Chapter 3: The Decisive RoleOf
Human Beings In Shaping Their Future
The creatures that constitute our world are divided into two groups: animate and inanimate. Inanimate creatures such as water, fire, stones and soil do not play any role in the building and development of themselves. They merely originate and grow under the influence of external factors. They do not engage themselves in activities of any sort so as to improve their existence. Conversely, living creatures like plants, animals and human beings make specific efforts to preserve themselves from various difficulties, to absorb things on which to feed and to reproduce.
Plants absorb materials for making food from the soil and the air through certain natural capabilities. They grow on the food, secure their future life and manage their possible reproduction. Animals, too, possess these innate powers in addition to some intuitive means such as the five external senses and the previously mentioned desires and wishes, through which they save themselves when endangered and assure their individual growth as well as the survival of their own species.
As to human beings, they possess all natural and intuitive faculties shared by plants and animals and, in addition, they have certain distinctly human powers, the most important one being the extraordinary power of reasoning which to a great extent paves the way for the building up of their desired future.
From this discussion we may deduce the following points:
a) Some of the things play no part in the establishment of their own future. They are called inanimate.
b) Some others play a sort of unconscious and compulsory role which nature demands for the support of their growth and survival. They are named plants.
c) A third group of creatures play a more developed role in the protection of their life. This role is consciously but not freely performed. It is done with a knowledge of the living environment but under the rule of certain instinctive desires. They are called animals.
d) The last group human beings engage themselves in the performance of a more effective, extended role so as to spontaneously shape their own fate. This role is fulfilled consciously and with free will,i.e.
human beings decide about their ·own future according to their intellect and providence.
It is, however, obvious that the scope of the action of human beings in performing their roles is more extensive than that of animals. This extension of scope which aims at self-development springs from three characteristics inherent in the nature of human beings:
a) The vastness of human insight and awareness: human beings extend the scope of their insight to the very core of nature through their knowledge, learn natural laws andregula
tions
and, thus, enable themselves to reconcile nature and human life to a greater degree.
b) Vastness of the area covered by desires mentioned in Chapter II. This category has also been dealt with in the first book of this series, named:Man
and Faith
.
c) The inherent capacity for self- development belongs exclusively to human beings, no other creature resembles them in this regard. Here mention should be made of the fact that although other living things are also changeable to some extent their behavior can be altered through special training as indicated by experiments on plants and animals none of them are able to cause this change by themselves. Rather, it is human beings who bring about any alteration in them. Furthermore, the range of changes which they are able to exhibit in their mental and physical capabilities is lower than that of human beings.
So far as characteristics and habits are concerned' human beings are potential creatures. They are devoid of any habit at the time of their birth, and this is contrary to animals which are born with specific features. However, they gradually form some sort of characteristics which are added to their inborn characteristics and which build their 'secondary dimensions'.
The human being is, in effect, the only creature endowed, by the laws of creation, with the ability to fashion his future guidelines as he wishes. It implies that as opposed to the human being's physical organs which are completed in the mother's womb and unlike animals' characteristics which become perfected in the embryonic period, the psychological forms of human beings, which later develop into characteristics and habits and the highest form of ethics, develop on a large scale after they are born.
This is why all creatures are what others have made them to be except the human being who is what he himself attempts to be. It is for this reason that the members of every species of animals share common psychological characteristics in the same way as they inherit similar physical organs. For instance, all members of the cat species share the same traits.
This is also true of all dogs, all ants and so forth. But with the members of the human race, there is a huge variety in their habits and virtues which makes man unique in that he can choose what to be.
It is recorded in Islamic traditions that men will be received on the Day of Judgement according to their acquired spiritual virtues rather than their physical appearance. This means that they would be received in the presence of God in the form of animals whom they resemble the most as far as the earned moral attributes are concerned. Only those beings would have a human appearance before God, whose acquired habits and moralities and the secondary dimensions of their soul were in agreement with human worth and dignity.
Human beings conquer nature and freely reconcile it to their own needs through their scientific knowledge. They develop themselves and determine their future on the basis of the power of self- development which exists within them. All schools of morality, religious teachings and educational doctrines aim at guiding man towards this aim (i.e.
self
development). The right path, they believe, is that which directs human beings to a prosperous future, the wrong one being that which leads them astray, towards adversity and corruption. It is said in the Qur’an:
إِنَّا هَدَيْنَاهُ السَّبِيلَ إِمَّا شَاكِرًا وَإِمَّا كَفُورًا
It is a right way have we guided him, be he thankful or ungrateful (76:4).
(He either chooses the way to which We guided him and becomes thankful or else he chooses another way and turns thankless).
As it was discussed before, knowledge and faith play various significant roles inbuildi
ng up the future of human beings. Knowledge shows them the way of doing it and enables them to shape their future according to their own will. But faith guides them as to how they should build themselves and their future that they may best serve themselves and their society.
Faith directs the human being's will towards the right outlet, frees it from the monopoly of material things and deters man from the isolation of personal and material bents. It leads him in the direction of spiritual human attitudes. Faith is, in fact, a dominant power which rules man and his will and which guides him in the direction of truth and morality. Knowledge, on the other hand, works as a tool under the control of the man's will. It is applied to nature according to man's command.
But the manner in which it should be applied to nature has nothing todowith
knowledge itself. It is a matter of the type of human beings who make use of knowledge. They may exploit nature either for the benefit of the whole of mankind or for the augmentation of a few men's monopolistic authority.
Generally speaking, faith shapes man and man shapes the world through his knowledge. Thus, both man and the world would prosper should knowledge and faith be incorporated in human life.
1. LimitationsOn
The Human Being's Freedom
It is quite obvious that although the human being is free to shape his or her spiritual mechanism, to convert his or her natural environment to a more desirable form and to create the ideal future, he or she is somewhat restricted in actions. In other words, human beings enjoy a relative freedom which is confined to a specific domain within which they can either choose a prosperous or a disastrous future. The following factors are influential in setting limitations for man.
A. Heredity
Human beings are born with a kind of natural disposition. They inevitably appear to the world as a human being for their parents are man and woman. On the other hand, a set of hereditary traits such as the color of skin, the color of eyes, physical particularities, etc., come to man by inheritance. These characteristics have in turn been inherited by the parents from previous generations. Human beings do not choose to have such attributes but they are automatically given to them by means of heredity.
B. NaturalAnd
Geographical Environments
Natural and geographical environments and, specifically speaking, the area wherein man receives his growth, will inevitably have some sort of natural effects on his body and spirit. Warm, cold or mild climates will cause man to be exposed to different types ofmorales
. This is also true of alpine, desert and other regions.
C. Social Environment
Social environment is another important factor in the creation of moral and spiritual virtues in man. Language, common social traditions and religion are among the phenomena that are incorporated into him by social environment.
D. HistoryAnd
Temporal Factors
As far as the social environment is concerned, human beings are under the decisive influence of both present and past events. On the whole, there is a definite link between the present and past history of any creature. Past and present are, in fact, the two parts of an everlasting course. The past is the seed from which the present and future grow.
2. The Human Being's Rebellion Against Constraints
Although human beings are unable to completely
break off their relationship with heredity, social and natural environments, history and time, they may revolt against these constraints and achieve freedom from their domination. They are able to bring about some kinds of changes in these areas through their wisdom and knowledge on the one hand, and their will power and faith on the other hand, and they can then adjust them to their own desires so as to control the reins of their fate.
3. The Human BeingAnd
Predestination
It is thought by many that predestination is the primary factor which imposes limitations on human being's freedom. We do not believe in this in Islamic thought. Here, two questions may arise: Does predestination exist at all? Does it confine a human being? The brief answer is that predestination definitely exists as a reality but it does not restrict the freedom of a human being.
Predestination carries two separate concepts, the first being the divine, indisputable decree regarding the creation of events and phenomena (qada
) and the second being the measurement of them (qadar
). According to theology, it is quite certain that the divine decree does not befall any event directly and without an intermediary.
It warrants any single event through its relevant causes. It demands acause and effect
type of organization of the world, in which man acquires freedom on the basis of his wisdom and free will and at the same time, confronts limitations which are imposed on him by hereditary, historical and environmental factors.
We then see that predestination is not a limiting factor; but all kinds of limitations which appear to man under the divine decree initiate from the above causes. This is true of man's freedom as well the divine decree necessitates man to possess wisdom and free will, to be able to release himself on a large scale from submission to social and environmental constraints and to manage his destiny
.
4. The Human BeingAnd
Obligations
As was mentioned earlier, the huma n being is a dutiful creature. He or she is capable of living under a certain framework of laws enacted for them. This capability does not exist in any other creature. Other creatures only follow natural (compulsory) laws and regulations. In other words, we cannot enact specific laws and notify the woods, stones, trees, flowers, cows, horses or sheep. We cannot but forcefully oblige them to behave according to the laws and regulations which are to their own benefit.
Man however, is unique among creatures in possessing such an extraordinary talent for behaving within the framework of a set of conventional laws. Now, since these laws are made and laid upon by a quite legitimate lawmaker and since forbearance in carrying them out is usually accompanied by some sort of hardship, they are called 'obligations' (takalif
).
When binding man to specific obligations, the lawgiver must bear in mind the following conditions which are essential if man is expected to perform his duties.
A. Maturity
In the course of life, man reaches an age when heisfaced
with a set of sudden changes in his body, feelings and thoughts, which cause him to mature. In fact, every human being undergoes a natural maturation (physical and mental).
But a particular date for maturity cannot be exactly determined for all individuals; for some people approach their natural maturity earlier than others. Individual characteristics and regional and environmental circumstances influence the age of maturity. It is certain, however, that women attain natural maturity at an earlier stage of life than men.
In order to assign to people their duties, a certain age should be determined to stand for the average physical maturity as a criterion for all members of the male and female sexes separately. (In Islamic Jurisprudence, mental maturity is the second criterion). This criterion constitutes the legal maturity for men and women.
It is, therefore, possible that some people may reach natural maturity before legal maturity. In Islamic laws, according to the majority of Shi'ite jurists; the legal age of maturity for the male sex is the completion of fifteen years according to the lunar calendar. For the female sex, maturity begins at the outset of ten.
Generally speaking, legal maturity is one of the conditions for the performance of one's duties. This means that no one is responsible before the law unless it is proved that he or she has reached the legal age, or reached natural maturity before legal maturity.
B. Wisdom
Another condition for the performance of obligations is being sane. Just as an immature individual is not held responsible for certain obligations, and a mature one is not obliged to perform what is not done before maturation he or she is not responsible for unsaid prayers, for example, an insane person has no commitment either for obligations incumbent on sane people or, in case of recovery, for duties (such as prayers and fasting) that he has not met previous.
It should, however, be mentioned that there are certain obligations that orphans and insaneidividuals
must fulfill after maturation and recovery, respectively. One is the case of Islamic tax (zakat) which befalls the orphan's or theinsane's
wealth. This tax must be paid by them at the event of maturity or health provided that their legitimate guardians have not done so before.
C. KnowledgeAnd
Awareness
It is obvious that human beings can perform their duties only if they are aware of them. In other words, they have to be notified of their duties. Suppose the lawmaker enacts a certain law but does not inform those to whom it applies. In that case, they are not able to follow the law and they are not to be punished if they commit an act against it. Therefore, the execution of an unaware individual is decried by authorities in jurisprudence.
This isemphasised
by them in apriniple
entitled, 'the indecency of punishment before giving awareness'. The Holy Qur’an, as well, frequently expresses this fact and guarantees that no people will be executed due to violation of divine lawsunlesss
having been provided in advance with final notices and invitations.
This is not,ofcourse
, apretence
under which man can intentionally keep himself in ignorance. He has to acquire knowledge and information on the basis of which to act. It is narrated that on the 'Day of Resurrection' the sinners will be called to the Divine Court of Justice and reprimanded for shortcomings in the performance of their responsibilities.
They will be asked for the reason. They will answer' "we were ignorant". Then, they will be told, "Why didn't you try to become aware of your duties?" Accordingly, the fact that knowledge and awareness are regarded as conditions for carrying out one's duties implies that man will be excused before God only when he, in cases of ignorance, has tried his best to recognize his duties but has not succeeded.
D. PhysicalAnd
Mental Strength
Duties which are laid upon should be in agreement with but not beyond physical and mental strength. In other words, since man's capabilities are infinite, he should be made duteous only within the limits of his capabilities. For instance, he is able to acquire knowledge but on a limited scale so far as time and the scope of learning are concerned. A human being, even a genius, has to attain successive levels of knowledge gradually and over the course of time.
An individual may, however be prompted to do this earlier than normal to engage in something beyond normal human toleration. He may be obliged to acquire all branches of knowledge and learning as well. These extraordinary feats may be possible but no just and wise authority would propose them. It is written in the Qur’an that:
رَبَّنَا وَلَا تُحَمِّلْنَا مَا لَا طَاقَةَ لَنَا بِهِ
God will not burden any soul beyond its power (2:286).
This implies that we must, for example, save a sinking man if we are able to do so. But there is no "must' when we are unable to prevent an airplane from crashing. We would not be rebuked by God for failure in this regard.
Here again, as in the case of knowledge and awareness, a significant point should be borne in mind, namely that lack of ability does not serve as a fairpretence
to remain silent and apathetic. We have to strengthen ourselves. On some occasions, as Islamic teachings recommend, the reinforcement, (of a tyrannical government, for example) is illegitimate and the acquisition of power is legitimate.
Suppose we are dealing with a stubborn and powerful enemy who intends to violate our rights or to attack the territory of Muslim lands, and suppose that we are at the moment too weak to defend ourselves and any effort on our part would entail a serious loss and no positive result could be gained now or in the future. In such a case, it is obvious that we are unable to resist such a strong foe but, at the same time, we are obliged to strengthen our forces rather than losing our spirit and remaining inactive.
The Holy Qur’an advises:
وَأَعِدُّوا لَهُمْ مَا اسْتَطَعْتُمْ مِنْ قُوَّةٍ وَمِنْ رِبَاطِ الْخَيْلِ تُرْهِبُونَ بِهِ عَدُوَّ اللَّهِ وَعَدُوَّكُمْ
Make ready then against them what force ye can, and strong squadrons whereby ye may strike terror into the enemy of God and your enemy. (8:60).
Therefore, in the same way as an individual or a community may be exposed to the divine penal ty due to failure in seeking awareness, anindivid
ual
or a community may be called to account for carelessness in acquiring power.
E. Free Will
Freedom of choice is another condition for the fulfilment of obligations. In other words, man will be dutiful only when there is no constraint or compulsion in what he has to perform.
Compulsion is a forceful threat inducing man to, for example, break his fast lest he should damage his health, or not to make a pilgrimage to Mecca lest he and his family should undergo nuisances. In these cases when man is forced to do or not to do something, he is no morereponsible
towards his due obligations. This is what the last Prophet (S) announced: there will be no obligation where compulsion is at work.
In case of constraints, the individual is not menaced by anything (and he has freedom of choice), but it is he himself who avoids doing his duties because of being placed in severe circumstances. For example, someone may be helplessly lost in the desert and find nothing but animal corpses on which to gain nourishment. In such a situation, the illegitimacy of eatingcorspes
seems meaningless to the wretched.
Constraint and compulsion are, therefore, differentiated from one another. In case of the former, man is not forced or threatened but he himself breaks the law in order to eliminate undesired circumstances; while in the case of the latter, he is compelled to disregard his obligations due to a possible damage which other may inflict on him.
It should be stressed here that compulsion and constraint cannot be regarded as general conditions for theperformanee
of obligations. It depends, firstly, on the intensity of the damage or the loss to be prevented and, secondly, on the importance of the obligation which man may avoid performing due to these two factors may avoid performing due to these two factors.
In other words, no one is allowed under thepretence
of compulsion or constraint to act attthe
expense of another's life or to damage society or religion. There are certain obligations however, which are worth tolerating any loss and damage in order for them to be fulfilled even in the presence of threats and forces.
5. ConditionsFor
The Correctness Of Actions
Besides the conditions under which man is held responsible to perform his obligations, there is a set of other conditions which assure the correctness of his performances.
We know that religious precepts ranging from prayers to secular transactions, to be done correctly, must be in compliance with certain conditions and criteria. Without observing theseconditions
one's obligations cannot be regarded as having been correctly fulfilled. Thus, whatever one does condition-free is null and void.
These conditions, like those for the performance of obligations, are great in number. At the same time, they are divisible into general and specific. Specific conditions for any obligation can be recognized along with the performance of that obligation. General conditions are hereafter explained in detail.
Rationalists believe that there is a sort of 'case general and case specific'
relationship between general conditions ofpenormance
and general conditions of correctness. It means that some of the general conditions apply to both performance and correctness. Some others apply to the former but not to the latter and vice versa. This is also correct with the conditions of correctness. Some of these conditions apply to both the correctness of prayers and transactions. Some others apply to one but not to the other and the other way round.
Wisdom is regarded as a condition which applies to both, performance and correctness, i.e., an insane individual's actions, be they prayers or transactions, are incorrect just as the performance of them is not incumbent on him or her. For instance, we cannot count on an insane person making the pilgrimage, saying prayers or fasting on behalf of others. He cannot be an intermediary between the leader and the followers or between the front and the back rows in collective prayers.
Power and lack of compulsion are also among the conditions which apply to both performance and correctness. In case of compulsion, just as compulsory obligations are invalid, transactions or marriages which are carried out by force are incorrect. It is to be noted that maturity is a pre-condition for execution of obligations but not for correctness.
This implies that an immature person has no obligation but if he or she has reached and age of recognition and acts properly, his or her actions are correct. For this reason, a child with such attributes can act as an intermediary between the leader and the followers or the followers themselves in collective prayers. He is also allowed to act on behalf of others in prayers. Contrary to prayers, in transactions, maturity stands as a condition for correctness.
According to some Islamic jurists, an immature child who is, however, capable of differentiating between good and evil is not permitted to conductbusinesss
to reciprocate, to rent, to marry or to conclude a marriage on his own or another's behalf. Other jurisprudents believe that such a child cannot do anything on his own part but he is capable of acting as a deputy!
Additionally, awareness and the absence of constraints are conditions for performance but not for correctness. Thus, should someone unconsciously carry out an action which would, by chance, agree with all necessary conditions, this action will be correct.
In the same way, it will be correct if someone is made so helpless in an unpredicted event as to sell his house which he likes a great deal, or if someone is pushed by physician's advice to get involved in an unwanted marriage. Thisre-emphasises
the fact that compulsory transactions are not valid while emergency ones are valid and correct.
Here, mention should be made as to the reason for the above claim; for the problem may be laid down that both the obliged' and the 'helpless' individuals (mukrah
andmudtar
) are alike so far as their dissatisfaction is concerned.
It may be argued that just as a threatened person who is obliged to sell his house or to do away with his business has no satisfaction deep in his heart, a helpless individual who has to act similarly so as to prevent a certain damage (a possible disease, for instance), is greatly dissatisfied with what he does. In fact, both the 'obliged' and the 'helpless' are intensely sorry for what they like but have lost.
It may further be argued that although the 'obliged' tries to remove an incurred loss, while the helpless endeavors to prevent a possible damage, and although in compulsory transactions there is a direct interference from a second person (an oppressor), while in emergency ones no such interference is felt with regards to the fact that interventions in form of indirect exploitation are not rare in many emergency cases these do not justify the problem posed.
The fact is that the difference between the situations of the 'obliged' and the reason why Islamic laws invalidate transactions concluded by the former but not those concluded by the latter, lie somewhere else.
It is true that both the 'obliged' and the 'helpless' confront an urgent need but the need of the 'obliged' is in his warding off the evil of an oppressor. He concludes, for example, an obligatorytransacuon
soas
to rid himself of the oppressor's wickedness. Here the law supports him, and despite the oppressor's force, declares the transaction illegal. The need of the 'helpless' is, however, in his real inquiry for money which is to be paid for instance for the treatment of his child.
In this case, to support the 'helpless', the law should declare the transaction legal; for otherwise, the result would be more helplessness and probably the child's death. This is why religious jurists regard the illegality of a compulsory transaction as a favor or blessing for the 'obliged' but the illegality of an emergency transaction as a loss to the 'helpless'.
In an emergency case, however, the question may arise as to whether or not other people are allowed to take advantage of someone's helplessness and to buy his goods at an unfair price, while considering their action legitimate. The answer is in the negative.
Now, considering the fact that one is doing an unlawful act, it may still be asked: Is the transaction correct in case it is to the benefit of the thief just as it is correct when the 'helpless' profits by it? Is it correct when the 'helpless' profits and nor when the thief profits? Is it correct when both of them benefit provided that the thief believes in equity? These questions require a profound discussion.
The last argument here is aboutmtntal
maturity. Mental maturity is considered to be a condition forcorretness
but not for obligation. In fact, according to Islamic laws, a person who wants to get involved in a social affair like marriage or an independent transaction be mentally mature besides possessing other general conditions such as physical maturity, wisdom and freedom. This mentaldeelopment
provides the person with a competency by which he can manage his responsibilities in such mutualinvoIvements
.
Therefore, only by the incorporation of mental maturity and other conditions, we will have the necessary and sufficient conditions for action in such cases. A marriage, for example, will be correct only if the boy and the girl have enough mental growth, know the meaning and philosophy of marriage recognize its consequent responsibilities and feel its effects on their common destiny.
They must understand these so as not to blindly enter such a significantaffair.This
is also true of a child who possesses wealth, coming to him by inheritance or other means. It would not be right to hand over to him his wealth as soon as be reached physical maturity.
He should first be examined for mental growth and in the case that he is found competent to safeguard and make logical use of the wealth, it should be handed over to his own prudence. In the absence of sufficient development of mind, the legitimate guardian of the child should continue his supervision. The Holy Qur’an commands:
وَابْتَلُوا الْيَتَامَىٰ حَتَّىٰ إِذَا بَلَغُوا النِّكَاحَ فَإِنْ آنَسْتُمْ مِنْهُمْ رُشْدًا فَادْفَعُوا إِلَيْهِمْ أَمْوَالَهُمْ
And make trial of the orphans until they reach the age of marriage; and if you perceive in them a sound judgement then hand over their substance to them... (4:6).
Notes
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Author: Ayatullah Murtadha Mutahhari
