished for that evil which he has done] AlBaquarah v. 286.

All this emphasis on the fact that Allah never assigns to mankind their duties unless He enables them to distinguish things, sending to them heralding warning prophets; never asking them to do things over their potency; we say that all this emphasis never comes true unless accompanied by a recognition of free choice as a principle.

At the fifth place: Al Quran attributes man’s deeds and acts to him himself, it states that those deeds are what he has gained. Such a statement never proves true unless man is free to choose whatever he does according to his own free will. He is not a mere container for the acts that he produces the way those who advocate determinism claim. The Sublime says:

[And whatever befalls you people, it is the result of your own deeds.]Revised by translator. AsShu'ra v. 30.

[So woebe to them for what their hands have written and woe be to them for what they earn thereby.]Revised by translator. AlBaquarah v. 79.

[Aye, those who do evil and are encompassed by their sins, those are the inhabitants of the fire and they shall abide therein forever.]Revised by translator. AlBaquarah v. 81.

At the sixth place: Al Quran confirms the principle that man’s deed pertains to him including the sequences of such a deed (being good or evil), Reward or punishment for such a deed emphasize that it is attributed to him himself (which is part of the constitutional reward and punishment that Allah has programmed within the course of the universe); we say that all this may never come true unless man withstands the responsibility for his deeds, which is conditioned to his free choice.

[And say (O messenger!); verily evident proofs have come to you from your Creator and Nurturer (to give you) insight about the truth, so whoever keeps his eyes closed from the truth will harm himself.]Revised by translator ALAnam v. 104.

[Say (O, Messenger!); O men! The truth has come to you from your Creator and Nurturer; whoeveris guided it is only to his own benefit, and whoever goes astray; it is only to his own loss.]Revised by translator. Yunus v. 108.

[Allah does not put a task on a person beyond his ability. Man gets reward for that (good) which he has done and heis punished for that (evil) which he has done.]AlBaquarah v. 286.

At the seventh place: Al Quran confirms that manis rewarded and punished in this mundane world, such an act is conditional to his responsibility for his deeds; the responsibility itself is conditioned to his free choice.

The Sublime says:

[Allah has given an example: some people who lived peacefully in their town and provision came to them in abundance from everywhere, but they did not value the bounties of Allah, and Allah (due to their ingratitude) made them experience and taste hunger and fear.]Revised by translator. An Nahl v. 112.

[So we sent down upon the evil doers a plague from heaven, because of their rebellion against Allah’s command.]Revised by translator, AlBaquarah v. 59.

[Corruptionhas been spread through out the world in sea and land on the account of men’s wrong deeds.]Revised by translator. Ar Rum v. 61.

At the eighth place: Al Quran determines that manwill be rewarded and punished for his good and evil deeds on the Day of Judgment . We have already stated that reward and punishmentare related to free choice; they are never correct without choice:

[And they will be paid for what they did, and Allah better knows what people do.]Revised by translator. AlZumar v. 70.

At the ninth place: Al Quran confirms that Allah the Sublime punishes or rewards everyman according to his deed, never punishing anybody forsomebody’s else wrongdoing.

The Sublime says:

[And no one shall bear the burden of another person’s sin.]AlAnam v. 164.

At the tenth place: Al Quran states that man on Dooms Day will repent his illdeeds which he had committed in this mundane world.

Repentance signifies and confirms free choices of man; for he cannot repent athing he had not chosen.

[O, you who believe! If a spiteful person with a private motive brings you on item of news, try to verify it before making any decision lest you many unknowingly harm other people and then become remorseful of what you have done.] Revised by translator AlHujurat v.6 .

[And they will hide their remorse when they see the torment but it shall be judged about them fairly and they will not be dealt with unjustly.]Yunus v. 54.

At the eleventh place: Al Quran states that; man’s deeds decide his destiny turning him thus a winner or a looser.

The Sublime says:

[And by the soul and the one who created it and gave order and perfection to it, inspiring it both with evil and with good; (by all these oaths) the winner is the one who had not polluted it with sin and corruption and was deprived from the Grace of Allah.]Revised by translator. As Shams v. 7-10.

At the twelfth place: Al Quran states that thechange which Allah the Sublime brings about in the life of people and nations, (A change as enormous as enrichment, annihilation, allurement, torment or deception) is only a result of their deeds, this does not come true unless man enjoys his full freedom.

The Sublime says:

[Allah will not change the inside and facial condition of people until they change what is inside them (of good and evil) themselves.]Revised by translator. Ar Ra'd v. 11.

[That is so because Allah will never change the bounty that He has bestowed upon people unless they change themselves (by rebellion)]AlAnfal v. 53.

At the thirteenth place, al Quran states that, Allah in this mundane worldgives mankind some of or all that they ask (according to their deeds they way He chooses). If giving is done by Allah the Sublime (according to His will and desire), demand - on the other hand - comes from man. Giving (from Allah) comes responding to man’s request. All this has no meaning unless man is free to choose his demands.

[Whoever whishes the temporal quick - passing worldly life,We easily grant him such things for whom we will, afterwards, provide hell; he will reside in it despised and rejected. And whoever desires the good of the hereafter and strives for it wholeheartedly while he is a believer (On the Day of Judgment), then such people are the ones whose efforts will be appreciated (with the test reward).

Toboth groups , these and those in this world, we bestow from the bounties of your Creator and Nurturer; the bounties of your Creator and Nurturer are not spared from anyone.]Revised by translator. AlIsraa v. 18 - 19 - 20.

At the fourteenth place: Al Quran states that Allah the Sublime does not do mankind injustice, rather, it is they who do themselves injustice; the verses that indicate this fact in the Book of Allah are nearly eighty verses, all of them clearly authenticate the principle of man’s free choice; punishing man with the most sever torment and punishment for doing something he had no will in is a kind of injustice which Allah the Sublime is too dignified and Great to commit:

The Sublime says:

[Creator and Nurtureris never unjust to His human creatures.]Fussilat v. 46.

[Allah didnot treat them unjustly , but they did unjust to themselves.]AtTaubah v. 70.

[And whoever brings about an evil deed, will only be recompensed the like of it; And they will not be treated unjustly.]Revised by translator AlAnam v. 60.

[And everyone will be paid fully for what he has done and they will not be dealt with unjustly]An Nahl v. 111.

[We didnot treat them unjustly , rather they did themselves injustice.]Revised by translator. Hud v. 101.

[We did not do them wrong, but they did themselves wrong.]Revised by translator AnNahl v. 118.

[We did not do wrong to them but they did themselves wrong.]Revised by translator. Az Zukhruf v. 76.

The First Inevitability

The first inevitability pertains to man’s individualbehaviour and the history of nations and human communities.

Inevitability theories tackle this field and that, or pertains to individualbehaviour one time, and to man’s history another.

These theories sometimes adopt the belief in Allah as a base and a resource for inevitability; theories as such are the Divine inevitability theories.

In othercases these theories adopt other basic resources to explain inevitability in the individualbehaviour and the movement of history; such theories might be called (Material Necessity Theories). Theories that rely oninevitability as a foundation to understand man’sbehaviour , history, thought and development are old and deep rooted in the history of human culture.

Many elements (namely religious,philosophical and political elements) commingle to shape these theories; it will be very difficult to understand these theories within the framework of science and thought exclusively; political and religious factors that have participated in forming the philosophical formula of these theories must be taken into consideration too.

The Divine Inevitabilities in Man’sBehaviour :

To the religious, the theories of inevitability often pertains to the individualbehaviour of man heading to negate his will in his deeds andbehaviour , viz. man has no role in his deeds and no sovereignty over them.

This theoryis well known by the name of (determinism). The most famous Islamic sect that adheres to determinism is (AlAshairah ) whose founder and leader was (Abul Al Hassan binIsmaeel ALAsha'ary ) who died in the year 330Hejrah .

This doctrine does not negate man’s will and potency directly, rather it believes that man’s action is not begotten by his own will and potency, ratherit is created by Allah the Sublime .

Man has no role in begetting andinnovating any deed; his role is only limited to gain the deed, never to invent it. (AlShaikh AlAsha'ary ) thus tries tojoin together two fundamental origins of religion namely; monotheism (AlTawheed ) and Justice (AlAdl ).

In the first place, he believes that Allah the Sublime creates all man’s deeds, and man has no role in begetting,innovating or inventing them, for Allah the Sublime says:

[But Allah is the One who has created you and the material from which you make your Gods] [4] revised by translator.ASaffat v. 96.

Thus, mankind has no role in begetting or innovating their deeds, for this is related to Allah the Sublime, He is the Creator of deeds and things and creatures. This according to (AlShaikh AlAsha'ary ) is the connotation of (Monotheism doctrine).

Actually, this man believes in the doctrine of casualty, never negating its origin, but he also believes that Allah the Sublime is the direct cause for allcauses which does not mean that He begets something which will be the cause for other things, replacing only one cause for the many causes that all creatures demand.

In the secondplace he thinks that trusting the role of man’s will and potency in begetting any deed is a kind of polytheism, which the following gracious verse completely negates:

[But Allah is the One who has created you and the material from which you make your gods]AsSaffat v. 96.

The Origin of Gain (AlKasb )

What we have mentioned above is the first origin to which (AlShaikh AlAsha'ary ) was committed; his second origin is Gain (AlKasb ) to which he was committed for fear of turning to determinism which might retard the doctrine of reward and punishment, hence man will no more be responsible for his deeds which will result into denying Allah the Sublime’s quality of Justice.[5]

For, assuming that man has no role in his deeds neither sovereignty over them will lead to cripple the doctrine of reward and punishment, for it is unfair to punish a man for committing an act that he had no role and authority whatsoever in begetting it.

(AlAshaa'irah ) differed in explaining the word (AlKasb ); the best one among their theorists who tried to explain this word was the famous (AbuBakr AlBaqulany ).

His opinion about (AlKasb ) in short was:

Every deed has two aspects: the aspect ofbegetting, and the aspect of particularity and title which Allah the Sublime made a criterion for reward and punishment.

These are two diverse aspects, each of whichis definitely attributed to.

The first aspect is begetting which belongs to Allah the Sublime, attributing this aspect to anything otherthat Him is a kind of polytheism.

The second aspect is the title that brings man reward and punishment; (Prayer) for instance, (fasting) (pilgrimage) (Backbiting) and (lying)… etc.

The way the first aspect should not be attributed to man, the second one too should not be attributed to Allah the Sublime, man’s will and potency is only related to the second aspect - never to the first - and it is the criterion for reward and punishment.

Thus, this school - as its proponents believe - conjoins both origins (Monotheism) and (Justice) i.e. deserving reward and punishment.

Hence each deed has two directions - never one -; these two directions belong to two different potencies, that of Allah the Sublime, and that of man. No Problem about this, for diversity of directions justifies the multiplication of potencies to which a deed pertains.

DiscussingAlkasb (gain) as an Origin

We may not attain a clear sight of (AlKasb ), for these titles which man gains are themselves begotten - and (AlAshaa'irah ) attributes begetting a deed to Allah the Sublime, i.e.: praying, pilgrimage means begetting these acts and gestures which when joined together get the title of prayer and pilgrimage. Other deeds like (fasting) which is achieved by not eating or drinking can actually be attained by forsaking these things that break fasting, (forsaking) is something that man does as much as the rest of the acts done by the senses.

(Al Sheikh AlBaqulany ) believes that man’s intention (AlNiah ) is the only thing that determines his responsibility for what he does. He claims that a certain act (deed) differs from one intention to another; killing if intended for aggression is a crime, but the same act with the intention (Niah ) of legal punishment (Quasas and Had) is a legislative duty, for which Allah the Sublime rewards man.

The act itself is from Allah, but the intention ofman which puts the act in a certain direction comes from man, thus reward and punishment do not concern the act itself, they rather concern man’s intention of killing.

We say, if this speech happens to be true, then intention itself is an act of the senses, and there is no difference between one deed and another; I do not know really why should we attribute the intention to man and not the deeditself? An act is an act whether it is done by the senses or by other faculties of man; and if we accept attributing the intention to man himself, we - on the same criterion and justification - ought to attribute to him every deed he commits whether it was done by means of his senses (prayer and pilgrimage) or by his inner faculties (like forsaking food and drinks in the intention of fasting).

Whatever the case might be we do not mean to simplify discussing a theological theory that engaged many Islamic scholastics exerting a lot of time and effort in this way. We only mean to get a sight of this subject. If the reader demands elaboration aboutit we refer him to theological encyclopedias like (Sharh AlMaquasid ) (Altaftazani ), and (Sharh AlMawaquif ) by (AlJurjany ).

Contemporary Material Inevitabilities

When we speak about the (Material Theories)- we do not mean those theories which deny faith in Allah the Sublime -, rather we mean the theories that contradict the theory of (Divine Inevitability) adopted by (AlAsha'irah ), attributing every act and deed in the individual’s lives and movement of history to Allah the Sublime.

These theories attribute the inevitability which governs thebehaviour of individuals and communities to resources other that Allah the Sublime. Some of the advocates of this theory in the west are (Montesquieu) in his book (The Essence of laws), (Spiengler ) in his book (The Decline of the Western Civilization) and (Durkheim) the famous French sociologist who believes that the social life is determined separately from the individual’s will and desires.

Social relations and affairs like manners, knowledge’s, social culture, ease (yusr ) and distress (Ausur ) are characterized by three inseparable qualities namely: (being external), (being inevitable), (being general).

Social affairs by all their particularities are produced by external factors, they never rise from inside the individuals,neither from their will or desires, an individual is obliged to fall under the pressures of social life. Social life as well falls under its own factors of external compulsion, and this is the nature of the relation between causes and results in the movement of history.

The movement of society is (inevitable) so that (results) can never stay behind their (causes). If we may have a look through the reasons and causes of events, we would no doubt have been able to forecastthem, this is (being inevitable).

The third quality (being general). Every thing that takes place at a certain time and a certain place may possibly take place any other time at any other place under the same conditions and causes.

One of the most famous contemporary material inevitabilities is the theory of (Karl Marx) - (Fredrick Ingles) which tries tolegislate laws for the movement of history arranging them into five stages through the factor of (the struggle of classes) between the exploiting class and the exploited one.

But this theory relapsed at the dawn of its emergence at the stage of appliance; reality proved opposite to it, it became a mere theoretical study today.

Criticism of Historical Inevitability

Whatever the way these material inevitabilities follow to interpret history, some of them proved righteous and others proved wrong, regardless of their scrupulous details.

Righteousness lies in the fact that these theories dedicate history to some scientific laws, causes, and reasons that dictate its movement.

A historical event - similar to any other phenomenon in the universe - is conditioned to its causes and reasons, therefore casualty law governs historical events the way it governs the physical, chemical, mechanical phenomena, accurately reigning over all their familiar reasonable essentials like, inevitability, originality and so on.

This is righteousness, whichcan never be suspected , except in the Marxist theory, which fundamentally rejects casualty law replacing it with Dialectical Materialism, which has been extracted from (Hegel).

The wrong aspect of these theories lies in negating man and his independent decision that makes history, considering him a piece of wood floating on the ever flowing waves of history; determining only one destiny for history and man, a destiny that never multiplies or shifts. Certainly, this is wrong,

for man (the individual, society, history) is not conditioned to one cause as a choice, rather he is usually conditioned to fall on a cross way; selecting the right way is related to his will, consciousness, culture and to his own decision to a great extent; so if ever he follows one of these ways according to his own will, decision and opinion he would find no way to get rid of compulsory impacts dictated on him by casualty law. Let us state two examples for this, the first concerns the individual; and the other pertains to society.

In regard to the example of the individual; if ever he moves, activates himself, and learns he will see his way in life; on the other hand, if ever he idles residing to ignorance and laziness he will remain minor, weak, worthless and powerless in life.

Both results are conclusive and inevitable if ever man chooses the right way to attain them.But it does not mean that man faces a one-dimensional inevitable (destiny and fate) in his life.

In the example of society, a society that resists, makes sacrifices, endures the agony of confrontation and the severity ofresistance, it will definitely come safe out of oppression, political suppression and terrorism.

A society that surrenders and does not resist is doomed to the worst kind of political suppression and terrorism. Both are inevitable laws that condition the lives of nations.But society in its political life stands at a crossway, if it chooses the first way the result will be inevitable, and if it chooses the second way the result two would be inevitable. Selecting this way or that falls under man’s will and option,never under the inevitable system of things. Within the course of this research we shall come back to tackle this point again.

The Political Exploitation of Inevitability

Most negative results thatare brought about by belief in these inevitabilities cripple man’s role and movement in history suspending his role in determining his destiny.If man believes that his movement and acts are subject to a chain of inevitable factors foreign to his will and option, he will start feeling that he is a useless element who has no role in making his destiny and the destiny of his society; with such a belief and satisfaction man can never be a resource for movement and change in his individual and social life.

Therefore, faith in inevitability (historical or individual)has all the way through the history of Islam been adopted by oppressive regimes. Such a belief mobilizes people to political surrender taming them to accept injustice.

Benu Aumyah used to adopt the theory of (determinism); (AbuHilal AlAskary ) says: (Muawiah ) was the first to claim that Allah dictates all deeds on mankind;[6] and when Abdullah binOmmar objected toMuawiah’s assignment of his son (Yazeed ) as a successor to govern after him;Muawiah answered him (I warn you, do not segregate the Muslims, disintegrating their unity, spelling their blood. (Yazeed’s ) assignment has been predestined by fate, people have no choice about it).[ 7]

Muawiah adopted the same logic when (Aiyshah ) objected to assigning (Yazeed ) as a successor to caliphate; he told her: (Yazeed’s assignment has been predestined by fate, people have no choice about it).[ 8]

Some scholars took the initiative to confront that trend of determinism, whichBenu Aumyah adhered to, the most prominent of them were (Ma'bed AlJahny ) in Iraq and (Ghaylan AlDamashquy ) in Sham; they advocated free choice and free will.

(Ma'bed ) with his ally (Ibn AlAshaath ) rebelled against (Beni Aumyah ), thus (AlHajaj )killd him. (Ghaylan ) was summoned by (Husham bin AbdulMalik ) theAumayah Caliph to Damascus to be interrogated; he then was condemned and nailed on the cross after having his hands and feet cut.

Apparently (Al Hassan AlBassry ) used to adhere to this opinion too, i.e. free choice.

AlMuquriezy says: (Attaa ' binYessar ) and (Mabed AlJahny ) came to (Al Hassan AlBassry ) and told him:

ThoseAumyah rulers are shedding blood claiming that Allah has predestined their deeds. Al Hassan said:

Foes of Allah are lying. (He was condemned for this statement) [9] . Al Hassan ALBassry used to propagate openly his opinions that oppose the government ofBeni Aumyah ; then some people threatened him by the Caliph, thus he kept quiet.

Ibn Sa'ad in his (AlTabaquat ) relates from (Ayub ) saying: (I challenged Al Hassan AlBassry to discuss fate and destiny more than once,then I threatened him by the caliph. He said: I shall never say anything anymore.[ 10]

(Benou AlAbbas ) did not deviate from following (Benou Aumyah )’s line, they too adhered to AlAshairah’s approach to destiny; except (AlMamoon ) and (AlMutasem ) who chose to adopt (AlMutazilah )’s approach of free choice and authorization.

When (AlMutawkil ) seized reign he adopted AlAshairah’s faith in determinism again, he even used to punish people who do not follow this ideology; his successors too were committed to his line.

Authorization “Free Choice”

Two contradictory trends pertaining to man’s individualbehaviour dominate the Islamic history:

Determinism and Authorization.

The first of which is adopted by (AlAsha'irah ), the second by (AlMutazilah ).

AlMutazilah’s approach of authorization was: Allah the Sublime authorized man to choose whatever he likes, thus man istotally independent in what he does.

This belief completely contradicts the first one.

If the philosophical and ideological justification of the first doctrine was meant to maintain the origin of (monotheism) thus attributing all things and deeds in this universe to Allah the Sublime (But Allah is the one who has created you and the material of which you make your gods).

AsSaffat v. 96; the ideological justification for this doctrine (the second) was meant to deem Allah the Sublime far above compelling man to do things hecan not do, meanwhile Allah the Sublime’s destiny was paradoxical to what He commands or prohibits; it was meant to deem Allah the Sublime far above creating wrong doings, wicked deeds, heathenism, polytheism injustice, aggression in man’sbehaviour .

AbdulKhader AlBaghdady in his book (AlFarqu Bain Al-Firaqu ) demonstrates the dogmas of (AlMutazilah ):

(Some of their dogmas claim that Allah the Sublime is not the Creator of people’s gains (deeds); neither of the acts of animals; they claim that people themselves determine their deeds, and Allah the Sublime has no role or hand neither in their deeds nor in the acts of animals).[11]

AlSayied Al Sharif ALRadhy in his book (Sharh AlMwaqif ) said: (AlMutazilah deduced that many things are attributed to one origin and that is; but for man’s independence to act the way he chooses, assignment (commands) and punishment (which are dictated by the legislations of Allah) would have been suspended, thus there will be no meaning in praising or blaming anybody).

Zuhdi Jar Allah about (AlMutazilah ) relates:

(They have agreed that man is the creator and originator of his deeds, and that Allah the Sublime has no role or hand in man’s deeds (that are gained).) [12]

The lateSadrul Muta'lihien says: (Some groups such as AlMutazilah and the like advocated that Allah the Sublime hascreated mankind enabling people to act; authorizing them to act according to their free choice, thus they are independent to do these deeds according to their own will and potency.

Further they said: Allah wanted people to obey and believe in Him abhorring their disbelief and disobedience.Also they said: The case being thus, some matters become clear:

First: the benefit of commands and prohibitions, and the benefit of promises and threats.

Second: Deserving reward and punishment.

Third: Deeming Allah the Sublime far above ugly and wicked deeds, far above various kinds of atheism, disobediences and bad deeds).[ 13]

AlShahristany in his book (AlMilal wal Nihal ) thinks that (AlMutazila tend to consider people as creators and innovators of their deeds, and that Allah the Sublime has no hand or role in their deeds (which they have gained).[ 14]

AlMutazilah use to advocate authorization (free choice) independence of man in his deeds just to escape from the mistake that (AlAsha'irah ) have committed by claiming that man deserves Allah the Sublime’s punishment for a sin or a crime he made in spite of himself; further they wanted to escape from AlAsha'irah’s claim that Allah the Sublime commands man to do things over his power opposite to what destiny and fate dictate.

In order to deem Allah the Sublime far above this and that (Be He Exalted and raised far above all that) they resorted to advocate authorization and the belief that Allah the Sublime has authorized man to handle all his affairs, bestowing on him absolute potency to be independent in all his deeds andbehaviour , thus entrapping themselves in something worse than the mistake that (AlSha'irah ) made, namely (polytheism), isolating man’s deeds and acts totally from Allah the Sublime’s will, permission, wish and innovation, is equal to polytheism, if not itself polytheism.

There is a clear difference between the theory of Divine authorization and man’s independence to act apart from Allah the Sublime’s will,permission and wish; and between the doctrine of free choice.

Thiswill be thoroughly explained later in this research.

Notes

[1] Behar Al Anwar: 5: 56/120.

[2] AlKafi : Al-Tawheed : 8/362.

[3] AlKafi 1: 3/147 AlBedaa ' -Ketab AlTawheed .

[4] This gracious verse has nothing to do with what they claim for it concerns the conversation that took place betweenIbrahiem (A.S.) and the Polytheists among his people; before it he told them in denouncement [Do you worship things that you have carved by your own hands?]

[5] Though they do not frankly admit this.

[6] ALAwail . AbuHilal AlAskry 2: 125.

[7] (Imamah andSyasah )Ibn Qutaibah : 210 -Bairut 1990.

[8] Ibid.

[9] AlKutat .Almuquriezy 2: 356.

[10]Tabaquat Ibn Sa'ad 7: 167.pb .Bairut .

[11] (AlFarqu Bain AlFiraq ) pub 1994Bairut .

[12] AlMutazilah : 99.Same meaning in (AlMilal Wal Nihal ) 1: 91.

[13] AlAssfar 6: 369 - 370.

[14] AlMilal wal Niha . AlShahrestany 1: 91.

Chapter Two: Al Quran PositionTowards (Inevitability) and (Man’s Independence)

Now we shall try to explore Al Quran stance of the question of Inevitability. A first reading, AL Quran will acquaint us with two important points:

- Al Quran denies the doctrine of inevitability in the way AlAsha'irah present.

- AL Quran as well denies the doctrine of authorization in the way ALMutazilah choose to believe.

In the first point, Al Quran clearly confirms the doctrine of free will; in thesecond it confirms the doctrine of man’s independence and freedom of choice.

These two points do not contradict each other; rather they integrate each other revealing a third doctrine that is neither the first approach nor the second.This is the doctrine that the progeny (A.S.) advocate . We shall declare that later.

Now we move to read theQuranic verses that pertain to both doctrines:

1. The Doctrine of Free Choice in Al Quran

Hereafter we demonstrate the verses taken from the Book of Allah, which confirm the principle of free choice in man’s life.This is a dossier of verses we chose from a vast collection of the Book of Allah verses.

At the first place, Al Quran frankly and clearly determines the principle of assigning Allah’s command-ments to man; such an assignment of course would have no meaning if it does not affirm the principle of free choice.

The Sublime says:

[It is incumbentupon mankind to pay pilgrimage to the Holy House, for those who can afford to make the journey regarding their financial and physical ability] revised by translator.AlImran v. 97.

[Fastingis decreed for you as it was decreed for those before you] ALBaquarah v. 183

[O, you who believe! When the call is proclaimed for the congregational prayer of Friday, thenhasten to Allah’s remembrance, and quit your trade and every business]. Al-Jumah v.9 .

At the secondplace All Quran determines that:

Allah the Sublime did not assign toman his duties only after he had bestowed on him, brain, consciousness and the ability to distinguish things.

The Sublime says:

[Have we not made for him two eyes?And a tongue and two lips?And we did show him the two ways [of truth and falsehood] AlBalad - 8, 9, 10.

[ThenWe showed him the straight path, whether he chooses to be grateful or be in grateful and disbeliever]. Revised by translator AlInsan v.3 .

At the third place AL Quran states that: Allah the Sublime does not charge mankind with their duties only after He perfects His clue on them by giving them a previous note, and after sending His prophets heralding and warning them.

The Sublime says:

[And We do not chastise any people before we send a messenger (for guiding them to the right path] AlIsra'a v. 15.

[And say (O, Messenger), verily evident proofs have come to you from your Creator and Nurturer (to give you) insight about the truth, so whoever keeps his eyes closed on the truth will harm himself.] AlAna'm v. 104.Revised by translator.

[And neveryour Creator and Nurturer did destroy a town before sending a messenger to recite to them our revelations, and we never destroy a land unless its population is transgressors]AlQassas v. 59 revised by translator.

At the fourthplace al Quran states that: Allah the Sublime does not force mankind to do things theycan not do, He only assigns to them duties fit to their potency.

The Sublime says:

[Allah does not put a task on a person beyond his ability. Man gets reward for that good which he has done and he is punished for that evil which he has done] AlBaquarah v. 286.

All this emphasis on the fact that Allah never assigns to mankind their duties unless He enables them to distinguish things, sending to them heralding warning prophets; never asking them to do things over their potency; we say that all this emphasis never comes true unless accompanied by a recognition of free choice as a principle.

At the fifth place: Al Quran attributes man’s deeds and acts to him himself, it states that those deeds are what he has gained. Such a statement never proves true unless man is free to choose whatever he does according to his own free will. He is not a mere container for the acts that he produces the way those who advocate determinism claim. The Sublime says:

[And whatever befalls you people, it is the result of your own deeds.]Revised by translator. AsShu'ra v. 30.

[So woebe to them for what their hands have written and woe be to them for what they earn thereby.]Revised by translator. AlBaquarah v. 79.

[Aye, those who do evil and are encompassed by their sins, those are the inhabitants of the fire and they shall abide therein forever.]Revised by translator. AlBaquarah v. 81.

At the sixth place: Al Quran confirms the principle that man’s deed pertains to him including the sequences of such a deed (being good or evil), Reward or punishment for such a deed emphasize that it is attributed to him himself (which is part of the constitutional reward and punishment that Allah has programmed within the course of the universe); we say that all this may never come true unless man withstands the responsibility for his deeds, which is conditioned to his free choice.

[And say (O messenger!); verily evident proofs have come to you from your Creator and Nurturer (to give you) insight about the truth, so whoever keeps his eyes closed from the truth will harm himself.]Revised by translator ALAnam v. 104.

[Say (O, Messenger!); O men! The truth has come to you from your Creator and Nurturer; whoeveris guided it is only to his own benefit, and whoever goes astray; it is only to his own loss.]Revised by translator. Yunus v. 108.

[Allah does not put a task on a person beyond his ability. Man gets reward for that (good) which he has done and heis punished for that (evil) which he has done.]AlBaquarah v. 286.

At the seventh place: Al Quran confirms that manis rewarded and punished in this mundane world, such an act is conditional to his responsibility for his deeds; the responsibility itself is conditioned to his free choice.

The Sublime says:

[Allah has given an example: some people who lived peacefully in their town and provision came to them in abundance from everywhere, but they did not value the bounties of Allah, and Allah (due to their ingratitude) made them experience and taste hunger and fear.]Revised by translator. An Nahl v. 112.

[So we sent down upon the evil doers a plague from heaven, because of their rebellion against Allah’s command.]Revised by translator, AlBaquarah v. 59.

[Corruptionhas been spread through out the world in sea and land on the account of men’s wrong deeds.]Revised by translator. Ar Rum v. 61.

At the eighth place: Al Quran determines that manwill be rewarded and punished for his good and evil deeds on the Day of Judgment . We have already stated that reward and punishmentare related to free choice; they are never correct without choice:

[And they will be paid for what they did, and Allah better knows what people do.]Revised by translator. AlZumar v. 70.

At the ninth place: Al Quran confirms that Allah the Sublime punishes or rewards everyman according to his deed, never punishing anybody forsomebody’s else wrongdoing.

The Sublime says:

[And no one shall bear the burden of another person’s sin.]AlAnam v. 164.

At the tenth place: Al Quran states that man on Dooms Day will repent his illdeeds which he had committed in this mundane world.

Repentance signifies and confirms free choices of man; for he cannot repent athing he had not chosen.

[O, you who believe! If a spiteful person with a private motive brings you on item of news, try to verify it before making any decision lest you many unknowingly harm other people and then become remorseful of what you have done.] Revised by translator AlHujurat v.6 .

[And they will hide their remorse when they see the torment but it shall be judged about them fairly and they will not be dealt with unjustly.]Yunus v. 54.

At the eleventh place: Al Quran states that; man’s deeds decide his destiny turning him thus a winner or a looser.

The Sublime says:

[And by the soul and the one who created it and gave order and perfection to it, inspiring it both with evil and with good; (by all these oaths) the winner is the one who had not polluted it with sin and corruption and was deprived from the Grace of Allah.]Revised by translator. As Shams v. 7-10.

At the twelfth place: Al Quran states that thechange which Allah the Sublime brings about in the life of people and nations, (A change as enormous as enrichment, annihilation, allurement, torment or deception) is only a result of their deeds, this does not come true unless man enjoys his full freedom.

The Sublime says:

[Allah will not change the inside and facial condition of people until they change what is inside them (of good and evil) themselves.]Revised by translator. Ar Ra'd v. 11.

[That is so because Allah will never change the bounty that He has bestowed upon people unless they change themselves (by rebellion)]AlAnfal v. 53.

At the thirteenth place, al Quran states that, Allah in this mundane worldgives mankind some of or all that they ask (according to their deeds they way He chooses). If giving is done by Allah the Sublime (according to His will and desire), demand - on the other hand - comes from man. Giving (from Allah) comes responding to man’s request. All this has no meaning unless man is free to choose his demands.

[Whoever whishes the temporal quick - passing worldly life,We easily grant him such things for whom we will, afterwards, provide hell; he will reside in it despised and rejected. And whoever desires the good of the hereafter and strives for it wholeheartedly while he is a believer (On the Day of Judgment), then such people are the ones whose efforts will be appreciated (with the test reward).

Toboth groups , these and those in this world, we bestow from the bounties of your Creator and Nurturer; the bounties of your Creator and Nurturer are not spared from anyone.]Revised by translator. AlIsraa v. 18 - 19 - 20.

At the fourteenth place: Al Quran states that Allah the Sublime does not do mankind injustice, rather, it is they who do themselves injustice; the verses that indicate this fact in the Book of Allah are nearly eighty verses, all of them clearly authenticate the principle of man’s free choice; punishing man with the most sever torment and punishment for doing something he had no will in is a kind of injustice which Allah the Sublime is too dignified and Great to commit:

The Sublime says:

[Creator and Nurtureris never unjust to His human creatures.]Fussilat v. 46.

[Allah didnot treat them unjustly , but they did unjust to themselves.]AtTaubah v. 70.

[And whoever brings about an evil deed, will only be recompensed the like of it; And they will not be treated unjustly.]Revised by translator AlAnam v. 60.

[And everyone will be paid fully for what he has done and they will not be dealt with unjustly]An Nahl v. 111.

[We didnot treat them unjustly , rather they did themselves injustice.]Revised by translator. Hud v. 101.

[We did not do them wrong, but they did themselves wrong.]Revised by translator AnNahl v. 118.

[We did not do wrong to them but they did themselves wrong.]Revised by translator. Az Zukhruf v. 76.