Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

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THE ALCHEMY OF HAPPINESS

BY AL GHAZZALI

CLAUD FIELD, translator [b. 1863, d. 1941]

[1909]

www.alhassanain.org/english

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This versionis published on behalf of www.alhassanain.org/english

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EDITORIAL NOTE 5

PREFACE 6

INTRODUCTION 10

CHAPTER I: THE KNOWLEDGE OF SELF 11

CHAPTER II: THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD 16

CHAPTER III: THE KNOWLEDGE OF THIS WORLD 21

CHAPTER IV: THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE NEXT WORLD 24

CHAPTER V: CONCERNING MUSIC AND DANCING AS AIDS TO THE RELIGIOUS LIFE 30

CHAPTER VI: CONCERNING SELF-EXAMINATION AND THE RECOLLECTION OF GOD 35

CHAPTER VII: MARRIAGE AS A HELP OR HINDRANCE TO THE RELIGIOUS LIFE 40

Regarding the Observances of Marriage 42

CHAPTER VIII: THE LOVE OF GOD 45

The Vision of God 47

The Signs of the Love of God 49

NOTES 52

EDITORIAL NOTE

THE object of the Editors of this series is a very definite one. They desire above all things that, in their humble way, these books shall be the ambassadors of good-will and understanding between East and West--the old world of Thought and the new of Action. In thisendeavour , and in their own sphere, they are but followers of the highest example in the land. They are confident that a deeper knowledge of the great ideals and lofty philosophy of Oriental thought may help to a revival of that true spirit ofCharity which neither despises nor fears the nations of another creed andcolour . Finally, in thanking press and public for the very cordial reception given to the “Wisdom of the East” Series, they wish to, state that no painshave been spared to secure the best specialists for the treatment of the various subjects at hand.

L. CRANMER-BYNG

S. A. KAPADIA

NORTHBROOK SOCIETY,

185 PICCADILLY, W.

PREFACE

RENAN, whose easy-going mind was the exact antithesis to the intense earnestness ofGhazzali , calls him “the most original mind among Arabian philosophers.” [1] Notwithstanding this, his fame as a philosopher has been greatly overshadowed by Avicenna, his predecessor, and Averroes, his successor and opponent. It is a significant fact that theEncyclopædia Britannica devotes five columns to each of the others and only a column and a half toGhazzali . Yet it is doubtful whether it is as a philosopher thatbe would have wished to be chiefly remembered.Several of his works, it is true, are polemics against the philosophers, especially hisTehafot -al-falasifa , or “Destruction of the philosophers,” and, as SolomonMunk says in hisMelanges dephilosophie Juive etArabe ,Ghazzali dealt “a fatal blow” to Arabian philosophy in the East, from which it never recovered, though it revived for a while in Spain .and culminated in Averroes. Philosopher andsceptic as he was by nature,Ghazzali's chief work was that of a theologian, moralist, and mystic, though his mysticism was strongly balanced by common sense. He had, as he tells.us in his Confessions, experienced “conversion”; God had arrested him “on the edge of the fire,” and thenceforth what Browning says of the French poet, ReneGentilhomme , was true of him:

Human praises scare

Rather than soothe ears all a-tingle yet

Withtones few hear and live, and none forget.

In the samework he tells us that one of his besetting weaknesses had been the craving for applause, and in hisIhya-ul-ulum (“Revival of the Religious Sciences”) he devotes a long chapter to the dangers involved in a love of notoriety and the cure for it.

After hisconversion he retired into religious. seclusion for eleven years at Damascus (a corner of the mosque there still bears his name--”TheGhazzali Corner”) and Jerusalem, where he gave himself up to intense and prolonged meditation.But he was too noble a character to concentrate himself entirely on his own soul and its eternal prospects. The requests of his children--and other family affairs of which we have no exact information--caused him to return home. Besides this, the continued progress of theIsmailians (connected with the famous Assassins), the spread of irreligiousdoctrines and the increasing.religious indifference of the masses not only filledGhazzali and his Sufi friends with profound grief, but determined them to stem the, evil with the whole force of their philosophy, theardour of vital conviction, and the authority of noble example.

In his autobiography referred to aboveGhazzali tells us that, after emerging from a state ofPyrrhonic scepticism , he had finally arrived at the conclusion that the mystics were on the right path and true “Arifin ,” orKnowers of God.[2] But in saying this he meant those Sufis whose mysticism did not carry them into, extravagant utterances like that of MansurHallaj , who was crucified at Bagdad (A.D. 922) for exclaiming “I am the Truth, or God.” In hisIhya-ul-ulum Ghazzali says: “The matter went so far that certain persons boasted of a union with the Deity, and chat in His unveiled presence theybeheld Him, and enjoyed familiar converse with Him, saying, “Thus it was spoken unto us and thus we speak.”Bayazid Bistami (ob. A. D. 875)is reported to have exclaimed, “Glory be to me!” This style of discourse exerts a very pernicious influence on the common people. Some husbandmen indeed, letting their farms run to waste, set up similar pretensions for themselves; for human nature is pleasedwith maxims like these, which permit one to neglect usefullabour with the idea of acquiring .spiritual purity through the attainment of certain mysterious degrees and qualities. This notion is productive of great injury, so that the death of one of these foolish babblers would be a, greater benefit to the cause of true religion than the saving alive of ten of them.”

For himselfGhazzali was a practical mystic. His aim was to make men better by leading them from a merely notional acquiescence in the stereotyped creed of Islam to a real knowledge of God. The first four chapters of The Alchemy of Happiness are a commentary on the famous verse in theHadis (traditional sayings of, Muhammad), “He who knows himself knows God.” He is especially scornful of theparrotlike repetition of orthodox phrases. Thus alluding to the almost hourly use byMuhammadans of the phrase, “I take refuge in God” (Na`udhib`illah !),Ghazzali says, in theIhya-ul-ulum : “Satan laughs at such pious ejaculations. Those who utter them are like a man who .should meet a lion in a desert, while there is a fort at no great distance, and, when he sees the evil beast, should stand exclaiming, 'I take refuge in that fortress,' without moving a step towards it. What will such an ejaculation profit him? In the same way the mere exclamation, 'I take refuge in God,' will not protect thee from the terrors of His judgment unless thou really take refuge in Him.” It is related of some unknown Sufi that when, asked for a definition of religious sincerity he drew a red-hot piece of iron out of a blacksmith's forge, and said, “Behold it!” This “red-hot” sincerity is certainly characteristic ofGhazzali , and there is no wonder that he did not admire his contemporary, Omar Khayyam.

The little picture of the lion and the fort in the above passage is a small instance of another conspicuous trait inGhazzali's mind--his turn for allegory. Emerson says, “Whoever thinks, intently will find an image more or less luminous rise in his mind.” InGhazzali's writings many such images arise, some grotesque and some beautiful. His allegory of the soul as a fortress beleaguered by the “armies of Satan” is a striking anticipation of the Holy War of Bunyan. The greatest of all the Sufi poets,Jalaluddin Rumi , born a century afterGhazzali's death (A.D. 1207), has paid him the compliment of incorporating several of theseallegories which occur in theIhya into his ownMasnavi . Such is the famous one of the Chinese and Greek artists, which runs as follows:

“Once upon a time the Chinese having challenged the Greeks to a trial of skill in painting, the Sultan summoned them both into edifices built for the purpose directly facing each other, and commanded them to show proof of their art. The painters of the two nations immediately applied themselves with diligence to their work. The Chinese sought and obtained of the king every day a great quantity ofcolours , but the Greeks not the least particle. Both worked in profound silence, untilthe with a clangor of cymbals and of trumpets, announced the end of theirlabours . Immediately the king, with his courtiers, hastened to their temple, and there stood amazed at the wonderfulsplendour of the Chinese painting and the exquisite beauty of thecolours .But meanwhile the Greeks, who had not sought to adorn the walls with paints, butlaboured rather to erase everycolour , drew aside the veil which concealed their work. Then, wonderful to tell, the manifold variety of the Chinesecolours was seen still more delicately and beautifully reflected from the walls of the Grecian temple, as it stood illuminated by the rays of the midday sun.”

This parable, of course, illustrates thefavourite Sufi tenet that the heart must he kept pure and calm as an unspotted mirror. Similarly, theepologue of the elephant in the dark (vide chap. II.) has been borrowed byJalaluddin Rumi fromGhazzali .

Another characteristic ofGhazzali which appeals to the, modern mind is the way in which he expounds the religious argument from probability much as Bishop Butler and Browning do (vide the end of Chapter IV. in the present book).Ghazzali might have said, withBlougram :

Withme faith means perpetual unbelief

Kept quiet like the snake 'neath Michael's foot,

Who stands calm just because he feels itwrithe.

This combination of ecstatic assurance andscepticism is one of those antinomies of the humanmind which annoy the rationalist and rejoice the mystic.Those in whom they coexist, likeGhazzali in the eleventh century and Cardinal Newman in the nineteenth, are a perpetual problem to understand and therefore perennially interesting:

He may believe, and yet, and yet,

How can he?

Another point in whichGhazzali anticipates Bishop Butler is his representation of punishment as the natural working out of consequences, and not an arbitrary infliction imposedab extra. He tries torationalise the luridthreatenings of the Koran.

In his ownday Ghazzali was accused of having one doctrine for the multitude and one for himself and his intimate friends. Professor D. B. Macdonald, of Hartford, after going thoroughly into the matter, says, “If the charge of a secret doctrine is to be proved againstGhazzali it must be on other and better evidence than that which is now before us.”

At any rate,Ghazzali has been accepted as an orthodox authority by theMuhammadans , among whom his title isHujjat -el-Islam “The Proof of Islam,” and it has been said, “If all the books of Islam were destroyed it would be, but a slight loss if only theIhya ofGhazzali were preserved.” The great modern reformer of Islam in India, the late SirSyud Ahmed, has had some portions of this enormous work printed separatelyfor the purpose of familiarising the young Moslems at Aligarh withGhazzali .

TheIhya was written in Arabic, andGhazzali himself wrote an abridgment of it in Persian for popularuse which he entitledKimiya'e Saadat (“The Alchemy of Happiness”). This little book contains eight sections of that abridgment.

Theologians are the best judges of theologians, and in conclusion we may quote Dr. AugustTholuck's opinion ofGhazzali : “This man, if ever any have deserved the name, was truly a 'divine,' and he may be justly placed on a level with Origen, so remarkable was he for learning and ingenuity, and gifted with such a rare faculty for the skilful and worthy exposition of doctrine. All that is good, noble, and sublime that his great soul had compassed he bestowed uponMuhammadanism , and he adorned the doctrines of the Koran with so much piety and learning that, in the form given them by him, they seem, inmy opinion, worthy the assent of Christians. Whatsoever wasmost excellent in the philosophy of Aristotle or in the Sufi mysticism he discreetly adapted to theMuhammadan theology; from every school he sought the means of shedding light andhonour upon religion; while his sincere piety and lofty conscientiousness imparted to all his writings a sacred majesty. He was the first ofMuhammadan divines.”

INTRODUCTION

KNOW, O beloved, that man was not created in jest or at random, butmarvellously made and for some great end. Although he is not from everlasting, yet he livesfor ever ; and though his body is mean and earthly, yet his spirit is lofty and divine. When in the crucible of abstinence heis purged from carnal passions he attains to the highest, and in place of being a slave to lust and anger becomes endued with angelic qualities. Attaining that state, he finds his heaven in the contemplation of Eternal Beauty, and no longer in fleshly delights. The spiritual alchemy which operates this change in him, like that which transmutes base metals into gold, is not easily discovered, nor to be found in the house of every old woman. It is to explain that alchemy and its methods of operation that the author has undertaken this work, which he has entitled, The Alchemy of Happiness. Now the treasuries of God, in which this alchemy is to be sought, are the hearts of the prophets, and he, who seeks itelsewhere will be disappointed and bankrupt on the day of judgment, when he hears the words, “We have lifted the veil from off thee, and thy sight to-day is keen.”

God has sent on earth a hundred and twenty-four thousandprophets[ 3] to teach men the prescription of this alchemy, and how to purify their hearts from baser qualities in the crucible of abstinence. This alchemymay be briefly described as turning away from the world to God, and its constituents are four:

1. The knowledge of self.

2. The knowledge of God.

3. The knowledge of this world as it really is.

4. The knowledge of the next world as it really is.

We shall now proceed to expound these four constituents in order.

CHAPTERI : THE KNOWLEDGE OF SELF

KNOWLEDGE of self is the key to the knowledge of God, according to the saying: “He who knows himself knows God,”[ 4] and, as it is Written in the Koran, “We will show them Our signs in the world and in themselves, that the truth may be manifest to them.” Now nothing is nearer to thee thanthyself , and if thouknowest not thyself how canst thou know anything else? If thousayest “I know myself,” meaning thy outward shape, body, face, limbs, and so forth, such knowledge can never be a key to the knowledge of God. Nor, if thy knowledge as to that which is within only extends so far, that when thou art hungry thoueatest , and when thou art angry thouattackest some one, wilt thou progress any further in this path, for the beasts are thy partners in this?But real self-knowledge consists in knowing the following things: What art thou in thyself, and from whence hast thou come? Whither art thou going,and for what purpose hast thou come to tarry here awhile, and in what does thy real happiness and misery consist? Some of thy attributes are those of animals, some of devils, and some of angels, and thou hast to find out which of these attributes are accidental and which essential.Till thouknowest this, thou canst not find out where thy real happiness lies. The occupation of animals is eating, sleeping, and fighting; therefore, if thou art an animal, busy thyself in these things. Devils are busy in stirring up mischief, and in guile and deceit; if thoubelongest to them, do their work. Angels contemplate the beauty of God, and are entirely free from animal qualities; if thou art of angelic nature, then strive towardsthine origin, that thoumayest know and contemplate the Most High, and be delivered from thethraldom of lust and anger. Thoushouldest also discover why thou hast been created with these two animal instincts: whether that they should subdue and leadthee captive, or whether that thoushouldest subdue them, and, in thy upward progress, make of one thy steed and of the other thy weapon.

The first step to self-knowledge is to know that thou art composed of an outward shape, called the body, and an inward entity called the heart, or soul. By “heart” I do not mean the piece of flesh situated in the left of our bodies, but that which uses all the other faculties as its instruments and servants. Intruth it does not belong to the visible world, but to the invisible, and has come into this world as atraveller visits a foreign country for the sake of merchandise, and will presently return to its native land. It is the knowledge of this entity and itsattributes which is the key to the knowledge of God.

Some idea of the reality of the heart, or spirit, may be obtained by a man closing his eves and forgetting everything around except his individuality . He will thus also obtain a glimpse of the unending nature of that individuality.Too close inquiry, however, into the essence of spirit is forbidden by the Law . In theKoran it is written: “They will question thee concerning the spirit. Say: 'The Spirit comes by the command of my Lord.'“Thus much is known of it that it is an indivisible essence belonging to the world of decrees, and that it is not from everlasting, but created. An exact philosophical knowledge of the spirit is not a necessary preliminary to walking in the path of religion, but comes rather as the result of self-discipline and perseverance in that path, as it is said in the Koran: “Those who strive in Our way, verily We will guide them to the right paths.”

For the carrying on ofthis spiritual warfare by which the knowledge of oneself and of God is to be obtained, the body may be figured as a kingdom, the soul as its king, and the different senses and faculties as constituting an army. Reason may be called the vizier, or prime minister, passion the revenue-collector, and anger thepolice-officer . Under the guise of collecting revenue, passion is continually prone to plunder on its own account, while resentment is always inclined to harshness and extreme severity. Both of these, the revenue-collector and thepolice-officer , have to be kept in due subordination to the king, but not killed or expelled, as they have their own proper functions tofulfil .But if passion and resentment master reason, the ruin of the soul infallibly ensues. Asoul which allows its lower faculties to dominate the higher is as one who should hand over an angel to the power of a dog or aMussalman to the tyranny of an unbeliever. The cultivation of demonic, animal, or angelic qualities results in the production of corresponding characters, which in the Day of Judgmentwill be manifested in visible shapes, the sensual appearing as swine, the ferocious as dogs and wolves, and the pure as angels. The aim of moral discipline is to purify the heart from the rust of passion and resentment,till , like a clear mirror, it reflects the light of God.

Some one may here object, “But if man has been created with animal and demonic qualities as well as angelic, how are we to know that the latter constitute his real essence, while the former are merely accidental and transitory?” Tothis I answer that the essence of each creature is to be sought in that which is highest in it and peculiar to it.Thus the horse and the ass are both burden-bearing animals, but the superiority of the horse to the ass consists in its being adapted for use in battle. If it fails in this, itbecomes degraded to the rank of burden-bearing animals. Similarly with man: the highest faculty in him is reason, which fits him for the contemplation of God.If this. predominates in him, when he dies, he leaves behind him all tendencies to passion and resentment, and becomes capable of association with angels. As regards his mere animal qualities, man is inferior to many animals, but reason makes him superior to them, as it is written in the Koran: “To man We have subjected all things in the earth.”But if his lower tendencies have triumphed, after death he will ever be looking towards the earth and longing for earthly delights.

Now the rational soul in man abounds in, marvels,both of knowledge and power . By means ofit he masters arts and sciences, can pass in a flash from earth to heaven and back again, can map out the skies and measure the distances between the stars. Byit also he can draw the fish from the sea and the birds from the air, and can subdue to his service animals, like the elephant, the camel, and the horse. His five senses are like five doors opening on the external world; but, more wonderful than this, his heart has awindow which opens on the unseen world of spirits. In the state of sleep, when the avenues of the senses are closed, this windowis opened and man receives impressions from the unseen world and sometimesforeshadowings of the future. His heart is then like amirror which reflects what is pictured in the Tablet of Fate.But , even in sleep, thoughts of worldly things dull this mirror, so, that the impressions it receives are not clear. After death, however, such thoughts vanish and thingsare seen in their naked reality, and the saying in the Koran is fulfilled: “We have stripped the veil from off thee and thy sight today is keen.”

This opening of a window in the heart towards the unseen also takes place in conditions.approaching those of prophetic inspiration, when intuitions spring up in the mindunconveyed through any sense-channel. The more a man purifies himself from fleshly lusts and concentrates his mind on God, the more conscious will he be of such intuitions. Those who are not conscious of them have no right to deny their reality.

Nor are such intuitions confined only to those of prophetic rank. Just as iron, by sufficient polishing,can be made into a mirror, so any mind by due discipline can be rendered receptive of such impressions. It was at this truth the Prophet hinted when he said, “Every child is born with a predisposition towards Islam; then his parents make a Jew, or a, Christian, or a star-worshipper of him.” Every human beinghas in the depths of his consciousness heard the question “Am I not your Lord?” and answered “Yes” to it. But some hearts are like mirrors so befouled with rust and dirt that they give no clear reflections, while those of the prophets and saints, though they are men “of like passions with us,” are extremely sensitive to all divine impressions.

Nor is it onlyby reason of knowledge acquired and intuitive that the soul of man holds the first rank among created things, but also by reason of power. Just as angels preside over the elements, so does the soul rule the members of the body. Thosesouls which attain a special degree of power not only rule their own body but those of others also. If they wish a sick man to recover he recovers, or a person in health to fall ill he becomes ill, or if they will the presence of a person he comes to them. According as the effects produced by these powerful souls are good orbad they are termed miracles or sorceries. These souls differ from common folk in three ways: (1) what others only see in dreams they see in their waking moments. (2) While others' wills only affect their own bodies, these, bywill-power , can move bodies extraneous to themselves. (3) Theknowledge which others acquire by laborious learning comes to them by intuition.

These three, of course, are not the onlymarks which differentiate them from common people, but the only ones that come within ourcognisance . Just as no one knows the real nature of God but God Himself, so no one knows the real nature of a prophet but a prophet. Nor is this tobe wondered at, as in everyday matters we see that it is impossible to explain the charm of poetry to one whose ear is insusceptible of cadence and rhythm, or the glories ofcolour to one who is stone-blind. Besides mere incapacity, there are other hindrances to the attainment of spiritual truth. One of these is externally acquired knowledge. To use a figure, the heart may be represented as a well, and the five senses as fivestreams which are continually conveying water to it. In order to find out the real contents of the heart these streamsmust be stopped for a time, at any rate, and the refuse they have brought with them must be cleared out of the well. In other words, if we are to arrive at pure spiritual truth, we must put away, for the time, knowledge whichhas been acquired by, external processes and which too often hardens into dogmatic prejudice.

A mistake of an opposite kind is made by shallow people who, echoing somephrases which they have caught from Sufi teachers, go about decrying all knowledge.This is as if a person who was not an adept in alchemy were to go about saying, “Alchemy is better than in gold,” and were to refuse gold when it was offered to him. Alchemy is better than gold, but real alchemists are very rare, and so are real Sufis. He who has a mere smattering of Sufism is not superior to a learned main, any more than he who has tried a few experiments in alchemy has ground for despising a rich man.

Any one who will look into the matter will see that happinessis necessarily linked with the knowledge of God. Each faculty of ours delights in that for which itwas created : lust delights in accomplishing desire, anger in taking vengeance, the eye in seeing beautiful objects, and the ear in hearing harmonious sounds. The highest function of the soul of man is the perception of truth; in this accordingly it finds its special delight. Even in trifling matters, such, as learning chess, this holdsgood , and the higher the subject-matter of the knowledge obtained the greater the delight. A man would be pleased atbeing admitted into the confidence of a prime minister, but how much more if the king makes an intimate of him and discloses state secrets to him!

Anastronomer who, by his knowledge, can map the stars and describe their courses, derives more pleasure from his knowledge than the chess-player from his. Seeing, then, that nothing is higher than God, how great must be thedelight which springs from the true knowledge of Him!

A person in whom the desire for this knowledge has disappeared is like one who has lost his appetite for healthy food, or who prefers feeding on clay to eating bread. All bodily appetites perish at death with the organs they use, but the soul dies not, and retains whatever knowledge of God it possesses; nay, increases it.

An important part of our knowledge of God arises from the study and contemplation of our own bodies, which reveal to us the power, wisdom, and love of the Creator.His power, in that from a mere drop He has built up the wonderful frame of man; His wisdom is revealed in its intricacies and the mutual adaptability of its parts; and His love is shown by His not only supplying such organs as are absolutely necessary for existence, as the liver, the heart, and the brain, but those which are not absolutely necessary, as the hand, the foot, the tongue, and the eye. To these He has added, as ornaments, the blackness of the hair, the redness of lips, and the curve of the eyebrows.

Man has been truly termed a “microcosm,” or little world in himself, and the structure of his body should be studied not only by those who wish to become doctors, but by those who wish to attain to a more intimate knowledge of God, just as close study of the niceties and shades of language in a great poem reveals to us more and more of the genius of its author.

But , when all is said, the knowledge of the soul plays a more important part in leading to the knowledge of God than the knowledge of our body and its functions. The bodymay be compared to a steed and the soul to its rider; the body was created for the soul, the soul for the body. If a man knows not his own soul, which is the nearest thing to him, what is the use of his claiming to know others? It is as if a beggar who has not the wherewithal for a meal should claim to be able to, feed a town.

In thischapter we have attempted, in some degree, to expound, the greatness of man's soul. He who neglects it and suffers its capacities to rust or to degenerate must necessarily be the loser in this world and the next. The true greatness; of man lies in his capacity for eternal progress, otherwise in this temporal sphere he is the weakest of all things, being subject to hunger, thirst, heat, cold, and sorrow. Those things he takes most delight in are often the most injurious to him, and thosethings which benefit him are not to be obtained without toil and trouble.As to his intellect, a slight disarrangement of matter in his brain is sufficient to destroy or madden him; as to his power, the sting of a wasp is sufficient to rob him of ease and sleep; as to his temper, he is upset by the loss of a sixpence; as to his beauty, he is little more than nauseous matter covered with a fair skin. Without frequentwashing he becomes utterly repulsive and disgraceful.

In truth, man in this world is extremely weak and contemptible; it is only in the next that he will be of value, if by means of the “alchemy of happiness” he rises from the rank of beasts to that of angels.Otherwise his condition will be worse than the brutes, which perish and turn to dust. It is necessary for him, at the same time that he is conscious of his superiority as the climax of created things, to learn to know also his helplessness, as that too is one of the keys to the knowledge of God.

CHAPTER II: THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD

IT is a well-known saying of the Prophet that “He who knows himself, knows God”; that is, by contemplation of his own being and attributes man arrives at some knowledge of God.But since many who contemplate themselves do not find God, it follows that there must be some special way of doing so.As a matter of fact , there are two methods of arriving at this knowledge, but one is so abstruse that it is not adapted to ordinary intelligences, and therefore is better left unexplained. The other method is as follows: When a man considershimself he knows that there was a time when he was non-existent, as it is written in the Koran: “Does it not occur to man that there was a time when he was nothing?” Further, he know that he was made out of a drop of water in which there was neither intellect, nor hearing, sight, head, hands, feet, etc. Fromthis it is obvious that, whatever degree of perfection he may have arrived at, he did not make himself, nor can he now make a single hair.

How much more helpless, then, was his condition when he was a mere drop of water! Thus, as we have seen in the first chapter, he finds in his own being reflected in miniature, so to speak, the power,wisdom and love of the Creator. If all the sages of the worldwere assembled , and their lives prolonged for an indefinite time, they could noteffect any improvement in the construction of a single part of the body.

For instance, in the adaptation of the front and side-teeth to the mastication of food, and in the construction of the tongue, salivating glands, and the throat for its deglutition, we find acontrivance which cannot be improved upon.Similarly, whoever considers his hand, with its five fingers of unequal lengths, four of them with three joints and the thumb with only two, and the way in which it can be used for grasping, or for carrying, or for smiting, will frankly acknowledge that no amount of human wisdom could better it by altering the number and arrangement of the fingers, or in any other way.

When a man further considers how his various wants of food, lodging, etc., are amply supplied from the storehouse of creation, he becomes aware that God's mercy is as great as His power and wisdom, as He has Himself said, “My mercy is greater than My wrath,” and according to the Prophet's saying, “God is more tender to His servants than a mother to her suckling-child.” Thus from his own creation man comes to know God's existence, from the wonders of his bodily frame God's power and wisdom, and from the ample provision made for his various needs God's love. In thisway the knowledge of oneself becomes a key to the knowledge of God.

Not only are man's attributes a reflection of God's attributes, but the mode of existence of man's soul affords some insight into God's mode of existence. That is to say, both God and the soul are invisible, indivisible, unconfined by space andtime, and outside the categories of quantity and quality; nor can the ideas of shape,colour , or size attach to them. People find it hard to form a conception of such realities as are devoid of quality and quantity, etc., but a similar difficulty attaches to the conception of our everyday feelings, such as anger, pain, pleasure, or love. They are thought-concepts, and cannot becognised by the senses; whereas quality, quantity, etc., are sense-concepts. Just as the ear cannot takecognisance ofcolour ,nor the eye of sound, so, in conceiving of the ultimate realities, God and the soul, we find ourselves in a region in which sense-concepts can bear no part. So much, however, we can see, that, as God is Ruler of the universe, and, being Himself beyond space and time, quantity and quality, governs things that are so conditioned, so the soul rules the body and its members, being itself invisible, indivisible, andunlocated in any special part. For how can the indivisible be located in that which is divisible? From all this we see how true is the saying of the Prophet, “God created man in His own likeness.”

And, as we arrive at some knowledge of God's essence and attributes from the contemplation of the soul's essence and attributes, so we come to understand God's method of working and government and delegation of power to angelic forces, etc., by observing how each of us governs his own little kingdom. To take a simple instance: suppose a man wishes to write the name of God.First of all the wish is conceived in his heart, it is then conveyed to the brain by the vital spirits, the form of the word “God” takes shape in the thought-chambers of the brain, thence it travels by the nerve-channels, and sets in motion the fingers, which in their turn set in motion the pen, and thus the name “God” is traced on paper exactly as it had been conceived in the writer's brain. Similarly, when God wills a thing it appears in the spiritual plane, which in the Koran is called “The Throne”[5] ; from the throne it passes, by a spiritual current, to a lower plane called “The Chair”[6] ; then the shape of it appears on the “Tablet of Destiny”[7] ; whence, by the mediation of the forces called “angels,” it assumes actuality, and appears on the earth in the form of plants, trees, and animals, representing the will and thought of God, as the written letters represent the wish conceived in the heart and the shape present in the brain of the writer.

No one can understand a king but a king therefore God has made each of us a king in miniature, so to speak, over akingdom which is an infinitely reduced copy of His own. In the, kingdom of man God's “throne” is represented by the soul, the Archangel by the heart, “the chair” by the brain, “the tablet” by the treasure-chamber of thought. The soul, itselfunlocated and indivisible, governs the body as God governs the universe. In short, each of usis entrusted with a little kingdom, and charged not to be careless in the administration of it .

As regards the recognition of God's providence, there are many degrees of Knowledge. The mere physicist is like an antwho , crawling on a sheet of paper and observing black letters spreading over it, should refer thecause to the pen alone. The astronomer is like an ant of somewhat wider visionwho should catch sight of the fingers moving the pen, i.e., he knows that the elements are under the power of the stars, but he does not know that the stars are under the power of the angels. Thus, owing to the different degrees of perception in people, disputes must arise in tracing effects to causes. Those whose eyes never see beyond the world of phenomena are like those who mistake servants of the lowest rank for the king. The laws of phenomena must be constant, or there could be no such thing as science; but it is a great error to mistake the slaves for the master.

As long as this difference in the perceptive faculty of observers exists, disputes must necessarily go on. It is as if some blind men, hearing that an elephant had come to their town, shouldgo and examine it. The only knowledge ofit which they can obtain comes through the sense of touch: so one.handles the animal's leg, another his tusk, another his ear, and, according to their several perceptions, pronounce it to be a column, a thick pole, or a, quilt, each taking a part for the whole.So the physicist and astronomer confound the laws they perceive with the Lawgiver. A similar mistake is attributed to Abraham in the Koran, where it is related that he turned successively to stars, moon, and sun as the objects of his worship, till grown aware of Him who made all these, he exclaimed, “I love not them that set.” [8]

We have a common instance of this referring to second causes what ought to be referred to the First Cause in the case of so-called illness. For instance, if a man ceases to take any interest in worldly matters, conceives a distaste for common pleasures, and appears sunk in depression, the doctor will say, “This is a case of melancholy, and requires such and such a prescription.” The physicist will say, “This is a dryness of the brain caused by hot weather and cannot be relieved till the air becomes moist.” The astrologer will attribute it to some particular conjunction or opposition of planets. “Thus far their wisdom reaches,” says the Koran. It does not occur to them that what has really happened is this: that the Almighty has a concern for the welfare of that man, and has therefore commanded His servants, theplanets or the elements, to produce such a condition in him that he may turn away from the world to his Maker. The knowledge of this fact is a lustrous pearl from the ocean of inspirational knowledge, to which all other forms of knowledge are as islands, in the sea.

The doctor, physicist, and astrologer are doubtless right each in his particular branch of knowledge, but they do not see that illness is, so to speak, a cord of love by which God draws to Himself the saints concerning whom He has: said, “I was sick and ye visited Me not.” Illness itself is one of those forms of experience by which man arrives at the knowledge of God, as He says by the mouth of His Prophet, “Sicknesses themselves areMy servants, and are attached, to My chosen.”

The foregoing remarks may enable us to enter a little more fully into the meaning of those exclamations so often on the lips of the Faithful: “God is holy,” “Praisebe to God,” “There is no God but God,” “God is great.” Concerning thelast we may say that it does not mean that God is greater than creation, for creation is His manifestation as light manifests the sun, and it would not be correct to say that the sun is greater than its own light. It rather means that God's greatness immeasurably transcends our cognitive faculties, and that we can only form a very dim and imperfect idea of it. If a child asks us to explain to him the pleasure which exists in wielding sovereignty, we may say it is like the pleasure he feels in playing bat and ball, though in reality the two have nothing in common except that they both come under the category of pleasure. Thus, the exclamation “God is great” means that His greatness far exceeds all our powers of comprehension. Moreover, such imperfect knowledge of God as we can attain to is not a mere speculative knowledge, butmust be accompanied by devotion and worship. When a mandies he has to do with God alone, and if we have to live with a person, our happiness entirely depends on the degree of affection we feel towards him. Love is the seed of happiness, and love to Godis fostered and developed by worship . Such worship and constant remembrance of God implies a certain degree of austerity and curbing of bodily appetites. Not that a manis intended altogether to abolish these, for then the human race would perish.But strict limits must be set to their indulgence, and as a man is not the best judge in his own case as to what these limits should be, he had better consult some spiritual guide on the subject. Such spiritual guides are the prophets, and thelaws which they have laid down under divine inspiration prescribe the limits which must be observed in these matters. He who transgresses these limits “wrongs his own soul,” as it is written in the Koran.

Notwithstanding this clear pronouncement of theKoran there are those who, through their ignorance of God, do transgress these limits, and this ignorance may be due to several different causes: Firstly, there are some who, failing to find God by observation, conclude that there is no God and that this world of wonders made itself, or existed from everlasting. They are like a man who, seeing a beautifully written letter, should suppose thatIt had written itself without a writer, or had always existed. People in this state of mind are so far gone in error that it is of little use to argue with them. Such are some of the physicists and astronomers to whom we referred above.

Some, through ignorance of the real nature of the soul, repudiate the doctrine of a future life, in which man willbe called to account and be rewarded or punished. They regard themselves as no better than animals orvegetables, and equally perishable. Some, on the other hand, believe in God and a future life but with a weak belief. They say to themselves, “God is great and independent of us; our worship or abstinence from worship is a matter of entire indifference to Him.” Their state of mind is like that.of a sick man who, when prescribed a certain regime by his doctor, should say, “Well, if I follow it or don't follow it, what does it matter to the doctor?” It certainly does not matter to the doctor, but the patient may destroy himself by his disobedience. Just as surely as, unchecked sickness of body ends in bodily death,. so does uncured disease of the soul end in future misery, according to the saying of the Koran, “Only those shall be saved who come to God with a sound heart.”

A fourth kind of unbelievers are those who say, “The Law tells us to abstain from anger, lust, and hypocrisy. This is plainly impossible, for manis created with these qualities inherent in him. You might as well tell us to make black white.” These foolish people ignore the fact that the law does not tell us to uproot these passions, but to restrain them within due limits, so that, by avoiding the greater sins, we may obtain forgiveness of the smaller ones. Even the Prophet of God said, “I am a man like you, and get angry like others”; and in the Koran it is written, “God loves those who swallow down their anger,” not those who have no anger at all.

A fifth class lay stress on the beneficence of God, and ignore His justice, saying tothemselves , “Well, whatever we do, God is merciful.” They do not consider that, though God is merciful, thousands of human beings perish miserably in hunger and disease. They know that whosoever wishes for a livelihood, or for wealth, or learning, must not merely say, “God is merciful,” but must exert himself. Although the Koran says, “Every living creature's support comes from God,” it is also written, “Man obtains nothing except by striving.” The fact is, such teaching is really from the devil, and such people only speak with their lips and not with their heart.

A sixth class claim to have reached such a degree of sanctity that sin cannot affect them. Yet, if you treat one of them with disrespect, he will bear a grudge against you for years, and if one of thembe deprived of a morsel of food which he thinks his due, the whole world will appear dark and narrow to him. Even if any of them do really conquer their passions, they have no right to make such a claim, for the prophets, the highest of human kind, constantly confessed and bewailed their sins. Some of them had such a dread of sin that they even abstained from lawful things; thus, it is related of the Prophet that, one day, when a date had been brought to him he would not eat it, as he was not sure that it had been lawful by obtained. Whereas these free-livers will swallow gallons of wine and claim (I shudder as I write) to be superior to the Prophet whose sanctity was endangered by a date, while theirs is unaffected by all that wine!Surely they deserve that the devil should drag them down to perdition. Real saints know that he who does not master his appetites does not deserve the name of a man, and that the true Moslem is one who will cheerfully acknowledge the limits imposed by the Law. He whoendeavours , on whatever pretext, to ignore its obligations is certainly under Satanic influence, and should be talked to, not with a pen, but with a sword. These pseudo-mystics sometimes pretend to be drowned in a sea of wonder, but if you ask them what they are wonderingat they do not know. They should be told to wonder as much as they please,, but at the same time to remember that the Almighty is their Creator and that they are His servants.

CHAPTER III: THE KNOWLEDGE OF THIS WORLD

THIS world is a stage ormarket-place passed by pilgrims on their way to the next. It is here that they are to provide themselves with provisions for the way; or, to put it plainly, man acquires here, by the use of his bodily senses, some knowledge of the works of God, and, through them, of God Himself, the sight of whom will constitute his future beatitude. It is for the acquirement of this knowledge that the spirit of man has descended into this world of water and clay. As long as his senses remain with him heis said to be “in this world”; when they depart, and only his essential attributes remain, he is said to have gone to “the next world.”

While man is in this world, two things are necessary for him: first, the protection and nurture of his soul; secondly, the care and nurture of his body. The proper nourishment of the soul, as above shown, is the knowledge and love of God, and to be absorbed in the love of anything but God is the ruin of the soul. The body, so to speak, is simply the riding-animal of the soul, and perishes while the soul endures. The soul should take care of the body, just as a pilgrim on his way to Mecca takes care of his camel; but if the pilgrim spends his whole time in feeding and adorning his camel, the caravan will leave him behind, and he will perish in the desert.

Man's bodily needs are simple, being comprisedunder three heads: food, clothing, and a dwelling-place; but the bodily desires which were implanted in him with a view to procuring these are apt to rebel against reason, which is of later growth than they. Accordingly, as we saw above, they requireto be curbed and restrained by the divine laws promulgated by the prophets.

Considering the world with which we havefor a time to do, we find it divided into three departments--animal, vegetable, and mineral. The products of all three are continually needed by man and have given rise to three principal occupations--those of the weaver, the builder, and the worker in metal. These, again, have many subordinate branches, such as tailors, masons, smiths, etc. None can be quite independent of others; this gives rise to various business connections and relations and these too frequently afford occasions, for hatred, envy, jealousy, and other maladies of the soul.Hence. come quarrels and strife, and the need of political and civil government and knowledge of law.

Thus the occupations and businesses of the world have become more and more complicated and troublesome, chiefly owing to the fact that men have forgotten that their real necessities are only three--clothing, food, and shelter, and that these exist onlywith the object of making the body a fit vehicle for the soul in its journey towards the next world. They have fallen into the same mistake as the pilgrim to Mecca, mentioned above,who , forgetting the object of his pilgrimage and himself, should spend his whole time in feeding and adorning his camel. Unless a man maintains the strictest watch he is certain to be fascinated and entangled by the world, which, as the Prophet said, is “a more potent sorcerer thanHarut andMarut .” [9]

The deceitful character of the world comes out in the following ways. In the first place, it pretends that it will always remain with you, while,as a matter of fact , it is slipping away from you, moment by moment, and bidding you farewell, like a shadow which seems stationary, but is actually always moving. Again, the world presents itself under the guise of a radiant but immoralsorceress , pretends to be in love with you, fondles you, and then goes off to your enemies, leaving you to die of chagrin and despair. Jesus (uponwhom be peace!) saw the world revealed in the form of an ugly old hag. He asked her how many husbands she had possessed; she replied that they were countless. He asked whether they had died or been divorced; she said that she had slain them all. “I marvel”, he said, “at the fools who see, what you have done to others, and still desire you.”

Thissorceress decks herself out in gorgeous andjewelled apparel and veils her face. Then she goes forth to seduce men, too many of whom follow her to their own destruction. The Prophet has said that in the Judgment Day the world will appear in the form of a hideous witch with green eyes and projecting teeth. Men, beholding her, will say, “Mercy on us!who is this?” The angels will answer, “This is the world for whose sake youquarrelled and fought and embittered one another's lives.” Then shewill be cast into hell, whence she will cry out, “O Lord!where are those, my former lovers?” God will then command that theybe cast after her.

Whoever will seriously contemplate the past eternity during which the world was not in existence, and the future eternity during which it will not be in existence, will see that it is essentially like a journey, in which the stages are represented by years, the leagues by months, the miles by days, and the steps by moments. What words, then, can picture the folly of the man whoendeavours to make it his permanent abode, and forms plans ten years ahead regarding things he may never need, seeing that very possibly he may be under the ground in ten days!

Those who have indulged without limit in the pleasures of the world, at the time of death will be like a man who has gorged himself to repletion on delicious viands and then vomits them up. The deliciousness has gone, but the disgrace remains. The greater the abundance of the possessions which they have enjoyed in the shape of gardens, male and female slaves, gold, silver, etc., the more keenly they will feel the bitterness of parting from them. This is abitterness which will outlast death, for the soul which has contracted covetousness as a fixed habit will necessarily in the next world suffer from the pangs of unsatisfied desire.

Another dangerous property of worldly things is that they at first appear as mere trifles, but each of these so-called “trifles” branches out into countless ramifications until they swallow up the whole of a man's time and energy. Jesus (on whom be peace!) said, “The lover of the world is like a man drinking sea-water; the more he drinks, themore thirsty he gets, till at last he perishes with thirst unquenched.” The Prophet said, “You can no more mix with the world without being contaminated by it than you can go into water without getting wet.”

The world islike a table spread for successive relays of guests who come and go. There are gold and silver dishes, abundance of food and perfumes. The wise guest eats as much as is sufficient for him, smells the perfumes, thanks his host, and departs. The foolish guest, on the other hand, tries to carry off some of the gold and silver dishes, only to find them wrenched out of his hands andhimself thrust forth, disappointed and disgraced.

We may close these illustrations of the deceitfulness of the world with the following short parable. Suppose a ship to arrive at a certain well-wooded island. The captain of the ship tells the passengers he will stop a few hours there, and that they can go on shore for a short time, but warns them not to delay too long.Accordingly the passengers disembark and stroll in different directions. The wisest, however, return after a short time, and, finding the ship empty, choose the most comfortable places in it.A second band of the passengers spend a somewhat longer time on the island, admiring the foliage of the trees and listening to the song of the birds. Coming on board, they find the best places in the ship already occupied, and have to content themselves with the less comfortable ones. A third party wander still farther, and, finding some brilliantlycoloured stones, carry them back to the ship. Their lateness in coming on board compels them to stow themselves away in the lower parts of the ship, where they find their loads of stones, which by this time have lost all their brilliancy, very much in their way. The lastgroup go so far in their wanderings that they get quite out of reach of the captain's voice calling them to come on board, and at last he has to sail away without them. They wander about in a hopeless condition and finally either perish of hunger or fall a prey to wild beasts.

The first group represents the faithful who keep aloof from the world altogether and the last group the infidels who care only for this world and nothing for the next. The two intermediate classes are those who preserve their faith, but entangle themselves more or less with the vanities of things present.

Although we have said so much against the world, it must be remembered that there are some things in theworld which are not of it, such as knowledge and good deeds. A man carries what knowledge he possesses with him into the next world, and, though his good deeds, have passed, yet the effect of them remains in his character. Especially is this the case with acts of devotion, which result in the perpetual remembrance and love of God. These are among “those good things” which, as the Koran says, “pass not away.”

Other good things thereare in the world, such as marriage, food , clothing, etc., which a wise man uses just in proportion as they help him to attain to the next world. Other things, which engross the mind, causing it to cleave to this world and to be careless of the next, are purely evil and were alluded to by the Prophet when he said, “The world is a curse, and all which is in it is a curse, except the remembrance of God, and that which aids it.”

CHAPTER IV: THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE NEXT WORLD

AS REGARDS the joys of heaven and the pains ofhell which will follow this life, all believers in the Koran and the Traditions are sufficiently informed.But it often escapes them that there is also a spiritual heaven and hell, concerning the former of which God said to His Prophet, “Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the things which are prepared for the righteous.” In the heart of the enlightened man there is a window opening on the realities of the spiritual world, so that he knows, not by hearsay or traditional belief, but by actual experience, what produces wretchedness or happiness in the soul just as clearly and decidedly as the physician knows what produces sickness or health in the body. Herecognises that knowledge of God and worship are medicinal, and that ignorance and sin are deadly poisons for the soul. Many even so-called “learned” men, from blindly following others' opinions, have no real certainty in their beliefs regarding the happiness or misery of souls in the next world, but he who will attend to the matter with a mindunbiassed by prejudice will arrive at clear convictions on this matter.

The effect of death on the composite nature of man is as follows: Man has two souls, an animal soul and a spiritual soul, which latter is of angelic nature. The seat of the animal soul is the heart, from which this soul issues like a subtlevapour and pervades all the members of the body, giving the power of sight to the eye, the power of hearing to the ear, and to every member the faculty of performing its own appropriate functions. Itmay be compared to a lamp carried about within a cottage, the light of which falls upon the walls wherever it goes. The heart is the wick of this lamp, and when the .supply of oilis cut off for any reason, the lamp dies. Such is the death of the animal soul. With thespiritual, or human soul, the case is different. It is indivisible, and byit man knows God. It is, so to speak, the rider of the animal soul, and when that perishes it still remains, but is likea horseman who has been dismounted, or like a hunter who has lost his weapons. That steed and those weaponswere granted the human soul that by means of them it might pursue and capture thePhœnix of the love and knowledge of God. If it haseffected that capture, it is not a grief but rather a relief to be able to lay those weapons aside, and to dismount from that weary steed.Therefore the Prophet said, “Death is a welcome gift of God to the believer.”But .alas for that soul which loses its steed and hunting-weapons before it has captured the prize! Its misery and regret will be indescribable.

A little further consideration will show how entirely distinct the human soul is from the body and its members. Limb after limbmay beparalysed and cease working, but the individuality of the soul is unimpaired. Further, thebody which you have now is no longer the body which you had as a child, but entirely different, yet your Personality now is identical with your personality then. It is therefore easy to conceive of it as persisting when the body is done with altogether, along with its essentialattributes which were independent of the body, such as the knowledge and love of God. This is the meaning of that saying of the Koran, “The good things abide.”But if, instead of carrying away with you knowledge, you depart in ignorance of God, this ignorance also is an essential attribute, and will abide as darkness of soul and the seed of misery.Therefore the Koran says, “He who is blind in this life, will be blind in the next life, and astray from the path.”

The reason of the human spirit seeking to return to that upper world is that its origin was from thence, and that it is of angelic nature. It was sent down into this lower sphere against its will to acquire knowledge and experience, as God said in the Koran: “Go down from hence, all of you; there will come to you instruction fromMe , and they who obey the instruction need not fear, neither shall they be grieved.” The verse, “I breathed into man ofMy spirit,” also points to the celestial origin of the human soul. Just as the health of the animal soul consists in the equilibrium of its componentparts, and this equilibrium is restored, when impaired, by appropriate medicine, so the health of the human soul consists in a moral equilibrium which is maintained and repaired, when needed, by ethical instruction and moral precepts.

As regards its future existence, we have already seen that the human soul is essentially independent of the body. All objections to its existence after death based on the supposed necessity of its recovering its former body fall, therefore, to the ground. Some theologians have supposed that the human soulis annihilated after death and then restored, but this is contrary both to reason and to the Koran. The former shows us that death does not destroy the essential individuality of a man, and the Koran says, “Think not that those who are slain in the path of God are dead; nay, they are alive, rejoicing in the presence of their Lord, and in the grace bestowed on them.” Not a wordis said in the Law about any of the dead, good or bad, being annihilated. Nay, the Prophetis said to have questioned the spirits of slain infidels as to whether they had found the punishments, with which he had threatened them, real or not. When his, followers asked him whatwas the good of questioning them , he replied, “They hear my words better than you do.”

Some Sufis have had the unseen world of heaven and hell revealed to them when in a state of death-like trance. On their recoveringconsciousness their faces betray the nature of the revelations they have had by marks of joy or terror.But no visions are necessary to prove what will occur to every thinking man, that when death has stripped him of his senses and left him nothing but his bare personality, if while on earth he has too closely attached himself to objects perceived by the senses, such as wives, children, wealth, lands, slaves, male and female, etc., he must necessarily suffer when bereft of those objects. Whereas, on the contrary, if he has as far as possibleturned his back on all earthly objects and fixed his supreme affection upon God, he will welcome death as a means of escape from worldly entanglements, and of union with Him whom he loves. In hiscase the Prophet's sayings will be verified:

“Death is a bridge which unites friend to friend,” and “The world is a paradise for infidels, but a prison for the faithful.”

On the other hand, thepains which souls suffer after death all have their source in excessive love of the world. The Prophet said that.every unbeliever, after death, will be tormented by ninety-nine snakes, each having nine heads. Some simple-minded people have examined the unbelievers' graves and wondered at failing to see these snakes. They do not understand that these snakes have their abode within the unbeliever's spirit, and that they existed in him even before he died, for they were his own evil qualitiessymbolised , such as jealousy, hatred, hypocrisy, pride, deceit, etc., every one of which springs, directly or remotely, from love of the world. Such is the doom of those who, in the words of the Koran, “set their hearts on this world rather than on the next.” If those snakes were merely external they might hope to escape their torment, if it were but for a moment;but, being their own inherent attributes, how can they escape?

Take, for instance, the case of a man who has sold a slave-girl without knowing how much he was attached to hertill she is quite out of his reach. Then the love of her, hitherto dormant, wakes up in him with such intensity as to amount to torture, stinging him like a snake, so that he would fain cast himself into fire or water to escape it. Such is the effect of love of the world, which those who have it often suspect not till the world is taken from them, and then the torment of vain longing is such that they would gladly exchange it for any number of mere external snakes and scorpions.

Every sinner thus carries with him into the world beyond death the instruments of his own punishment; and the Koran says truly, “Verily you shall see hell; you shall see it with the eye of certainty,” and “hell surrounds the unbelievers.” It does notsay “will surround them,” for it is round them even now.

Some may object, “If such is the case, then who can escape hell, for who is not more or less bound to the world by various ties of affection and interest?” Tothis we answer that there are some, notably thefaqirs , who have entirely disengaged themselves from love of the world.But even among those who have worldly possessions such as wife, children, houses, etc., there are those, who, though they have some affection for these, love God yet more. Their case is like that of a man who, though he may have a dwelling which he is fond of in one city, when he is called by the king to take up a post of authority in another city, does so gladly, as the post of authority, is dearer to him than his former dwelling. Such are many of the prophets and saints.

Others there are, and a great number, who have some love to God, but the love of the world so preponderates in them that they will have to suffer a good deal of pain after death before they are thoroughly weaned from it. Many profess to love God, but a man may easily test himself by watching which way the balance of his affection inclines when the commands of God come into collision with some of his desires. The profession of love toGod which is insufficient to restrain from disobedience to God is a lie.

We have seen above that one kind of spiritual hell is the forcible separation from worldly things to which the heart clave too fondly. Many carry about within them the germs of such a hell without being aware of it; hereafter they will feel like some king who, after living in luxury, has been dethroned and made a laughing-stock. The second kind of spiritual hell is that of shame, when a man wakes up to see the nature of the actions he committed in their naked reality. Thus he who slandered will see himself in the guise of a cannibal eating his dead brother's flesh, and he who envied as one who cast stones against a wall, which stones, rebounding, put out the eyes of his own children.

This species of hell, i.e., of shame, may besymbolised by the following short parable: Suppose a certain king has been celebrating his son's marriage. In theevening the young man goes off with some companions and presently returns to the palace (as he thinks) intoxicated. He enters a chamber where a light is burning and lies down, as he supposes, by his bride. In the morning, when soberness returns, he is aghast to find himself in a mortuary of fire-worshippers, his couch a bier, and theform which he mistook for that of his bride the corpse of an old woman beginning to decay. On emerging from the mortuary with his garments all soiled, what is his shame to see his father, the king, approaching with a retinue of soldiers! Such is a feeble picture of the shame those will feel in the next world who in this have greedily abandoned themselves to what they thought were delights.

The third spiritual hell is that of disappointment and failure to reach the real objects of existence. Man was intended to mirror forth the light of the knowledge of God, but if he arrives in the next world with his soul thickly coated with the rust of sensualindulgence he will entirely fail of the object for which he was made. His disappointmentmay be figured in the following way: Suppose a man is passing with some companions through a dark wood. Here and there, glimmering on the ground, lie variouslycoloured stones. His companions collect and carry these and advise him to do the same. “For,” say they “we have heard that these stones will fetch a high price in the place whither we are going.” He, on the other hand, laughs at them and calls them fools for loading themselves in the vain hope of gain, while he walks free and unencumbered. Presently they emerge into the full daylight and find that thesecoloured stones are rubies, emeralds, and other jewels of priceless value. The man's disappointment and chagrin at not having gathered some when so easily within his reach may be more easily imagined than described. Such will be the remorse of those hereafter, who, while passing through this world, have been at no pains to acquire the jewels of virtue and the treasures of religion.

This journey of man through the world may be divided into four stages--the sensuous, the experimental, the instinctive,the rational. In thefirst he is like a moth which, though it has sight, has no memory, and willsinge itself again and again at the same candle. In the secondstage he is like a dog which, having once been beaten, will run away at the sight of a stick. In thethird he is like a horse or a sheep, both of which instinctively fly at the sight of a lion or a wolf, their natural enemies, while they will not fly from a camel or a buffalo, though these last are much greater in size. In the fourthstage man altogether transcends the limits of the animals and becomes capable, to some extent, of foreseeing and providing for the future. His movements at firstmay be compared to ordinary walking on land, then to traversing the sea in a ship, then, on the fourth plane, where he is conversant with realities, to walking on the sea, while beyond this plane there is a fifth, known to the prophets and saints, whose progress may be compared to flying through the air.

Thus man is capable of existing on several different planes, from the animal to the angelic, and precisely in this lies his danger, i.e., of falling to the very lowest. In the Koran it is written, “We proposed the burden (i.e., responsibility or free-will) to the heavens and the earth and the mountains, and they refused to undertake it. But man took it upon himself: Verily he is ignorant.” Neither animals nor, angels can change their appointed rank and place.But man may sink to the animal or soar to the angel, and this is the meaning of his undertaking that “burden” of which the Koran speaks. The majority of men choose to remain in the two lower stages mentioned above, and the stationary are always hostile to thetravellers or pilgrims, whom they far outnumber.

Many of the former class, having no fixed convictions about the future world, when mastered by their sensual appetites, deny it altogether. They say that hell is merely an invention of theologians to frighten people.and they regard theologians themselves with thinly veiled contempt. To argue with fools of this kind is of very little use. This much, however, may be said to such a man, with the possible result of making him pause and reflect: “Do you really think that the hundred and twenty-fourthousand[ 10] prophets and saints who believed in the future life were all wrong, and you are right in denying it?” If he replies, “Yes!I am as sure as I am that two are more than one, that there is no soul and no future life of joy and penalty,” then the case of such a man is hopeless; all one can do is to leave him alone, remembering the words of the Koran, “Though thou call them to instruction, they will not be instructed.”

But, should he say that a future life is possible but that the doctrine is so involved in doubt and mystery that it is impossible to decide whether it be true or not, then one may say to him: “Then you had better give it the benefit of the doubt! Suppose you are about to eat food andsome one tells you a serpent has spat venom on it, you would probably refrain and rather endure the pangs of hunger than eat it, though your informant may be in jest or lying.Or suppose you are ill and a charm-writer says, 'Give me a, rupee and I will write a charm which you can tie round your neck and which will cure you,' you would probably give the rupee on the chance of deriving benefit from the charm.Or if an astrologer say, 'When the moon has entered a certain constellation, drink such and such a medicine, and you will recover,' though you may have very little faith in astrology, you very likely would try the experiment on the chance that he might be right.And do you not think that, reliance is as well placed on the words of all the prophets, saints, and holy men, convinced as they were of a future life, as on the promise of a charm-writer or an astrologer? People take perilous voyages in ships for the sake of merely probable profit, and will you not suffer a little pain of abstinence now for the sake of eternal joy hereafter?”

The Lord Ali once, in arguing with an unbeliever, said, “If you are right, then neither of us will be any the worse in the future; but if we are right, then we shall escape, and you will suffer.” This he said not because he himself wasin any doubt, but merely to make an impression on the unbeliever . From all that we have said it follows that man's chief business in this world is to prepare for the next. Even if he is doubtful about a future existence, reason suggests that he should act as if there were one, considering the tremendous issues at stake. Peacebe on those who follow the instruction!