Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

CHAPTER V: CONCERNING MUSIC AND DANCING AS AIDS TO THE RELIGIOUS LIFE

THE heart of man has been so constituted by the Almighty that, like a flint, it contains a hiddenfire which is evoked by music and harmony, and renders man beside himself with ecstasy. These harmonies are echoes of that higher world ofbeauty which we call the world of spirits; they remind man of his relationship to that world, and produce in him an emotion so deep and strange that he himself is powerless to explain it. The effect of music and dancing is deeper in proportion as the natures on which they act are simple and prone to emotion; they fan into a flame whatever love is already dormant in the heart, whether itbe earthly and sensual, or divine and spiritual.

Accordingly there has been much dispute among theologians as to the lawfulness of music and dancing regarded as religious exercises. One sect, theZahirites ,[11] holding that God is altogether incommensurable with man, deny the possibility of man's really feeling love to God, and say thatbe can only love those of his own species. If he does feel what he thinks is love to his Creator they say it is a mere projection, or shadow cast by his own fantasy, or a reflection of love to the creature; music and dancing, according to them, have only to do with creature love, and are therefore unlawful as religious exercises. If we ask themwhat is the meaning of that “love to God” which is enjoined by the religious law, they reply that it means obedience and worship. This is anerror which we hope to confute in a later chapter dealing with the love of God. Atpresent we content ourselves with saying that music and dancing do not put into the heart what is not there already, but only fan into a flame dormant emotions. Therefore if a man has in hisheart that love to God which the Law enjoins, it is perfectly lawful, nay, laudable in him to take part in exercises which promote it. On the other hand, if his heart is full of sensual desires, music and dancing will only increase them, and are therefore unlawful for him. While, if he listens to them merely as a matter of amusement, they are neither lawful nor unlawful, but indifferent. For the mere fact that they are pleasant doesnot make them unlawful , any, more than the pleasure of listening to the singing of birds or looking at green grass and running water is unlawful. The innocent character of music .and dancing, regarded merely as a pastime, is also corroborated by an authentic tradition which we have from the Lady Ayesha,[ 12] who narrates: “One festival-day some negroes, were performing in a mosque. The Prophet said tome , 'Do you wish to see them?'I replied, 'Yes.' Accordingly he lifted me up with his own blessed hand, and I looked on so long that he said more than once, 'Haven't you had enough'?” Another tradition from the Lady Ayesha is as follows: “One festival-day, two girls came to my house and began to play and sing. The Prophet came in and lay down on the couch, turning his face away. Presently AbuBakr [ 13] entered, and, seeing the girls playing, exclaimed, 'What!the pipe of Satan in the Prophet's house!'Whereupon the Prophet turned and said, 'Let them alone, AbuBakr , for this is a festival-day.'“

Passing over the cases where music and dancing rouse into a flame evil desires already dormant in the heart, we come to those cases where they arequite lawful . Such are those of the pilgrims who celebrate the glories of the House of God at Mecca in song, and thus incite others to go on pilgrimage, and of minstrels whose music and songs stir up martialardour in the breasts of their auditors and incite them to fight against the infidels. Similarly, mournfulmusic which, excites sorrow for sin and failure in the religious life is lawful; of this nature was the music of David.But dirges which increase sorrow for the dead are not lawful, for it is written in the Koran, “Despair not over what you have lost.” On the other hand, joyful music at weddings and feasts and on such occasions as a circumcision or the return from a journey is lawful.

We come now to the purely religious use of music and dancing: such is that of the Sufis, who by this means stir up in themselves greater love towards God, and, by means of music, often obtain spiritual visions and ecstasies, their heart becoming in this condition as clean as silver in the flame of a furnace, and attaining a degree of purity which could never be attained by any amount of mere outward austerities. The Sufi then becomes so keenly aware of his relationship to the spiritual world that he loses all consciousness of this world, and often falls down senseless.

It is not, however, lawful for the aspirant to Sufism to take part in this mystical dancing without the permission of his “Pir ,” or spiritual director. It is related of the SheikhAbu'l Qasim Girgani that, when one of his disciples requested leave to take part in such a dance, he said, “Keep a strict fast for three days; then let them cook for you tempting dishes; if, then, you still prefer the 'dance,' you may take part in it.”The disciple, however, whose heart is not thoroughly purged from earthly desires, though he may have obtained some glimpse of the mystics' path, should be forbidden by his director to take part in such dances, as they will do him more harm than good.

Those who deny the reality of the ecstasies and other spiritual experiences of the Sufis merely betray their own narrow-mindedness and shallow insight. Some allowance, however, must be made for them, for it is as difficult to believe in the reality of states of which one has no personal experience as it is for a blind man to understand the pleasure of looking at green, grass and running water, or for a child to comprehend the pleasure of exercising sovereignty. A wise man, though he himself may have no experience of those states, will not therefore deny their reality, for what folly can be greater than his who denies the reality of a thing merely because he himself has not experienced it! Of suchpeople it is written in the Koran, “Those who have not the guidance will say, 'This is a manifest imposture.'“

As regards the erotic poetry whichis recited in Sufi gatherings, and to which people sometimes make objection, we must remember that, when in such poetry mention is made of separation from or union with the beloved, the Sufi, who is an adept in the love of God, applies such expressions to separation from or union with Him. Similarly, “dark locks” are taken to, signify the darkness of unbelief; “the brightness of the face,” the light of faith, and drunkenness the Sufi's ecstasy. Take, for instance, the verse:

Thoumay'st measure out thousands of measures of wine,

But , till thou drink it, no joy isthine .

By this the writer means that the true delights, of religion cannot be reached by way of formal instruction, but by felt attraction and desire.. A man may converse much and write volumes concerning love, faith, piety, and so forth, and blacken paper to any extent, buttill he himself possesses these attributes all this will do him no good. Thus, those who find fault with the Sufis forbeing powerfully affected , even to, ecstasy, by these and similar verses, are merely shallow and uncharitable. Even camels are sometimes so powerfully affected by the Arab-songs of their drivers that they will run rapidly, bearing heavy burdens, till they fall down in a state of exhaustion.

The Sufi hearer, however, is in danger of blasphemy if he applies some of theverses which he hears to God. For instance, if he hears such a verse as “Thou art changed from thy former inclination,” he must not apply it to God, who cannot change, but to himself and his own variations of mood. God is like the sun, which is always shining, but sometimes for us His light is eclipsed by some object which intervenes betweenus and Him .

Regarding someadepts it is related that they attain to such a degree of ecstasy that they lose themselves in God. Such was the case with SheikhAbu'l HassanNuri , who, on hearing a certain verse, fell into an ecstatic condition, and, coming into a field full of stalks of newly cutsugar-canes , ran about till his feet were wounded and bleeding, and, not long afterwards, expired.In such cases some have supposed that there occurs an actual descent of Deity into humanity, but this would be as great a mistake as that of one who, having for the first time seen his reflection in a mirror, should suppose that, somehow or other, he had become incorporated with the mirror, or that the red-and-white hues which the mirror reflects were qualities inherent in it.

The states of ecstasy into which the Sufis fall vary according to theemotions which predominate in them--love, fear, desire, repentance, etc. These states, as we have mentioned above, are often the result not only of hearing verses of the Koran, but erotic poetry.Some have objected to the reciting of poetry, as well as of the Koran, on these occasions; but it should be remembered that all the verses of the Koran are not adapted to stir the emotions--such, for instance, as that which commands that a man should leave his mother the sixth part of his property and his sister the half, or that which orders that a widow must wait four months after the death of her husband before becoming espoused to another man. Thenatures which can be thrown in to religious ecstasy by the recital of such verses are peculiarly sensitive and very rare.

Another reason for the use of poetry as well as of the Koran on these occasions is that people are so familiar with the Koran, many even knowing it by heart, that the effect of ithas been dulled by constant repetition. One cannot be always quoting new verses of the Koran as one can of poetry. Once, when some wild Arabs were hearing the Koran for the first time andwere strongly moved by it, Abu-Bakr said to them, “We were once like you, but our hearts have grown hard,” meaning that the Koran loses some of its effect on those familiar with it. For the same reason the Caliph Omar used to command the pilgrims to Mecca to leave it quickly, “For,” he said, “I fear if you grow too familiar with the Holy City the awe of it will depart from your hearts.”

There is, moreover, something pertaining to the light and frivolous, at least in the eyes of the common people, in the use of singing and musical instruments, such as the pipe and drum, and it is not befitting that the majesty of the Koran should be, even temporarily, associated with these things. Itis related of the Prophet that once, when he entered the house ofRabia , the daughter ofMauz , some singing-girls who, were there beganextemporising in hishonour . He abruptly bade them cease, as the praise of the Prophet was too sacred a theme tobe treated in that way. There is also some danger, if verses of the Koranare exclusively used , that, the hearers should attach to them some private interpretation of their own, and this is unlawful. On the other hand, no harm attaches to interpreting lines of poetry in various ways, as it is not necessary to apply to a poem the same meaningwhich the author had.

Other features of these mystic dances are the bodily contortions and tearing of clothes with which theyare sometimes accompanied . If these are the result of genuine ecstaticconditions there is nothing to be said against them, but if they are self-conscious and deliberate on the part of those who wish to appear “adepts,” then they are merely acts of hypocrisy. In anycase the more perfect adept is he who controls himself till he is absolutely obliged to give vent to his feelings. Itis related of a certain youth who was a disciple of the SheikhJunaid that, on hearing singing commence in an assembly of the Sufis, he could not restrain himself, but began to shriek in ecstasy.Junaid said to him, “If you do that again,don't remain in my company.” After this the youth used to restrain himself on such occasions, but at last one, day his emotions were so powerfully stirred that, after long and forcible repression of them, he uttered a shriek and died.

To conclude: in holding these assemblies, regardmust be had to time and place, and that no spectators come from unworthy motives. Those who participate in them should sit in silence, not looking at one another, but keeping their heads bent, as at prayer, and concentrating their minds on God. Each should watch for whatevermay be revealed to his own heart, and not make any movements from mere self-conscious impulse. But if any one of them stands up in a state of genuine ecstasy all the rest should stand up with him, and if any one's turban fall off the others should also lay their turbans down.

Although these matters are comparative novelties in Islam and have not been received from the first followers of the Prophet, we must remember that all novelties are not forbidden, but onlythose which directly contravene the Law. For instance, the“Tarawih ,” or night-prayer, was first instituted by the Caliph Omar . The Prophet said, “Live with each man according to his habits and disposition,” therefore it is right to fall in with usages that please people, when non-conformity would vex them. It is true that the Companions were not in the habit of rising on the entrance of the Prophet, as they disliked this practice; but where ithas become established , and abstaining from it would cause annoyance, it is better to conform to it. The Arabs have their own customs,and the Persians have theirs, and Godknoweth which is best.

CHAPTER VI: CONCERNING SELF-EXAMINATION AND THE RECOLLECTION OF GOD

KNOW, Obrother, that in the Koran God hath said, “We will set up a just balance on the day of resurrection, and no soul shall be wronged in anything.” Whosoever has wrought a grain of good or ill shall then behold it. In the Koran it is also written, “Let every soul see what it sends on before it for the day of account.” It was a saying of the Caliph Omar's, “Call yourselves to account before ye be called to account”; and God says, “O ye believers, be patient and strive against your natural desires, and maintain the strife manfully.” The saints have always understood that they have come into this world to carry on a spiritual traffic, the resulting gain or loss of which is heaven or hell. Theyhave, therefore, always kept a jealous eye upon the flesh, which, like a treacherous partner in business, may cause them great loss. He, therefore, is a wise man who, after his morning prayer, spends a whole hour in making a spiritual reckoning, and says to his soul, “O my soul, thou hast only one life; no single moment that has passed can be recovered, for in the counsel of God the number of breaths allotted thee is fixed, and cannot be increased. When life is over no further spiritual traffic, is possible for thee; therefore what thou dost, do now; treat this day as if thy life had been already spent, and this were an extra day granted thee by the specialfavour of the Almighty, What can be greater folly than to lose it?”

At theresurrection a man will find all the hours of his life arranged like a long series of treasure-chests. The door of one will be opened, and it will be seen to be full of light: it represents anhour which he spent in doing good. His heartwill be filled which such joy that even a fraction of it would make the inhabitants of hell forget the fire. The door of a second will be opened; it is pitch-dark within, and from it issues such an evilodour as will causeevery one to hold his nose: it represents anhour which he spent in ill-doing, and he will suffer such terror that a fraction of it would embitter Paradise for the blessed. The door of a third treasure-chestwill be opened ; it will be seen to, be empty and neither light nor dark within: this represents the hour in which he did neither good nor evil. Then he will feel remorse and confusion like that of a man who has been the possessor of a great treasure and wasted it or let it slip from his grasp.Thus the whole, series of the hours of his life will be displayed, one by one, to his gaze. Therefore a man should, say to his soul every morning, “God has given thee twenty-four treasures; take heed lest thou lose any one ofthem., for thou wilt not be able to endure the regret that will follow such loss.”

The saints have said, “Even suppose God, should forgive thee, after a wasted life, thou wilt not attain to the ranks of the righteous and must deplore thy loss; therefore keep a strict, watch over thy tongue,thine eye, and each of thy seven members, for each of these is, as it, were, a possible gate to hell. Say to thy flesh, 'If thou art rebellious, verily I will punish thee'; for, though the flesh is headstrong, it is capable of receiving instruction, and can be tamed by austerity.” Such, then, is the aim of self-examination, and the Prophet had said, “Happy is he who does now that which will benefit him after death.”

We come now to the recollection of God. This consists in a man's remembering that God observes all his acts and thoughts. People only see the outward, while God sees both the outer and the inner man. He who really believes this will have both his outer and innerbeing well disciplined . If hedisbelieve it, he is an infidel, and if, while believing it, he acts contrary to that belief, be is guilty of the grossest.presumption . One day anegro came to the Prophet and said, “O Prophet of God!I have committed much sin. Will my repentance be accepted, or not?” The Prophet said “Yes.” Then thenegro said, “O Prophet of God, all the time I was committing sin, did God really behold it?” “Yes,” was theanswer. Thenegro uttered a cry and fell lifeless.Till a man is thoroughly convinced of the fact that be is always under God's observation it is impossible for him to act rightly.

A certain sheikh once had a disciple whom hefavoured above his other disciples, thus exciting their envy. One day the sheikh gave each of them a fowl and told each to go and kill it in a place where no one could see him. Accordingly each killed his fowl in some retired spot and brought it back, with the exception of the sheikh'sfavourite disciple, who brought his back alive, saying, “I have found no such place, for God sees everywhere.” The sheikh said to the others, “You see now this youth's real rank; he has attained to the constant remembrance of God.”

WhenZuleikha temptedJoseph she cast a cloth over the face of the idol she used to worship. Joseph said to her, “OZuleikha , thou art ashamed before a block of stone, and should I not be ashamed before Him who created the seven heavens and the earth?” A man once came to the saintJunaid and said, “I cannot keep my eyes from casting lascivious looks. How shall I do so?” “By remembering,”Junaid answered, “that God sees you much more clearly than you seeany one else.” In thetraditions it is written that God has said, “Paradise is for those who intend to commit some sin and then remember that My eye is upon them and forbear.” AbdullahIbn Dinar relates, “Once I was walking with the Caliph Omar near Mecca when we met a shepherd's slave-boy driving his flock. Omar said to him, “Sell me a sheep.” The boy answered, “They are not mine, but my master's.” Then, to try him, Omar said, “Well, you can tell him that a wolf carried one off, and he will know nothing about it.” “No, he won't,”said the boy, “but God will.” Omar then wept, and, sending for the boy's master, purchased him and set him free, exclaiming, “For this saying thou art free in this world andshalt be free in the next.”

There are two degrees of this recollection of God. The first degree is that of those saints whose thoughts are altogether absorbed in the contemplation of the majesty of God, and have no room in their hearts for anything else at all. This is the lower degree of recollection, for when a man's heart is fixed, and his limbsare so controlled by his heart that they abstain from even lawful actions, he has no need of any device or safeguard against sins. It was to this kind of recollection that the Prophet referred when he said, “He who rises in the morning with only God in his mind, God shall look after him, both in this world and the next.”

Some of theserecollectors of God are so absorbed in the thought of Him that, if people speak to them they do not hear, or walk in front of them they do not see, but stumble as if they collided with a wall. A certain saint relates as follows: “One day I passed by a place where archers were having a shooting-match. Some way off a man was sitting alone.I approached him and attempted to engage him in talk, but he replied, “The remembrance of God is better than talk.”I said, “Are you not lonely?” “No,” he answered, “God and two angels are with me.” Pointing to the archers, I asked,Which of these has carried off the prize?” “That one,” was his reply, “to whom God has allotted it.” ThenI inquired, “Where does this road come from?” Upon which, lifting up his eyes to heaven, he rose and departed, saying, “O Lord!many of Thy creatures hold one back from the remembrance of Thee!”

The saintShibli one day went to see the SufiThaury ; he found him sitting so still in contemplation that not a hair of his body moved. He; asked him, “From whom didst thou learn topractise such fixity of contemplation?”Thaury answered, “From a cat which I saw waiting at a mouse-hole in an attitude of even greater fixity than this.”Ibn Hanif relates: “I was informed that in the city of Sur a sheikh and his disciple were always sitting lost in the recollection of God.I went there and found them both sitting with their faces turned in the direction of Mecca.I saluted them thrice, but they gave no answer. I said, 'I adjure you, by God, to return mysalutation.' [14] The Youth raised his head and replied, 'OIbn Hanif ! The world lasts but for a little time, and of this little time only a little is remaining. Thou art hindering us by requiring us to return thy salutation.' He then bent his head again and was silent.I was hungry and thirsty at the time, but the sight of those two quite carried me out of myself.I remained standing and prayed with them the afternoon and evening prayer.I then asked them for some spiritual advice. The younger replied, 'OIbn Hanif , we are afflicted; we do not possess that tongue which gives advice.'I remained standing there three days and nights; no word passed between us and none of us slept. ThenI said within myself, 'I will adjure them by God to give me some counsel.' The younger, divining my thoughts, again raised his head: 'Go, and: seek such a man, the visitation of whom wilt bring God to thy remembrance and infix His fear in thy heart, and he will give thee that counsel which is conveyed by silence and not by speech.'“

Such is the “recollection” of thesaints which consists in being entirely absorbed in the contemplation of God. The second degree of the recollection of God is that of “the companions of the right hand.” [15] These are aware that God knows all about them, and feel abashed in His presence, yet theyare not carried out of themselves by the thought of His majesty, but remain clearly conscious of themselves and of the world. Their condition is like that of a man who should be suddenly surprised in a state of nakedness and should hastily cover himself, while the other class resemble one who suddenly finds himself in the presence of the King and is confused and awestruck. The former subject every project which enters their minds to a thorough scrutiny, for at the Last Day three questions will be asked respecting every action: the first, “Why did you do this?” the second, “In what way did you do this?” the third, “For what purpose did you do this?” The first will be asked because a man should act from divine and not merely Satanic or fleshly impulse. If this questionis satisfactorily answered , the second will test in what way the action was done, wisely, or carelessly and negligently, and the third, whether it was done simply to please God, or to gain the approval of men. If a man understands the meaning of thesequestions he will be very watchful over the state of his heart, and how he entertains thoughts which are likely to end in action.Rightly to discriminate among such thoughts is a very difficult and delicate matter, and he who is not capable of it should attach himself to some spiritual director, intercourse with.whom may illuminate his heart. He should avoid with the utmost care the merely worldly learned man who is an agent of Satan. God said to David, “O David! ask no questions of the learned man who is intoxicated with love of the world, for he will rob thee of My love,” and the Prophet said: “God, loves that man who is keen to discern in doubtful things, and who suffers not his reason to be swayed by the assaults of passion.” Reason and discrimination are closely connected, and he in whom reason does not rule passion will not be keen to discriminate.

Besides such cautious discrimination beforeacting a man should call himself strictly to account for his past actions. Every evening he should examine his heart as to what he has done to see whether he has gained or lost in his spiritual capital. This is the morenecessary as the heart is like a treacherous business partner, always ready to cajole and deceive; sometimes it presents its own selfishness under the guise of obedience to God, so that a man supposes he has gained, whereas he has really lost.

A certain saint namedAmiya , sixty years of age, counted up the days of his life. He found they amounted to twenty-one thousand six hundred days. He said to himself, “Alas!if I have committed one sin every day, how can I escape from the load of twenty-one thousand six hundred sins?” He uttered a cry and fell to the ground; when they came to raisehim they found him dead.But most people are heedless, and never think of calling themselves to account. If for every sin a man committed he placed a stone in an empty house, he would soon find that house full of stones; if his recordingangels[ 16] demanded wages of him for writing down his sins, all his money would soon be gone. People count on theirrosaries[ 17] with self-satisfaction the numbers of times they have recited the name of God, but they keep no rosary for reckoning the numberless idle words they speak. Therefore the Caliph Omar said, “Weigh well your words and deeds before they be weighed at the Judgment.” He himself before retiring for the night, used to strike his feet with a scourge and exclaim, “What hast thou done to-day?” AbuTalha was once praying in a palm-grove, when the sight of a beautifulbird which flew out of it caused him to make a mistake in counting the number of prostrations he had made. To punish himself for his inattention, he gave the palm-grove away. Such saints knew that their sensual nature was prone to goastray, therefore they kept a strict watch over it, and punished it for each transgression.

If a man finds himself sluggish and averse. from austerity and self-discipline he should consort with one who is a proficient in such practices so as to catch the contagion of his enthusiasm. One saint used to say, “When I grow lukewarm in self-discipline, I look at MuhammadIbn Wasi , and the sight of him rekindles myfervour for at least a week.” If one cannot find such a pattern of austerityclose at hand , then it is a good thing to study the lives of the saints; he should also exhort his soul somewhat in the following way: “O my soul!thou thinkest thyself intelligent and art angry at being called a fool, and yet what else art thou, after all? Thoupreparest clothing to shield thee from the cold of winter, yetmakest no preparation for the after-life. Thy state is like that of a man who in mid-winter should say, 'I will wear no warm clothing, but trust to God's mercy to shield me from the cold. He forgets that God, at the same time that He created cold, showed man the way to make clothing to protect himself from it, and provided the material for that clothing. Remember this also, O soul, that thy punishment hereafter will not be because God is angry with thy disobedience;. and saynot , 'How can my sin hurt God?' It, is thy lusts themselves which will have kindled the flames of a hell within thee; just as, from eating unwholesome food, disease is caused in a man's body, and not because his doctor is vexed with him for disobeying his orders.

“Shame upon thee, O soul, for thy overweening love of the world! If thou dost not believe in heaven or hell, at any rate thoubelieves in death, which will snatch from thee all worldly delights and cause thee to feel the pangs of separation from them, which will beintenser just in proportion as thou hast attached thyself to them. Why art thou mad after the world? If the whole of it, from East to West, werethine and worshipped thee, yet it would all, in a brief space, turn to dust along with thyself, and oblivion would blot out thy name, as those of ancient kings before thee. But now, seeing thou hast only a very small fragment of the world, and that a defiled one, wilt thou beso mad as to barter eternal joy for it, a precious jewel for a broken cup of earthenware, and make thyself the laughingstock of all around thee?”

2- Madrasahs In Pakistan

Madrasahs and the Pakistan Movement

The Aligarh Movement, which had been basically an educational movement, gradually became a political movement when Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, its founder, initiated the demand for reservation of seats for the Muslim community in elected bodies and the representation of Muslims through a separate electorate. Not satisfied with the performance of the Indian National Congress as representative of all communities of India, the supporters of the Aligarh Movement set up their own political organization, the Muslim League, with the explicit objective of protecting the rights of the Muslim community. Earlier the stand taken by Sir Syed for the defense of Urdu (when extremist Hindus tried to replace it by Hindi as official language in 1867) had determined a different course to be chosen from that of the Congress for the protection of the rights of the Muslims of the Subcontinent.[66] He had become uneasy at the Congress plan for “democratizing” India. He felt this would leave Muslims at the mercy of the numerically superior Hindus. A. Hamid quotes him in theAligarh Movement in the following words:

Ours is a vast country inhibited by diverse folks deeply divided by racial and religious antagonisms. They lack homogeneity. Different sections of the population stand at varying levels of cultural development. So long as religion and caste are the chief props of the Indian social system, electoral machinery based on the Western pattern would lead neither to equality nor to fraternity. It would enable the more advanced sections of the population to hold their less fortunate countrymen in thralldom. Cultural difference, caste dissentions and religious wrangling would be more pronounced than ever. Inequalities would sink deeper in the society.[67]

The Deobandiulema were content with their socio-religious role until the end of the nineteenth century. However with the beginning of the twentieth century they made explicit their political views. The approach of theDeoband ulema to Indian politics differed fundamentally from its counterpart at Aligarh. They believed that geography was the ultimate determinant of nationalism in the context of India and the concept of Indian Muslim nationalism contradicted the concept of universal Muslim nationalism.  On the basis of a mutually antagonistic political approach, both the educational movements chose different political platforms during the freedom struggle. While Aligarh aligned itself with the Muslim League under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Deobandi supported the Congress during the freedom movement.[68]

The gulf between Deoband and Aligarh had widened because Sir Syed had contributed articles to the Aligarh Institute Gazette denying the pretensions of Sultan Abdul Hamid[69]   to thekhilafat and preaching loyalty to the British rulers of India, even if they were compelled to pursue an unfriendly policy towards Turkey, while Deoband was consistent since the very beginning in its policy of friendship and alliance with the Sultan of Turkey. The Deobandi still considered India asDar-ul-arb , but Aligarh saw no sense in it. The gulf between the two Muslim institutions continued to exist and widen and divided the Muslims of India into two hostile blocks.[70]

The situation changed after the First World War when the Muslims of the Subcontinent launched theKhilafat Movement seeking to protect the Ottoman caliphate from attack by the victorious allies and to prevent the holy cities of Mecca and Madina from falling under European control. It is worth noticing that, in the period of Muslim unrest, the Muslim middle class was in the forefront. Now for the first time Aligarh, the citadel of the Muslim middle class, was coming closer to Deoband, the center of proletarian dissatisfaction, in so far as the anti-British attitude was concerned. However, this was a brief rapprochement between the followers of both hostile camps.[71]

Jamiat-ul-ulama-i-Hind

The brief rapprochement between Aligarh and Deoband during theKhilafat Movement could not be effected at the upper level and theuema , mostlyDeobandi, set up their own organization,Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Hind in 1919 to protect the rights of Muslims and preferred to join hands with Gandhi for the realization of their objective, instead ofJinnah’s Muslim League , whom they thought to be secular and irreligious, using Islam for secular interests.[72]

The leaders ofJamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Hind claimed that it was a genuine Muslim organization to safeguard the “Shariat ” as well as to give the Muslim community religious and political guidance according to Islamic principles and commandments. Among the foremost objectives of this organization was the protection of the Ottoman caliphate from dismemberment, the protection of the rights of the Muslims of India and the liberation of India from alien rule. Theulema issued a series offatwas justifying seeking cooperation of non-Muslims for the achievements of these objectives.[73]

The movement to protect the caliphate failed due to various internal and external reasons but it made theulema think pragmatically about the political situation of India. The encounter between Deoband and Aligarh led to the establishment of Jamia Millia Islamia at Dehli in 1920. This institute was inaugurated by Maulana Mohamood-ul-Hasan, the rector of Deoband, and supported by activists from Aligarh. It managed to educate Muslims in both modern as well as traditional religious subjects.[74]

The aims and objectives of theJamiat , when analyzed, reveal its dual loyalty to Islam and Islamic countries, on the one hand, and to India, on the other. They also indicate the utmost emphasis on the “Sharia ”, its preservation and its promulgation which concern the personal lives of Indian Muslims. The country was to be freed from the foreign yoke not only because of the democratic right of a nascent India but because of the religious duty of the Muslims to fight for the freedom of their motherland. The whole program of theJamiat had to revolve around a single pivot, i.e. theSharia, which was unchangeable and which could be correctly understood and interpreted only by theulema, who considered themselves its custodian and, therefore, the correct leaders of Muslims could come only from them. This rigid and orthodox stand on the part ofulema was bound to create a rift in the communal life of Muslims, who, in the course of time were led to depend more upon the leadership of their western educated intelligentsia. This rift was sharpened by the communal attitude of the Hindus, who being in an overwhelming majority, were considered by middle class Muslims to be a threatening force to their legitimate rights in an independent India.[75]     

Consequently, theDeobandi ulema chose to support the Congress instead of the Muslim League in the political struggle. They disputed the league’s two-nation theory and repeatedly questioned the religious credentials of the League’s leadership, and particularly, Jinnah. The rector of the Deobandmadrasah, Maulana Husian Ahmed Madani, argued, that in Islam nationality was determined by common homeland and not by religion, the claim strongly contested by Allama Mohammad Iqbal. Giving an example from the life of the Holy Prophet, Madani claimed that the state set up by the Holy Prophet in Madina gave equal rights to Muslims, Jews and pagan Arabs, and all of them were regarded as the members of oneummah or community. Therefore, according to this principle, all Muslims and Hindus of India were members of a common nation. Most of the Deobandi believed that in free and united India, Muslims would be able to lead their personal lives in accordance with theSharia, while also co-operating with people of other faiths in matters of common concern.[76]

Theulema were in favor of unconditional co-operation with the Congress so far as the cause of freedom was concerned. They claimed that once the British regime was dissolved, the Hindus would come to terms with the Muslims who formed a strong minority and could not be deprived of their legitimate rights. They also believed that it was the British Government which was chiefly responsible for the bitter communal bickering and for creating a sort of fear complex in the minds of Muslims. Its very existence in India was the cause of all ills in the Indian body politic, and it must come to an end. Moreover, their loyalty to Islam and Islamic countries also demanded the immediate end of British rule in India. They thought that the hold on rich India made it possible for the British to rule over the Muslim countries in the Middle East. The enslavement of India was the cause of British supremacy over all the lands through which the strategic line of imperial communication passed. Therefore, the independence of India meant the liberation of a vast Muslim area.[77]

The free India that the pro-CongressDeobandi envisioned would be a federation of a number of culturally autonomous religious communities. Each community would administer its own internal affairs in accordance with its religious laws. The federal government which would have adequate Muslim representation would pass no laws that might seem injurious to the religious interests of any community.[78]

In addition to the traditionalDeobandi , a renowned reformistalim, Shibli Nu’mani, an ardent supporter of pan-Islamism also welcomed the Congress and its demand for broad-based unity among the various religious communities in India. He was critical of the Muslim league for its narrowly conceived political base and won over the support of otherNadvi ulama to the Congress. One of the Shibli’s students, Syed Sulaiman Nadvi, declared that the liberation of India from the British is more important than any other religious obligation of Indian Muslims.[79] The western-educated intelligentsia, particularly the league leadership, in turn believed that theulema were not capable of giving correct leadership in politics to the Muslims. Their plea was that, theulema because of their exclusively traditional education and complete ignorance of the complexities of modern life did not understand the nature of politics as such in the twentieth century. Their sphere of activity was religious and to that end they were expected to confine themselves. Commenting on the role of Muslim League, Jinnah is reported to have said to Aligarh in 1937:

What the league has done is to set you free from the reactionary elements of Muslims and to create the opinion that those who play their selfish game are traitors. It has certainly freed you from those undesirable elements ofMaulvis andMaulanas . I am not speaking ofMualavis as a whole class. There are some of them who are as patriotic and sincere as any others but there is a section of them which is undesirable.[80]

Thus, there were apparent reasons why theJamiat and the League could not be united. Both, although sincere towards the welfare of the Muslim community, had different approaches to this idea. Therefore, they often distrusted each other.

The Two-Nation Theory of the Muslim League was provided with an emotional vigor and intellectual content by the poet-philosopher Mohammad Iqbal, whose appeal to the Muslim youth was more forceful than that of the traditionalulema . His approach towards the Indian problem was based on reality and he solicited the support of Indian Muslims for the Muslim League.[81] TheJamiat-ul-ulama i-Hind never conceded the doctrine of the two nation theory as propounded by the League. This was the base of all the League-Jamiat differences. In June 1940, while presiding over the annual session of theJamiat-ul-Ulema at Jaunpur (U.P), Maulana Hussain Ahmed Madani reiterated his commitment to united Indian nationalism.[82] This League-Jamiat difference brought Deoband and Aligarh at opposite poles. When Deoband vehemently opposed partition, Aligarh turned out to be the training center ofMujahidin-i-Pakistan . It is meaningful to note that the major centers of Muslims education, i.e. Deoband and Aligarh in India, representing two different trends in the politico-intellectual life of Indian Muslims since their very beginning, finally collided against each other in molding the ultimate destiny of the Muslims in the Indian Subcontinent.

The Deoband leadership opposed the demand for Pakistan also from the viewpoint of the difficulties its realization would involve in the missionary activities of the Muslims. They believed that because of the Muslim League demand for a separate homeland the atmosphere of hatred created between Hindus and Muslims would hamper the missionary activities of Islam.

Above all, Deoband was convinced that the Western-educated League leadership was exploiting the fair name of Islam for the worldly gain of Muslim vested interests. The credibility of the League’s leadership was questioned for establishment and building of a truly Islamic state.[83]

History reveals that religion played a vital role in promoting national unity. When coupled with social and economic forces it created powerful national movements. Since the movement for Pakistan was rooted in social, cultural, and religious distinctions between Muslims and Hindus, one might logically expect that Muslim religious parties would have played a major rule in mobilizing the Muslim masses to support the Pakistan Movement. Contrary to this, with very few exceptions, the religious parties bitterly opposed Jinnah and the demand for Pakistan. The Barelvi was, however, the only group to support the Muslim league in its demand for Pakistan and wholeheartedly opposed the Congress as anti-Muslim.[84]

The pre-partition position of religio-political parties on the Pakistan question contrasts with their present position on religious nationalism. TheJamiat-ul-Ulama stand on the question of Partition was explicitly in favor of a united India. Maulana Maudoodi and theJamiat-i-Islami had rejected nationalism because in his view it led to selfishness, prejudice, and pride. He declared that the demand for Pakistan was un-Islamic and condemned Jinnah for his un-Islamic habits and mentality.[85] TheJamiat opposed both the League and Congress. Another religio-political party, theMajlis-i-Ahrar, took a similar position. However, unlike theJamaat, it was aligned with the Congress.Jamaat-i-Islami ,Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Hind ,Majlis-i-Ahrar andKhaksar considered Jinnah as an agent of the British and the worst enemy of Islam.[86]

A rather curious situation confronted the religio-political parties when Pakistan became a reality in 1947. As they had opposed the very creation of Pakistan, these religious groups had to adopt themselves to the changed environment in the newly established Muslim-majority independent state.[87]

Leading Muslim religious elites preferred to migrate to Pakistan after Partition. The Deoband influence had already reached the areas then the parts of Pakistan. The Barelviulema and the founder of theJamaat-i-Islami, Maulana Maudoodi, also migrated to Pakistan after Partition and started religious activities with Karachi and Lahore as their bases. Subsequently, all the religious groups established their ownmadrasahs and also organized themselves politically. In present-day Pakistan theJamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Islam ,Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Pakistan ,Jamaat-i-Islami, andJamiat Ahl-e-Hadith represent the cause ofUlama-i-Deoband ,Barelvi, Maudoodi andWahhabi thought, respectively.

Growth of madrasahs since 1947

At the time of independence very fewmadrasahs existed in Pakistan because leading centers of Islamic education were situated in other parts of India. Pakistan inherited a meager 200-oddmadrasahs, which as per the government’s conservative estimates has now increased to over 17,000, although some analysts put this number at 25-30,000. These religious schools are catering to about 2.5 to 3 million students and employ thousands ofmullahs as teachers, mentors, and instructors.[88]

A key drive of growth in themadrasah sector is said to be poverty, an endemic problem of all developing countries, the menace which the successive governments in the last six decades have vowed to eliminate but failed even to reduce to a manageable level. Interestingly, on the one hand, the country has struggled to improve enrolment in formal schools and has been grappling with the problem of large scale drop-outs at primary and secondary levels. On the other hand, there is a stiff competition going on in the rural areas where Pakistan’s majority of poor live to enroll children inmadrasahs normally situated in cosmopolitan cities and suburban areas. There are three main types of religious institutions in Pakistan: Quranic schools (where only theQur’an is taught), mosque schools (where both quranic and secular subjects are taught), andmadrasahs (where only Islamic learning takes place).[89]

The mission of themadrasahs in Pakistan is to prepare students for religious duties. Adhering to strict religious teachingsmadrasahs teach Islamic subjects such as theQur’an , Islamic law, and jurisprudence, logic and prophetic traditions.Hafiz-i-Qur’an (the one who memorizes theHoly Qur’an ) orQari (the one who can recite theHoly Qur’an correctly and in a melodic tone) are produced at the lower level ofmadrasahs. The higher level ofmadrasahs producesalim (the Islamic scholar or teacher). Analim certificate from amadrasahs is equivalent to an M.A. degree in Islamic studies or Arabic from a regular university.[90]

There are five Islamic schools of thought in Pakistan who operate their own systems ofmadrasahs. They areDeobandi, Barelvi, Ahl-e-Hadith, Jamaat-i-Islami andShia . Each of these schools of thought organized thesemadrasahs under different boards, responsible for registration, conduct of examination, and syllabus.

The names of these boards are as follows:[91]

Wafaq-ul-Madaris Al-Arabia:

This board ofSunni Deobandi institutions was established in 1959 and has its center in Multan.

Tanzim-ul-Madaris:

This board ofSunni Barelvi institutions was established in 1960 and has its center in Lahore.

Wafaq-ul-Madaris Shia:

This board ofShia institutions was established in 1959 and has its center in Lahore.Shia madaris teachfiqh Jafria named afterImam Jafer Sadiq while othermadaris in Pakistan teachfiqh Hanafia.

Rabitah-ul-Madris-ul-Islamia:

This board was established by theJamaat-i-Islami in 1983, and recognizes themadrasahs of all Islamic thought. They teach more modern subjects. It has its center in Lahore.

Wafaq-ul-Madaris-Al-Salfia:

This board was established byAhl-e-Hadith in 1955 and has its center in Faisalabad.

Table - 2.1

REIs: Affiliation with various Boards, 1988-2000

Source: Ministry of Education Islamabad, 1988, 2000

The two main sects of Sunni Islam,Deobandi andBarelvi, dominate themadrasah system in Pakistan. They originated in the colonial Indian Subcontinent in response to the perceived imperial plot to destroy Islam and its followers by enforcing its own version of education. TheDeobandi sect is considered the most conservative and anti-Western.[92]

The courses in religiousmadrasahs are spread over 16 years and are divided into six grades. The primary and middle grades are of five and three years duration, respectively, while the next two grades are of five years duration each.Darja Ibtidai consists of five years duration and is equivalent to primary level of the mainstream education system.Darja Mutawassit is of three years duration and is equivalent to middle level.Darja Sania Aama is of two years duration and is equivalent to matriculation.Darja Sania Khasa ,Darja Aalia andDarja Alamia are of two years duration each and are equivalent to intermediate, Bachelor, and Master Levels, respectively. The following table shows the religious education system and its equivalence with the mainstream education system.[93]

2- Madrasahs In Pakistan

Madrasahs and the Pakistan Movement

The Aligarh Movement, which had been basically an educational movement, gradually became a political movement when Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, its founder, initiated the demand for reservation of seats for the Muslim community in elected bodies and the representation of Muslims through a separate electorate. Not satisfied with the performance of the Indian National Congress as representative of all communities of India, the supporters of the Aligarh Movement set up their own political organization, the Muslim League, with the explicit objective of protecting the rights of the Muslim community. Earlier the stand taken by Sir Syed for the defense of Urdu (when extremist Hindus tried to replace it by Hindi as official language in 1867) had determined a different course to be chosen from that of the Congress for the protection of the rights of the Muslims of the Subcontinent.[66] He had become uneasy at the Congress plan for “democratizing” India. He felt this would leave Muslims at the mercy of the numerically superior Hindus. A. Hamid quotes him in theAligarh Movement in the following words:

Ours is a vast country inhibited by diverse folks deeply divided by racial and religious antagonisms. They lack homogeneity. Different sections of the population stand at varying levels of cultural development. So long as religion and caste are the chief props of the Indian social system, electoral machinery based on the Western pattern would lead neither to equality nor to fraternity. It would enable the more advanced sections of the population to hold their less fortunate countrymen in thralldom. Cultural difference, caste dissentions and religious wrangling would be more pronounced than ever. Inequalities would sink deeper in the society.[67]

The Deobandiulema were content with their socio-religious role until the end of the nineteenth century. However with the beginning of the twentieth century they made explicit their political views. The approach of theDeoband ulema to Indian politics differed fundamentally from its counterpart at Aligarh. They believed that geography was the ultimate determinant of nationalism in the context of India and the concept of Indian Muslim nationalism contradicted the concept of universal Muslim nationalism.  On the basis of a mutually antagonistic political approach, both the educational movements chose different political platforms during the freedom struggle. While Aligarh aligned itself with the Muslim League under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Deobandi supported the Congress during the freedom movement.[68]

The gulf between Deoband and Aligarh had widened because Sir Syed had contributed articles to the Aligarh Institute Gazette denying the pretensions of Sultan Abdul Hamid[69]   to thekhilafat and preaching loyalty to the British rulers of India, even if they were compelled to pursue an unfriendly policy towards Turkey, while Deoband was consistent since the very beginning in its policy of friendship and alliance with the Sultan of Turkey. The Deobandi still considered India asDar-ul-arb , but Aligarh saw no sense in it. The gulf between the two Muslim institutions continued to exist and widen and divided the Muslims of India into two hostile blocks.[70]

The situation changed after the First World War when the Muslims of the Subcontinent launched theKhilafat Movement seeking to protect the Ottoman caliphate from attack by the victorious allies and to prevent the holy cities of Mecca and Madina from falling under European control. It is worth noticing that, in the period of Muslim unrest, the Muslim middle class was in the forefront. Now for the first time Aligarh, the citadel of the Muslim middle class, was coming closer to Deoband, the center of proletarian dissatisfaction, in so far as the anti-British attitude was concerned. However, this was a brief rapprochement between the followers of both hostile camps.[71]

Jamiat-ul-ulama-i-Hind

The brief rapprochement between Aligarh and Deoband during theKhilafat Movement could not be effected at the upper level and theuema , mostlyDeobandi, set up their own organization,Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Hind in 1919 to protect the rights of Muslims and preferred to join hands with Gandhi for the realization of their objective, instead ofJinnah’s Muslim League , whom they thought to be secular and irreligious, using Islam for secular interests.[72]

The leaders ofJamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Hind claimed that it was a genuine Muslim organization to safeguard the “Shariat ” as well as to give the Muslim community religious and political guidance according to Islamic principles and commandments. Among the foremost objectives of this organization was the protection of the Ottoman caliphate from dismemberment, the protection of the rights of the Muslims of India and the liberation of India from alien rule. Theulema issued a series offatwas justifying seeking cooperation of non-Muslims for the achievements of these objectives.[73]

The movement to protect the caliphate failed due to various internal and external reasons but it made theulema think pragmatically about the political situation of India. The encounter between Deoband and Aligarh led to the establishment of Jamia Millia Islamia at Dehli in 1920. This institute was inaugurated by Maulana Mohamood-ul-Hasan, the rector of Deoband, and supported by activists from Aligarh. It managed to educate Muslims in both modern as well as traditional religious subjects.[74]

The aims and objectives of theJamiat , when analyzed, reveal its dual loyalty to Islam and Islamic countries, on the one hand, and to India, on the other. They also indicate the utmost emphasis on the “Sharia ”, its preservation and its promulgation which concern the personal lives of Indian Muslims. The country was to be freed from the foreign yoke not only because of the democratic right of a nascent India but because of the religious duty of the Muslims to fight for the freedom of their motherland. The whole program of theJamiat had to revolve around a single pivot, i.e. theSharia, which was unchangeable and which could be correctly understood and interpreted only by theulema, who considered themselves its custodian and, therefore, the correct leaders of Muslims could come only from them. This rigid and orthodox stand on the part ofulema was bound to create a rift in the communal life of Muslims, who, in the course of time were led to depend more upon the leadership of their western educated intelligentsia. This rift was sharpened by the communal attitude of the Hindus, who being in an overwhelming majority, were considered by middle class Muslims to be a threatening force to their legitimate rights in an independent India.[75]     

Consequently, theDeobandi ulema chose to support the Congress instead of the Muslim League in the political struggle. They disputed the league’s two-nation theory and repeatedly questioned the religious credentials of the League’s leadership, and particularly, Jinnah. The rector of the Deobandmadrasah, Maulana Husian Ahmed Madani, argued, that in Islam nationality was determined by common homeland and not by religion, the claim strongly contested by Allama Mohammad Iqbal. Giving an example from the life of the Holy Prophet, Madani claimed that the state set up by the Holy Prophet in Madina gave equal rights to Muslims, Jews and pagan Arabs, and all of them were regarded as the members of oneummah or community. Therefore, according to this principle, all Muslims and Hindus of India were members of a common nation. Most of the Deobandi believed that in free and united India, Muslims would be able to lead their personal lives in accordance with theSharia, while also co-operating with people of other faiths in matters of common concern.[76]

Theulema were in favor of unconditional co-operation with the Congress so far as the cause of freedom was concerned. They claimed that once the British regime was dissolved, the Hindus would come to terms with the Muslims who formed a strong minority and could not be deprived of their legitimate rights. They also believed that it was the British Government which was chiefly responsible for the bitter communal bickering and for creating a sort of fear complex in the minds of Muslims. Its very existence in India was the cause of all ills in the Indian body politic, and it must come to an end. Moreover, their loyalty to Islam and Islamic countries also demanded the immediate end of British rule in India. They thought that the hold on rich India made it possible for the British to rule over the Muslim countries in the Middle East. The enslavement of India was the cause of British supremacy over all the lands through which the strategic line of imperial communication passed. Therefore, the independence of India meant the liberation of a vast Muslim area.[77]

The free India that the pro-CongressDeobandi envisioned would be a federation of a number of culturally autonomous religious communities. Each community would administer its own internal affairs in accordance with its religious laws. The federal government which would have adequate Muslim representation would pass no laws that might seem injurious to the religious interests of any community.[78]

In addition to the traditionalDeobandi , a renowned reformistalim, Shibli Nu’mani, an ardent supporter of pan-Islamism also welcomed the Congress and its demand for broad-based unity among the various religious communities in India. He was critical of the Muslim league for its narrowly conceived political base and won over the support of otherNadvi ulama to the Congress. One of the Shibli’s students, Syed Sulaiman Nadvi, declared that the liberation of India from the British is more important than any other religious obligation of Indian Muslims.[79] The western-educated intelligentsia, particularly the league leadership, in turn believed that theulema were not capable of giving correct leadership in politics to the Muslims. Their plea was that, theulema because of their exclusively traditional education and complete ignorance of the complexities of modern life did not understand the nature of politics as such in the twentieth century. Their sphere of activity was religious and to that end they were expected to confine themselves. Commenting on the role of Muslim League, Jinnah is reported to have said to Aligarh in 1937:

What the league has done is to set you free from the reactionary elements of Muslims and to create the opinion that those who play their selfish game are traitors. It has certainly freed you from those undesirable elements ofMaulvis andMaulanas . I am not speaking ofMualavis as a whole class. There are some of them who are as patriotic and sincere as any others but there is a section of them which is undesirable.[80]

Thus, there were apparent reasons why theJamiat and the League could not be united. Both, although sincere towards the welfare of the Muslim community, had different approaches to this idea. Therefore, they often distrusted each other.

The Two-Nation Theory of the Muslim League was provided with an emotional vigor and intellectual content by the poet-philosopher Mohammad Iqbal, whose appeal to the Muslim youth was more forceful than that of the traditionalulema . His approach towards the Indian problem was based on reality and he solicited the support of Indian Muslims for the Muslim League.[81] TheJamiat-ul-ulama i-Hind never conceded the doctrine of the two nation theory as propounded by the League. This was the base of all the League-Jamiat differences. In June 1940, while presiding over the annual session of theJamiat-ul-Ulema at Jaunpur (U.P), Maulana Hussain Ahmed Madani reiterated his commitment to united Indian nationalism.[82] This League-Jamiat difference brought Deoband and Aligarh at opposite poles. When Deoband vehemently opposed partition, Aligarh turned out to be the training center ofMujahidin-i-Pakistan . It is meaningful to note that the major centers of Muslims education, i.e. Deoband and Aligarh in India, representing two different trends in the politico-intellectual life of Indian Muslims since their very beginning, finally collided against each other in molding the ultimate destiny of the Muslims in the Indian Subcontinent.

The Deoband leadership opposed the demand for Pakistan also from the viewpoint of the difficulties its realization would involve in the missionary activities of the Muslims. They believed that because of the Muslim League demand for a separate homeland the atmosphere of hatred created between Hindus and Muslims would hamper the missionary activities of Islam.

Above all, Deoband was convinced that the Western-educated League leadership was exploiting the fair name of Islam for the worldly gain of Muslim vested interests. The credibility of the League’s leadership was questioned for establishment and building of a truly Islamic state.[83]

History reveals that religion played a vital role in promoting national unity. When coupled with social and economic forces it created powerful national movements. Since the movement for Pakistan was rooted in social, cultural, and religious distinctions between Muslims and Hindus, one might logically expect that Muslim religious parties would have played a major rule in mobilizing the Muslim masses to support the Pakistan Movement. Contrary to this, with very few exceptions, the religious parties bitterly opposed Jinnah and the demand for Pakistan. The Barelvi was, however, the only group to support the Muslim league in its demand for Pakistan and wholeheartedly opposed the Congress as anti-Muslim.[84]

The pre-partition position of religio-political parties on the Pakistan question contrasts with their present position on religious nationalism. TheJamiat-ul-Ulama stand on the question of Partition was explicitly in favor of a united India. Maulana Maudoodi and theJamiat-i-Islami had rejected nationalism because in his view it led to selfishness, prejudice, and pride. He declared that the demand for Pakistan was un-Islamic and condemned Jinnah for his un-Islamic habits and mentality.[85] TheJamiat opposed both the League and Congress. Another religio-political party, theMajlis-i-Ahrar, took a similar position. However, unlike theJamaat, it was aligned with the Congress.Jamaat-i-Islami ,Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Hind ,Majlis-i-Ahrar andKhaksar considered Jinnah as an agent of the British and the worst enemy of Islam.[86]

A rather curious situation confronted the religio-political parties when Pakistan became a reality in 1947. As they had opposed the very creation of Pakistan, these religious groups had to adopt themselves to the changed environment in the newly established Muslim-majority independent state.[87]

Leading Muslim religious elites preferred to migrate to Pakistan after Partition. The Deoband influence had already reached the areas then the parts of Pakistan. The Barelviulema and the founder of theJamaat-i-Islami, Maulana Maudoodi, also migrated to Pakistan after Partition and started religious activities with Karachi and Lahore as their bases. Subsequently, all the religious groups established their ownmadrasahs and also organized themselves politically. In present-day Pakistan theJamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Islam ,Jamiat-ul-Ulama-i-Pakistan ,Jamaat-i-Islami, andJamiat Ahl-e-Hadith represent the cause ofUlama-i-Deoband ,Barelvi, Maudoodi andWahhabi thought, respectively.

Growth of madrasahs since 1947

At the time of independence very fewmadrasahs existed in Pakistan because leading centers of Islamic education were situated in other parts of India. Pakistan inherited a meager 200-oddmadrasahs, which as per the government’s conservative estimates has now increased to over 17,000, although some analysts put this number at 25-30,000. These religious schools are catering to about 2.5 to 3 million students and employ thousands ofmullahs as teachers, mentors, and instructors.[88]

A key drive of growth in themadrasah sector is said to be poverty, an endemic problem of all developing countries, the menace which the successive governments in the last six decades have vowed to eliminate but failed even to reduce to a manageable level. Interestingly, on the one hand, the country has struggled to improve enrolment in formal schools and has been grappling with the problem of large scale drop-outs at primary and secondary levels. On the other hand, there is a stiff competition going on in the rural areas where Pakistan’s majority of poor live to enroll children inmadrasahs normally situated in cosmopolitan cities and suburban areas. There are three main types of religious institutions in Pakistan: Quranic schools (where only theQur’an is taught), mosque schools (where both quranic and secular subjects are taught), andmadrasahs (where only Islamic learning takes place).[89]

The mission of themadrasahs in Pakistan is to prepare students for religious duties. Adhering to strict religious teachingsmadrasahs teach Islamic subjects such as theQur’an , Islamic law, and jurisprudence, logic and prophetic traditions.Hafiz-i-Qur’an (the one who memorizes theHoly Qur’an ) orQari (the one who can recite theHoly Qur’an correctly and in a melodic tone) are produced at the lower level ofmadrasahs. The higher level ofmadrasahs producesalim (the Islamic scholar or teacher). Analim certificate from amadrasahs is equivalent to an M.A. degree in Islamic studies or Arabic from a regular university.[90]

There are five Islamic schools of thought in Pakistan who operate their own systems ofmadrasahs. They areDeobandi, Barelvi, Ahl-e-Hadith, Jamaat-i-Islami andShia . Each of these schools of thought organized thesemadrasahs under different boards, responsible for registration, conduct of examination, and syllabus.

The names of these boards are as follows:[91]

Wafaq-ul-Madaris Al-Arabia:

This board ofSunni Deobandi institutions was established in 1959 and has its center in Multan.

Tanzim-ul-Madaris:

This board ofSunni Barelvi institutions was established in 1960 and has its center in Lahore.

Wafaq-ul-Madaris Shia:

This board ofShia institutions was established in 1959 and has its center in Lahore.Shia madaris teachfiqh Jafria named afterImam Jafer Sadiq while othermadaris in Pakistan teachfiqh Hanafia.

Rabitah-ul-Madris-ul-Islamia:

This board was established by theJamaat-i-Islami in 1983, and recognizes themadrasahs of all Islamic thought. They teach more modern subjects. It has its center in Lahore.

Wafaq-ul-Madaris-Al-Salfia:

This board was established byAhl-e-Hadith in 1955 and has its center in Faisalabad.

Table - 2.1

REIs: Affiliation with various Boards, 1988-2000

Source: Ministry of Education Islamabad, 1988, 2000

The two main sects of Sunni Islam,Deobandi andBarelvi, dominate themadrasah system in Pakistan. They originated in the colonial Indian Subcontinent in response to the perceived imperial plot to destroy Islam and its followers by enforcing its own version of education. TheDeobandi sect is considered the most conservative and anti-Western.[92]

The courses in religiousmadrasahs are spread over 16 years and are divided into six grades. The primary and middle grades are of five and three years duration, respectively, while the next two grades are of five years duration each.Darja Ibtidai consists of five years duration and is equivalent to primary level of the mainstream education system.Darja Mutawassit is of three years duration and is equivalent to middle level.Darja Sania Aama is of two years duration and is equivalent to matriculation.Darja Sania Khasa ,Darja Aalia andDarja Alamia are of two years duration each and are equivalent to intermediate, Bachelor, and Master Levels, respectively. The following table shows the religious education system and its equivalence with the mainstream education system.[93]