Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Part 2 Chapter 5: Laws Pertaining To Food, Dress, and Ways Of Self-Protection

246. It is obligatory to protect oneself against any significant harm and against any food, drink, and bodily movement, which causes notable harm or serious disease.

247. It is obligatory to defend oneself in any possible way against danger and causes of death, whether the menace is human, animal, or an event in nature, even if the defense causes harm, injury, or death to the attacker.

248. It is forbidden to eat the meat, eggs, and other body parts of marine animals, except for fish with scales. Also, it is forbidden to eat the eggs and body parts of animals whose meat is haram.

249. It is obligatory to slaughter, according to Islamic standards, the animals whose meat is halal for eating and other uses and to slaughter, according to Islamic standards, the animals whose meat is haram for uses and benefits other than eating. There are certain Islamic standards for slaughtering any animal. For instance, camels are slaughtered from the jugular notch, i.e. the hollow at the bottom of their necks, (this type of slaughter is used for camels and it is called nahr), other animals by cutting their jugular veins, wild animals by hunting, marine animals by bringing them out of water while still alive, and grasshoppers by trapping them in a container or a special place for this purpose, or by emergency slaughtering. In cases of emergency, animals may be slaughtered in a non-standard form. For example, a cow that falls into a well and is about to die may be stabbed with a piece of iron while pronouncing the phrase‘bismillahi (in the Name of God)’ so that its blood is shed and slaughtering takes place.

250. It is forbidden to eat the meat of a dead animal (i.e. an animal that is not slaughtered in a lawful way), be it domestic, wild, desert, or marine, such as the strangled, the dead through beating, the dead through falling from a height, that which has been killed by the goring of horns, that which is killed by wild beasts, and that which has been immolated unto idols. In any of these cases, however, if the animal can be slaughtered according to Islamic standards before death their meat is halal. Also, in cases of emergency the aforementioned meat may be consumed. The prohibition of eating the meat of dead animals is the same whether the flesh of the dead animal is impure, i.e.najis , (such as dog and swine) or pure, i.e.tayyib , (such as fish). However, whether or not it is legal to use the body parts of animals whose flesh is impure is controversial, such as the skins of swine and dogs.

251. It is forbidden to eat the meat obtained from the markets of unbelievers, from an unbeliever in non-Muslims markets, or from a Muslim who has bought it from an unbeliever. The skin of an animal obtained in this way is impure and it is wrong to use it.

252. It is forbidden to eat the meat of various small ground and sky animals, whether they have gushing blood - like rats and porcupines - or not - like frogs and snakes - except for grasshoppers, which are halal.

253. Of the domestic animals, it is forbidden to eat the meat of cats and dogs.

254. It is forbidden to eat the meat of predatory animals such as lions, leopards, wolves, fox, hyenas, and jackals.

255. It is forbidden to eat the meat of the various metamorphosed creatures - creatures that were originally evil humans of ancient rebellious nations, transformed by God the Almighty as punishment - such as elephants, monkeys, pigs, bears, and rabbits.

256. It is forbidden to eat the meat of birds that have talons, such as hawks, eagles, falcons, and vultures.

257. It is forbidden to eat the meat of the various kinds of crows, whether black, spotted, or otherwise. This issue is controversial.

258. It is forbidden to eat the meat of birds that always or usually fly with open wings, without flapping them, and birds that do not have crops, gizzards, and spurs, except those that are specifically stated as halal in traditions.

259. It is forbidden to eat the eggs of the birds whose meat is haram.

260. It is forbidden to eat the meat of halal animals that have become used to eating human excrement. This prohibition remains effective until the habit is broken and its normal cleanliness is restored.

261. It is forbidden to eat the meat of a halal animal with which a human being has committed a sexual act. It is also forbidden to drink their milk, eat their eggs, or even eat the meat of the offspring of such animals.

262. Some body parts of halal animals are forbidden to eat even if they have been slaughtered legally. These parts are namely: (1) both male and female genital organs, (2) uterus, (3) bodily glands, (4) testicles, (5) pea-like parts of the brain, (5) spinal cord, (6) the fat on the two sides of the backbone, (6) gall bladder, (7) spleen, (8) urinary bladder, (9) pupil of the eye, and (10) the center of hooves. However, some above items are subject to controversy.

263. It is forbidden to eat and drink impure things(najis) , such as dead bodies, blood, the meat of a dog or swine, wine, and all other intoxicating liquids.

264. It is forbidden to eat and drink pure and clean foods and drinks that are unpurified due to contact with impure things.

265. It is forbidden to use things that are normally intoxicating, even if they do not intoxicate on exception. The prohibition of using such things include eating, drinking, injecting, smoking, rubbing on the body, sniffing, or even wearing, since there are certain clothes that cause intoxication.

266. It is forbidden to take part in a gathering in which alcoholic and intoxicating liquids are served.

267. It is forbidden to drink beer, even if it does not cause intoxication.

268. It is forbidden to drink the grape juice that has boiled on fire and two thirds of its quantity have not evaporated. This is also true in case that it has boiled under sunlight or on its own.

269. It is forbidden to eat and drink anything that causes notable harm to the body and to use any thing that causes notable harm, whether it causes death, paralysis of limbs, impairment of constitution, or disablement of any of the bodily abilities, like the ability to reproduce and give birth.

It is forbidden to cut off any of the body parts unless there is justifiable reason. It is also forbidden to use any substance that brings about obvious harm to the mind and spirit.

270. It is forbidden to eat any kind of dust or mud, whether small or large in amount.

271. It is forbidden to abstain forever from eating the good things God had deemed legal. These good things include allowed actions, allowed pure food and clothing, and all the natural gifts and bounties that Islam has not forbidden. To abstain forever from doing something is to claim that this thing is forbidden in the law of Islam.

Part 2 Chapter 6: Laws Pertaining To Contracts And One-Side Decisions

272. It is obligatory upon every duty-bound person to fulfill his/her pacts and commitments. In Islamic law, pacts are of three types:

1. Pacts that God has made with His servants, such as the obligations and prohibitions that God has charged upon His servants through His prophets.

2. Pacts people make with themselves such as an oath, vow, or promise to perform or abstain from a specific act.

3. The commitments people make with each other, including mutual agreements or contracts(‘aqd) - such as business dealings - and one-sided resolutions - such as divorce, acquittance, and annulment of a contract.

All the above are considered by the Islamic law pacts and covenants and it is obligatory to fulfill all of them according to their conditions. A brief example of each is stated in the following issues.

273. It is obligatory upon both parties of an irrevocable contract(‘aqd-e lazim) to act according to their agreement and to undergo all of its effects and stipulations, whether the contract is verbal, written, practical, or reciprocal delivery. An ‘aqd is a contract based upon the consent of both parties. There are two types of contracts(‘aqd) :

1) Irrevocable contracts: The contracts whose parties have no right to revoke except in special cases.

2) Revocable contracts: The contracts whose parties have the right to revoke at any time.

Whatever is commonly considered a contract is an irrevocable contract unless there is evidence to the contrary; thus, violating such a contract is forbidden.

Now let us refer to a few irrevocable contracts:

1. Transaction(mubaya’ah) , i.e. buying and selling: It is obligatory upon the selling party to transfer the purchased commodity to the buyer after concluding the deal, and it is obligatory upon the buying party to pay the set price to the seller, except in certain cases. It is forbidden for the two parties to violate the contract.

2. Lease(ijarah; a contract comprising the possession of benefit, which is a job or the like, in return for compensation) : It is obligatory upon the lessor to convey the leased property, service, etc. to the lessee. In property lease, the property must be conveyed, and in hiring people, the hired person must be made available. It is obligatory upon the lessee to pay the rent to the lessor. It is forbidden for any of the parties to violate the contract except in special cases.

3. Endowment(waqf; endowment of property to be devoted to a religious or charitable purpose) : It is obligatory on the donor and the beneficiary to act according to the endowment contract after delivery of the endowed property and concluding the contract. It is forbidden for the donor to revoke or change the endowment stipulations after the closing of the contract. It is forbidden for others to annul or change the endowment stipulations after the death of the donor, whether the endowment is public, such as mosques, schools, and bridges, or private, such as endued to the children of the donor exclusively, except in some cases.

4. Settlement(sulh; a transaction involving seeking agreement between two persons on possessing of a property or canceling of a debt or a right, be it with compensation or free) : It is obligatory upon the parties of a settlement contract on an ambiguous property, a disputed debt, or an action to act according to the articles of the contract, and it is forbidden for them to violate these articles except in special cases.

5. Will(wasiyyah; a formal declaration involving investment with ownership or authorization of a certain disposal after death) : It is obligatory upon the executer of a will to act according to its articles after accepting and confirming it. To violate any of these articles is forbidden. It is also forbidden to refrain from acting upon the will, delay it beyond the required time, change the aim of the testator, or refrain from acting upon some of its articles. It is also forbidden for a testator to will unfair things, such as depriving certain heirs of their inheritance, deciding not to pay the dues of a creditor, or using the property for sinful actions.

6. Matrimony: It obligatory upon the two parties to act upon the lawful responsibilities after the concluding of this holy covenant. Refraining from acting upon any of the marriage responsibilities is a violation of the covenant and strictly forbidden.

7. Sharecropping(muzara’ah) : This is a farming contract by with usually one party pledges to supply land, water, and facilities and the other undertakes sowing and cultivation of crops. It is obligatory upon the two parties to act according to this contract, and it is forbidden to violate it.

8. Share-irrigating contracts(musaqat) : This is a contract comprising the agreement of irrigating and watching over the trees of another person to a specified term with a share of the produce. It is obligatory upon the two parties to act according to the contract, and to dissolve it is violation of the contract, which is forbidden.

9. Mortgage(rahn) : This is a property given as pledge for a debt. After the contract is made, it is obligatory for the debtor to deliver the collateral to the creditor who must keep it as security for the debt. It is forbidden for either of the parties to take possession of and make changes in the mortgaged property or to violate the contract, except by the consent and agreement of both parties.

10. Competition(musabaqah) : In Islam, horseracing, some other types of races, and archery have been declared permissible. After determining the conditions, the prize of the race, and the success of the winner, it becomes obligatory to give the prize to the winner and it is forbidden to violate the transaction. The same conditions are applied to the shooting competitions.

11. Guaranty(dhaman) : This is when one person undertakes the debt of another person. When such contracts are concluded, it becomes obligatory upon the guarantor to consider himself the debtor and to pay the guaranteed property to the creditor. To violate such contracts is forbidden.

12. Debt Transfer(hawalah) : This is a transaction in which a debtor refers the creditor to another person, i.e. a second debtor, for receiving his/her due. It is obligatory upon the debtor and the party who accepts the debt transfer to act upon the contract, the violation of which is forbidden.

13. Surety(kafalah) : This is when a person undertakes to present a third party who owes a debt or blood money, or deserves retaliation whenever the entitled party requests. After concluding the contract, it becomes obligatory upon the guarantor to bring the debtor at any time the owner of the right wants, and if she/he cannot ensure his/her presence, the guarantor her/himself must pay the debt or blood money.

14. Donation(hibah; a contract involving transfer of ownership without compensation) : In this revocable contract, taking back the donated property is allowed except in the following cases in which it is forbidden to take back the donated property:

A. Reciprocal Donations: This means that a person gives something as donation to another person who reciprocally gives her/him something in return, or that a person states as a condition that the donated person should give him/her a donation in return, even if the second person has not yet given her/him anything.

B. Donations intended for seeking nearness to God.

C. Donations to relatives and kinsfolk.

D. Donations that are consumed or destroyed while in the possession of the donee.

E. Donations that are no longer possessed by their recipients.

F. Donations whose donors have died and their heir demands their return.

G. Donations whose donees have died and the doner wants to retrieve it.

It is not forbidden to take back a donation except in these cases. Similarly, to cancel other revocable contracts is not forbidden, such as in limited partnership, trust, free lending, attorneyship, and mortgage for the recipient of mortgages.

274. After the composition of the majority of the one-sided contracts(oqud) , it becomes binding to fulfill these commitments, since to violate or cancel them is forbidden. Examples of one-sided obligations are stated below.

275. It is obligatory on all duty-bound persons to commit themselves to their proper oaths(qasam) , i.e. oaths in God’s name.

276. It is obligatory to act upon one’s vow(nadhr) , which is to undertake something as a duty to God.

277. It is obligatory to act upon a promise, which is to make a covenant with God to perform a certain act. Violation of any of these three commitments results in obligatory atonements. The details of these atonements can be found in the books of Muslim jurisprudence, under the title kaffarat.

278. Perjury(i.e. false swearing) is forbidden. In the terminology of Muslim jurisprudence, such false swearing is called yamin ghamus; which means an oath that drowns the person in an ocean of sins.

279. It is obligatory to protect deposits and trusts until they are given back to their owners. Trust stands for a property that is entrusted to a person by its owner, such as deposits entrusted to trustees, properties rented to a tenant, properties of an employer in the hands of the employees, and properties entrusted to the other party of a limited partnership contract, a sharecropping contract, and a share-irrigating contract.

280. It is obligatory to protect and return to the owner the trusts that have been kept in the custody of a person by permission of the law, such as found properties, foundlings, and properties accidentally forgotten inside a purchased house or chest.

281. It is obligatory to give full measure in weight, number, area, inspection, and any other unit, whether the measurement involves the delivery of sold merchandise, equivalence, price, payable loan, share of beneficiaries, or distribution of inheritance. Violation of giving full measure is strictly forbidden. In the terminology of Muslim jurisprudence, such violation is called tatfif, meaning giving a deficient or insufficient measure of something, be it a debt or one of the duties towards God.

282. It is obligatory to settle and pay up the debts and dues in their due times if their owner asks for settlement and the debtor has the ability to pay, whether the liability is to a person, such as debts whose deadline has arrived, monetary atonements for causing death or loss of property, or a religious tax, such askhumus ,zakat , and kaffarah. It is strictly forbidden to refrain from paying the dues and property of others, whatever the due may be and to whomever it must be paid, except in certain cases.

283. It is obligatory to pay the commission(ju’alah; a pronouncement involving taking upon oneself the rendering of a remuneration in return for a certain work) after the work is done accordingly. For example, if a person says, ‘I will give whoever finds my car one hundred dollars,’ and then a person finds it and gives it to its owner, the owner of the car must immediately pay the hundred dollars to the finder.

284. It is obligatory upon the partners in the possession of a property to distribute it among themselves when one of them asks for his/her share, on the condition that this distribution does not cause loss to them and does not make them pay anything.

285. It is obligatory upon a person who confesses something to act according to her/his confession as long as this confession causes him/her loss, but not benefit. For example, if a man admits having a child, he must provide for the education and living expenses of that child, but he does not have a parental right on him. If he dies, the child will inherit his wealth, but he will not be given inheritance if the child dies. If the father becomes poor, he does not have the right to take his living expenses from the child.

286. It is obligatory upon the creditor to grant his/her debtor respite if it is proved that the debtor does not have the ability to pay her/his debt. It is forbidden to pursue him/her, take legal action against her/him, and put him/her in jail. It is also forbidden to force her/him to sell his/her essentials of life, such as her/his house and furniture in order to pay his/her debt.

287. It is obligatory upon all duty-bound persons who feel the imminence of death to try their bests to return the trusts, properties, and debts they owe people, to perform the obligatory devotional acts they have missed, such as prayers, fasts,hajj and ‘umrah, and make the physical and monetary atonements. In case a person is unable to make up all these missed duties, she/he must inform his/her heirs and bid their performance after her/his death.

288. It is forbidden to break a promise without acceptable reason, even if fulfilling this promise was not intended at the time of promising or the promising person has changed his/her mind later. However, this issue is subject to controversy.

289. It is forbidden for a borrower to use the lent property in a way other than stated in the contract. In this case, she/he is liable for the property if it is lost and must also pay the common fee for uses not stated in the contract.

290. It is forbidden for a person judged as bankrupt to take possession of and make changes in her/his own property if the judge determines him/her to be under interdiction, except for the properties that are not part of the confiscation, such as his/her private house, furniture, and living requirements.

291. Forbidden is the betrayal of trusts, which means to make impermissible disposition of trusts, neglect protecting them, and fail to safeguard them suitably thus exposing them to damage, whether these trusts belong to people or to God. In addition to being forbidden, this action also brings about liability. This law is also applicable to the trusts of non-Muslims. However, it is controversial issue.

292. It is forbidden for any of the partners to make disposition of the shared property or right before obtaining the permission of the other partners, except in necessary cases.

Part 2 Chapter 7: Miscellaneous Laws Pertaining To Mental And Physical Issues

293. Haughtiness is forbidden, meaning to see oneself as superior and to regard other believers as inferior. To have this quality and not to restrain it in one’s inner self is a sin, whether we consider it an attribute that invalidates a person’s justness or not, since it is an inner sin. Showing the effects of haughtiness in one’s words and deeds is forbidden, even if we do not regard its original existence in the inner self as forbidden.

294. Envy is forbidden, that is, it is forbidden to have this quality in one’s inner self, to abide by its continuance, and to show its effects in one’s words, writings, and deeds.

295. It is forbidden to despair of God’s mercy, that is, to continue to have this feeling while it is possible to overcome it. Words and deeds that are said and done under the effect of this feeling are forbidden, just like haughtiness.

296. To feel secured against God’s wrath is as forbidden as despair of His mercy.

297. It is forbidden to have ill thoughts about God. For example, to believe that God has not acted fairly towards oneself with regard to the distribution of children and wealth, that He has given less rewards to oneself than others or has determined severer punishments, or that He has placed more calamities than deserved, etc. This sin is also an inner state and it may lead to unbelief.

298. It is forbidden to feel angry and dissatisfied towards divine providence, whether one’s own or that of another person, especially if followed by verbal objection. However, this issue is controversial.

299. It is forbidden to suspect or to have ill thoughts about a believer if one manifests them in speech or action.

300. It is forbidden to act upon one’s conjecture or speculation (as opposed to knowledge), whether in principles of faith or in practical religious laws, whether in affirmation or denial of a duty, such as decreeing a certain act to be obligatory or forbidden, or to abnegate oneself of a proven decree through one’s personal speculation.

301. It is forbidden for men to effeminize themselves through such means like wearing feminine clothes. Likewise, it is forbidden for women to assume masculine manners through such means like wearing specifically male clothing. However, this issue is a matter of controversy.

302. It is forbidden for men to adorn themselves with gold, such as wearing golden rings, bands, and necklaces, and gilding one’s front teeth with the intention of ornamentation. In addition to being forbidden, such things invalidate ritual prayers. This is regardless of whether the gold is yellow or red, pure or mixed. None of the aforementioned, however, are forbidden for women.

303. It is forbidden for men to wear any item of clothing made of silk, including silk hats and gloves, at any time, including the times of performing ritual prayers. Accordingly, such prayers are invalid except in necessary cases. This precept does not appertain to women, i.e. wearing silk is halal for women.

304. It is forbidden to disrespect the Holy Qur’an, the Divine Attributes, and the names of the prophets and the Infallibles (peace be upon them). Some of these cases are instances of disbelief (making a person an unbeliever) and others iniquity.

305. It is forbidden to disrespect and insult the Holy Ka’bah, the Holy Prophet’s Mosque, all mosques, and the shrines of the Infallibles (peace be upon them). It is also forbidden to disrespect the following:

1. The religious reference books, such as Nahj al-Balaghah, al-Sahifah al-Sajjadiyyah, al-Kafi, and Wasa'il al-Shi’ah,

2. The religious master scholars and master jurisprudents whom are known for piety and reverence,

3. religious venues, such asHusayniyyah (i.e. places dedicated to commemorating Imam al-Husayn’s martyrdom and delivering lectures about his uprising and its spiritual, moral, political, social, and doctrinal features) and theaters for religious plays,

4. the tombs of the famous and honorable descendants of the Holy Infallibles, and

5. the days of God, such as the months of Sha’ban and Ramadhan and Islamic feast days.

It is forbidden to disrespect and dishonor the stated sacred things by word or deed, because this is considered disrespecting the religion of Islam and the sanctities of Shi’ism.

306. It is forbidden to use for any purpose golden or silver vessels, such as trays, plates, spoons, cups, teapots, saucers, vases, and the like.

307. It is forbidden to carve statues of complete human or animal bodies.

308. Astrology is forbidden, meaning to believe in the voluntary and independent influence of heavenly bodies on earthly events and to give rulings according to it.

309. Singing with modulation between bass and high tones, is forbidden, when occurring with vain lyrics and musical instruments, and appropriate for gatherings of dance or revelry.

310. It is forbidden to play musical instruments, such as tambourine, flute, guitar, lute, violin, and piano, and to listen to the playing of these instruments when the quality of the music is suitable for gatherings of frivolity, dance, or revelry.

311. It is forbidden to forge lies against God, the Holy Prophet, and the Holy Infallibles without a religiously acceptable reason, whether during Ramadhan or in any other season. The difference between this type of lie and others is that the intellectual offensiveness and religious prohibition of the former is considered far graver than the latter. Such forgeries invalidate the fasting when they are told during a fast-day of Ramadhan.

312. Any action that is preparatory to the commitment of a sin is forbidden, even if the action is allowed in itself, like studying the basics of spying for foreigners, learning how to gamble, how to produce narcotics, and methods of fraud, and arranging for the preliminaries of murdering or hurting people.

313. It is forbidden for men to shave their beard or to cut it in a way that the skin of the face shows. However, this issue is controversial.

314. It is forbidden to enthrall believing jinn, angels, and spirits of dead believers in a way that causes them distress or pain.

315. It is forbidden to make up a fake dream and narrate it to others. This is a kind of lie but it has been mentioned separately because it is frequent.

316. It is forbidden to commit suicide, which entails the same laws of homicide, except in cases of emergency.

317. It is forbidden to settle or reside in places or countries that entail alteration of one’s Islamic beliefs and humane morality or incompliance with Islamic obligations and restrictions.

318. It is forbidden to gamble and bet in any way and with any device, whether local or imported equipments and cards or modern or traditional devices, even with eggs, a ring, by making two animals fight, jumping the highest, weightlifting, and the like betting competitions, except for the lawful competitions, such as horseracing, races with other means of transport, shooting competitions, and similar competitions, which can be used in initiative or defensive war. It is also forbidden to play with gambling tools even without betting. However, this latter issue is controversial.

Consequently, it is obligatory to destroy or modify the tools of gambling as well as musical instruments. In general, one must destroy any tool that is used for unlawful purposes and does not possess a significant permissible usage.

319. It is forbidden to play chess with and without betting, if this game is commonly played for betting. If it is played without betting in a certain milieu, for reasons such as intelligence competitions, it is apparently not a problem.

320. It is forbidden to teach or learn any action that is considered as magic, witchcraft, or sorcery except in certain cases, such as preparing to confront wicked magicians and negate their sorcery.

321. It is forbidden to establish centers for corrupt and sinful actions, such as casinos.

322. It is forbidden to write, publish, distribute, store, and promote vain and misleading books on beliefs, moralities, and deeds. It is also forbidden to do any service and to receive any profit from this way.

323. It is forbidden to assist and help oppressors and tyrants in their oppression, or to become their helper at all, whether this assistance is related directly or not to these oppressive acts. It is also forbidden to gain profits in this way.

324. It is forbidden to take part in gatherings in which alcoholic drinks and intoxicating liquids are consumed, even for those who do not consume these intoxicants.

325. It is forbidden to create a dispute between two or more persons or groups, causing enmity between them and resulting in fighting, injury, murder, and other corrupt actions.

326. It is forbidden to have affinity, reliance, and trust in oppressors in life affairs, whether in heart or in deed, even if these feelings do not contribute to their oppression.

327. It is forbidden to steal and rob others’ properties except in special cases, such as when a debtor does not intend to pay back his/her debt while she/he is able to, and the creditor has no other way to retrieve his/her money other than seizing her/his due stealthily. In this case, it is permissible to steal the due amount only.

328. It is forbidden to accuse falsely an innocent believer, meaning to charge him/her with a wrongful act she/he has not done or an act that he/she does not want to be attributed to her/him.

329. It is forbidden to speak ill of, swear at, and use abusive language against a believer.

330. It is forbidden to mock and make fun of a believer.

331. It is forbidden to give an indecent name or a bad nickname to a believer.

332. It is forbidden to bother or irritate a Muslim without a religious authorization.

333. It is forbidden to violently or offensively dismiss an orphan or a poor person from one’s house.

334. It is forbidden to invoke curse upon a living or dead believer. This is a matter of controversy.

335. It is forbidden to blame a believer for his/her calamities, defects, physical faults, disease, etc.

336. It is forbidden to oppress and do injustice to any human being and even any harmless animal. However, there is no objection to beating and killing harmful animals, which may be obligatory in certain conditions.

337. It is forbidden to kill any person. In other words, killing Muslims and disbelievers whose death has not been authorized, such asDhimmis (unbelievers who live under the protection of Muslim governments), scriptuaries, and those granted security, like refugees in Muslim countries.

338. It is forbidden to look into other people’s houses from higher places or from a hole in the wall without their consent.

339. It is forbidden to investigate about a believer’s beliefs and secrets with the intention of bothering or disgracing him/her.

340. It is forbidden to backbite a believer who does not openly display her/his sin; that is, to disclose his/her defects and faults without her/his consent, by means of words, writing, deeds, or any other means.

341. Talebearing is forbidden, which is to cause dispute between two or more persons, hatred, and any other evil.

342. It is forbidden to have secret conversations regarding sins, such as exchanging secret information about harming, mocking, or humiliating a believer or about other sins, using words in private, whispering, or gestures.

343. It is forbidden to disseminate corrupt actions among the believers, whether by disseminating the act itself or by disseminating the incrimination an innocent.

344. It is forbidden to salaam and to respond to salaams of unbelievers, and ask God to forgive disbelievers, especially polytheists without a religiously acceptable reason or without necessity. The same thing is applicable to oppressors the strengthening of whom would cause harm to Islam and Muslims. However, this issue is controversial.

345. It is forbidden to shelter a murderer, a militant enemy, or a criminal with the intention of preventing the execution of God’s punishment imposed on them. It is also forbidden to do so in the name of law.

346. It is forbidden to establish heartfelt affection with disbelievers in a similar manner to believing friends and family. It is also forbidden to become friends wit them. Furthermore, it is forbidden to establish good cultural, political, military, and economic relationships with the governments and companies ruled and managed by unbelievers which naturally results in weakening and endangering the Islamic government and causing deviation in the beliefs and actions of Muslims, except in cases oftaqiyah (i.e. self-protection; the practice of concealing one's belief and foregoing ordinary religious duties when under threat of death or injury to oneself and one's fellow Muslims) and of necessary interests, if safety from corruptions is ensured or when the interests weigh heavier than the corruptions.

347. It is forbidden to praise and speak highly of a person who is unworthy of praise, and to talk highly of a worthy person beyond his/her merit.

348. It is forbidden to remind a person of a favor done to him/her. However, this issue is subject to dispute.

349. It is forbidden to deceive or defraud people by appropriating their properties dishonestly or making them work without wage.

350. It is forbidden to be disloyal in counseling; meaning to intentionally advise a person wrongly.

351. It is forbidden to refrain from aiding an oppressed believer who asks for help while having the ability to do so.

352. It is forbidden to practice verbal hypocrisy, which in some cases necessitates disbelief and in others is only sinful. Hypocrisy stands for falsely professing belief in Islam or falsely presenting an appearance of affection and friendship (or other things) to which the inner belief and feelings do not conform.

353. Hoarding is forbidden. This means to collect and store a necessary commodity for purpose of selling it later for a higher price when people will have a pressing need for it.

354. It is forbidden to neglect one’s duties towards neighbors, causing them annoyance and bother unless there is a religiously acceptable reason.

355. It is strictly forbidden to establish and supply companies that produce intoxicating drinks, narcotics, and tools of gambling and betting.

It is also forbidden to produce and distribute the products of such companies and take part in any sort of activity, such as being an employer, employee, worker, and renter of transportation means, storage, and shops for them. It is thus forbidden to receive any pay or profit from such activities let alone buying, selling, and using their products.

It is also forbidden to use any income that is obtained from such activities.

356. It is obligatory to destroy all tools and devices that are specifically designed for committing sins, such as gambling and betting tools, musical instruments, intoxicant and narcotics producing apparatuses, tools of robbery and pick-pocketing, tools of explosives, tools of murder, dangerous chemical substances, and any tool or device that cannot be or rarely used in a legal way, or the destruction of which prevents sinning.

It is obligatory on everyone to destroy these objects no matter whose they are unless their destruction brings about a greater harm. Some of the above cases have exceptions.

357. It is obligatory to refrain from using any object that is suspected to involve violation of a forbidden matter. For example, if one knows that one of several dishes or one of several clothes is impure but does not know which one it is, he/she must refrain from using all of them or cleanse them all. If one knows that one of two or three things is another person’s property, she/he must make sure before using them.

358. It is obligatory to make up for any obligatory act that is suspected not to have been performed properly. For example, if one knows that either theMaghrib (nightfall) or the‘Isha' (early night) prayers was missed at a certain night, he/she must make up for both the prayers. If a person knows that she/he owes one of two persons something, he/she must acquire the consent of both of them or pay what she/he owes to both of them.

359. It is obligatory to act upon the rule of presumptive continuity (i.e. istishab; continuing according to the former state). For example, if one is sure that he/she missed performing an obligatory prayer, but now doubts whether she/he has made up for it or not, he/she must depend upon the former state of missing performing that prayer. Similarly, if one is sure that a certain shirt belonged to someone else, but now doubts whether it still belongs to someone else, she/he must consider it to still belong to that person, as per its former state.

360. It is obligatory to avoid and stay away from the following ten impure things: (1) urine, (2) excrement, (3) semen, (4) corpses, (5) blood, (6) dogs, (7) swine, (8) liquid intoxicants, (9) beer, and (10) militant disbelievers(kafir harbi; disbelievers who are engaged in warfare against Muslims) .

It is obligatory to keep oneself from contaminating his/her house and living equipment with these things. It is forbidden to eat and drink anything that has been contaminated with these impure things. A ritual prayer that is performed while the clothes and body parts are polluted with these things is invalid. In addition, if a Muslim individual does not eschew contamination with these things, the angels of God’s mercy will flee from her/his house and devils will be drawn near.1

361. It is obligatory to repent of any sin immediately. The more one delays repenting, the greater the liability of the sin will be, while the obligation of repenting remains intact.

362. It is obligatory to maintain truth in speech all the time and under all circumstances. A jurist must be truthful in issuing verdicts, a judge must be truthful in issuing decrees, a witness must be truthful in testimonies, and a confessor must be truthful in confessions. Likewise, everybody must be truthful in common speech and judgments about people and events, whether the truth brings about benefit or loss for the speaker, his/her relatives, or her/his friends.

363. It is obligatory upon men that attain maturity and newly converted male Muslims to be circumcised if they have not been circumcised before.

364. It is obligatory to answer a person’ssalaam (ritual greeting) immediately, even during prayers, in a way that the greeter can hear it if there is no obstacle between them. To respond to ritual greeting during prayers, the phrase salamun ‘alaykum must be used, even if the greeter uses a different form.

Note

1. - It seems necessary to point out that some believe that in such contexts devil may have been used in a metaphorical manner to mean harmful germs [ed.].