Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Lesson 2: Experiment beyond the physical senses

Whenever we see a beautiful building of great splendour and design, we can easily understand that its architect, master builder and mason was each one an expert in his own craft, and we discover, from observing such a well-proportioned building, the knowledge and science of its builder.

Similarly, by looking at a car, an airplane, a computer or any other well-designed artifact, we are invariably guided to well-informed and knowledgeable inventors, discoverers and manufacturers, and we are made aware of their skill and learning. In none of these instances it is necessary to actually see the constructor of the building or other factor with our own eyes to testify to his existence. What is more, when observing all these things, it is not with any of our external senses that we perceive his knowledge and skill.

But, nevertheless, we believe in his science and knowledge. Why do we come up with such belief? Because that same orderliness which we perceived in the artifacts, forces us to recognize the knowledge of their constructors. And from this we reach to the conclusion that it, in no case, is necessary that something for whose existence we find enough evidence should be visible or tangible.

How many facts are there which are not perceptible to our external senses, but we through paying care and attention to the effects they produce become aware of their existence. For every wise man understands, without exercising too much attention, that there can be no effect without a cause, nothing orderly without wise and knowledgeable designer.

With a view to this fact we can divide the creatures in this world into two categories:

1. There are things, which are evident to one or more of the five senses. We observe visible things with the eyes, we hear sounds with the ears, and we become aware of pleasant and unpleasant smells, bitter and sweet tastes, hot and cold, rough and smooth by our nose, our tongue, and the skin of our body.

2. There are other things which are not perceived by any one of the five senses, but whose existence we can deduce by considering their effects. These facts are not all of one kind, some are material and some are non-material (i.e., they are without material limits or properties). In the following a few of them are mentioned.

a. One example is electricity. We can never, merely by looking at two wires, one of which is electrified, determine which of them has an electric current. We can only discover the existence of this current from the effect of the electricity, e.g. a lamp being lit. Electricity is something, which exists although our eyes cannot, directly, see it.

b. Another example is gravitation. If you let go off the book, which you now have in your hand, it will fall to the ground, i.e. the ground will pull the book towards itself. This power is something, which we do not directly perceive through our senses. Gravitation is again one of those things which is not visible, but of whose existence we feel sure through observing the falling of bodies - which is its result.

c. One more example is magnetism. We place a magnet beside a piece of iron. Externally there is nothing except what we see, but when the iron is pulled towards the magnet we understand that in the space around the magnet the phenomenon of magnetism exists.

d. Invisible radiation is another case. If we shine white sunlight through a prism we see on the other side of the crystal six colors (the spectrum), which are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. On this side of red and beyond violet no more colors are visible. However scientists have discovered that in the place where the eyes see no more light, further 'colors' exist which have heating and chemical properties. These 'lights’ are called infrared and ultra-violet.

In the year 1800 AD. a physicist and astronomer called Herschel thought of the idea of researching into whether radiation existed beyond what the eye can see. He gradually altered the position of a thermometer placed on a screen on which the six-coloured spectrum (from red to violet) was projected, and exposed it to the various colours, measuring the heating effect of each of them. When he got beyond the red, he discovered that the thermometer indicated greater heat from this. He then became certain of the existence of invisible radiation - called infrared radiation - which produced more heat than visible light, and this same heat, which is a result of the radiation, convinced people of the existence of infrared radiation.

At the same time, another scientist called Wollaston placed a quantity of the chemical compound silver chloride beyond the violet end of the spectrum. Contrary to his expectation, he discovered that in the place where light did not reach the eye there was a factor, which caused the silver chloride to darken. Later still, scientists found out that the changing of the colour of the skin on exposure to sunlight was due to the chemical influence of this radiation.

It thus became certain that beyond violet light there was another radiation, which was invisible, and it was named ultra-violet.

e. One more example is inaudible sounds. There are many sounds, which we do not hear. These are called supersonic sounds, and we discover their existence by examining their effects; they are used in medicine and technology.

f. Intelligence is another case of such nature. All of us are aware of ourselves, i.e. we perceive that we exist, and we can also arrive at concepts in a gradual manner concerning matters outside ourselves which we explain by this kind of statement:

'I solved the most difficult mathematical problem.'

'I pondered a lot over such-and-such a theory until I came to the conclusion that it was correct.'

Also, man is aware of his own knowledge, i.e. he knows that he knows. Intelligence is not something visible or audible in the sense that man can see it with his eyes or hear it with his ears, but in fact, although it is intangible, everyone finds it in himself in addition to the powers of sight and hearing and the other external faculties. Other people cannot learn about my intelligence through the five senses. Instead they must deduce its existence from the effects it produces. For example, when a scientist is expounding on a problem, it becomes clear that he has understood it. Also, if we ask a scientist if he is familiar with mathematical problems or not, and he says that he is informed about them, we understand that he is aware of his own understanding and knowledge, i.e. he knows that he understands the problems of mathematics.1

The Constructs of the Mind

People can construct in their own minds any form that they wish. For example they can build a tower similar to the Eiffel tower whose construction in the-external world required many years, a thousand sorts of different building materials and substances, and hundreds of workers: this can be built in the mind in an instant.

Maybe thousands of similar ones can be built, and it is possible to imagine in the mind things, which have no existence in the outside world at all. We may create a monster with many heads, hands and feet. It is clear that others cannot be informed directly of the creations of our minds, because they are not visible and audible, but they can discover their existence from their consequences or from our speech.

g. Consider love, hate and determination. Everyone has, on the one hand, a liking for some things and, on the other hand, an aversion to other things. Also, throughout his life he is in need of determination. For every task that he likes to do he determines to accomplish it and for every task that he does not like to do he leaves it on one side and determines not to do it.

No-one can understand directly the determinations of someone else and what he likes and what he does not like, unless from the effects and reactions to it, because love, hate and determination are not visible, audible or tangible things which can be perceived through the external senses.

h. Consider life. A fine chicken, moving towards the water, falls into a pond, and, before we can rescue it, it dies. In the organization of the life of this animal at this very moment, what change has taken place, and between its present condition and one moment before when it had been alive, what difference is there that it no longer moves, plays or eats?

We must of necessity say that there is something, which exists, in the live chicken, which does not exist in the dead chicken. Life is not an object of the senses. We only perceive the effects of it, which are movement, feeding, etc., and from these effects we discover its existence.

The established scientific facts mentioned above make it thoroughly clear that over and above the beings, which we perceive with our sensory organs, there are also things which we do not directly perceive, but which we know about only because of the effects they produce.

Thus we draw the conclusion that it is not right for us to reject something, which we do not see only because it is not visible. Being invisible is different from not existing, and the way of discovering something is not confined to the eyes or other external senses. Reason can discover some of the things by means of the effects of those things, as we saw in the case of the existence of scientific facts that are known through their results, and which are not denied or doubted by any competent person.

This is not to say that God is similar to these facts. Because God is a truth higher than these, to which nothing is equal or comparable but it is to say that in the same way as we discover the existence of these things through their effects, we can discover the existence of God through His signs.

Thus those who observe only with their physical eyes, and deny the existence of God because they cannot see Him with these eyes, are blind as far as their eye of wisdom and contemplation is concerned. Since we know, by the dictates of wisdom, through the precise regulation of creation - which is one of the signs of God - that His existence can be discovered.

To these people perhaps the poet says, “Open thy heart's eye your soul to see, and what is invisible will be manifest to thee.”

In every creature there is the evidence of the existence of God.

A more precise point and a more important matter is that a study of the results of the Power of the Lord, in addition to that which guides us to His existence, demonstrates that since the entire world and all creatures are signs of Him, His sign is not confined to one special instance or locality. All and every phenomenon is one of His signs. He Himself is another reality to which none of the creatures of the world are equal or comparable. He is an unlimited being who possess all perfection and is free from all imperfections.

We therefore discover two things from the study of the signs of God:

1. The existence of the Creator of the universe, in which all things are His signs

2. That because His signs are without limit and are not specific to one time or place he is a Being unlimited and possessing every perfection, although we cannot perceive His reality.

Muhammad ibn 'Abdullah Khorasani, the servant of the eighth Imam (A.S.) said: A group of men were sitting with Imam Rida (A.S.) when one of those who died the existence of God came in. The Imam (A S.) said to him: 'If, as you say, there is no God, no Messenger, no Reckoning and no Book of records (which there surely is), will our prayer, fasting, zakat and faith be to our detriment?'

The man did not reply (i.e. his reply was no).

The Imam continued: 'But if, as we maintain, God exists, religion exists, the Resurrection and the Day of Retribution exist (and they surely do), are you destined to misfortune and win?' (It is clear that, by the dictates of reason, everyone, even on the basis of a mere possibility that beyond this world another world exists should act according to the commandments of religion so that misfortune and ruin do not overtake him.)

The man asked: 'The God in whom you believe, what is He like and where is He?'

The Imam said: “Your question is mistaken. God is not such as to be in a place; He created space. He is not such as to have quality. He created qualities. So He cannot be known in this way. God is not perceptible to any one of five senses and it is not possible to compare Him.

The man said: “If he is not perceptible to any one of the senses then He is nothing.”

The Imam replied: ‘Woe is you! (How small is your capacity for thinking). Since your senses are not able to perceive Him, you deny His Lordship. But we for the very same reason that we cannot perceive Him are certain that only He is our Lord and no one else. The man said, “Tell me when has God existed?”

The Imam said, ‘You tell me when God has not been so that I can tell you when He has been, (i.e. God existed before time and He created time.)’.

He said, “What is the evidence for the existence of God?”

Imam Rida replied: ‘When I reflect upon my body I realize that I cannot add anything to its length or width. Nor subtract from it. Similarly I cannot choose to be happy or unhappy. For example, I may try very hard to get better from an illness, but I do not succeed). From this evidence and also from noticing the regulation of the sun and the stars the heaven and the earth and the orderliness of the whole universe, I understand that my body and this world of creatures have a Creator and a Lord who is Knowing and able)’.2

The Main points:

• There are two kinds of beings.

• There is the kind that is perceivable by the physical senses.

• There is the kind of beings that are not perceivable by the physical senses.

• Allah is the Supreme Being and human physical sense does not have the ability to perceive Him.

Questions

1. What do we discover from the beauty of certain artifacts?

2. What would draw our attention to the designer and the engineer?

3. Is our understanding of these things by our external senses?

4. Why do we believe in the existence of the engineer and the designer?

5. How do we come up with two categories of objects of our perception?

6. Which objects fall under the second category?

7. How do we learn the objects 1-6 exists?

8. Where, how, and by whom was infrared radiation discovered?

9. Where, how, and by whom was ultra violet radiation discovered?

10. How do we learn about supersonic sounds?

11. How do we learn about our intelligence?

12. Can our imagination be perceived by the five senses?

13. What can we build in our minds?

14. Can our will and decision be perceived by the five senses?

15. Can love or hate be perceived by any of the five senses?

16. Can our senses perceive life? How?

17. What do the above scientific examples establish?

18. Why should we not reject the things the five senses do not sense?

19. In what do we learn about the existence of God?

20. What should we say to those who do not except the existence beyond the five senses?

21. What is the basic idea written about the sign of God?

22. Can establish other evidence of the existence of God besides those mentioned in the text?

Notes

1. Understanding Light by Tanonbaum, Spillman.

2. Usul al-kafi part one, pag. 78 (abridged version).

Lesson 3: Design in the Universe

In this universe, from the smallest atom to the largest celestial body, in everything we see, we are reminded of its perfect orderliness and exact regulation so much so that the great scientists have been provoked to amazement.

Cecil Boyce Hamann, Professor of Biology at Asbury College says that whenever he places a drop of water under a microscope or observes the farthest star through a telescope. He is filled with great wonder.

There is so much orderliness in nature that it is possible to explain by means of immutable laws the course any phenomenon will take before it occurs.

For this reason (i.e. that the patterns and laws which govern nature are immutable and fixed), scientists endeavour to discover these laws. For if they did not hold every kind of effort in this field would be fruitless?1

The earth, on which we live, with respect to its size, its distance from the sun the speed of its orbital movement, etc., is so arranged that it is able to act as the support for life. Because, if in the conditions of its existence the smallest change was to take place, losses of unacceptable dimensions would occur.

The atmosphere, most of whose constituent elements are life gases, is sufficiently viscous that it can, like a shield or armour protect the earth from the deadly attack of 200 million meteors a day which approach the earth with a speed of 50 kms. Per second.

The responsibility for regulating the temperature of the earth's surface within limits which maintain life also belongs to the atmosphere, and if it did not exist, inhabited land would, like the dry deserts, become incapable of life.

But why are we taking the long way round in explaining these things?

Nearer than anything are ourselves. The mysteries of man's existence are without number so much so that the world's scientists, after years of much study have not yet been able to fathom all the wonders of it.

After many years of study Dr. Alexis Carel wrote a book called “L'homune, cet inconnue” (Man, the Unknown). He wrote confessing that biology and other sciences were still unable to discover the facts about the working of the human body, and that many problems remained to be unravelled.

Now let us examine some of the marvels of our own existence.

The Cells of the Body

The body of man is like a building. It is composed of small building blocks called cells, a living entity each of which is a living entity.

Each cell, therefore, is alive, and its nourishment, digestion, absorption elimination and reproduction, for example, are as in other organisms, and are perfectly carried out.

In the structure of the cells most metals, such as iron, copper, calcium, also other elements such as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphursare used.

The number of these cells in the body of man is about 10 16 which is equivalent to ten thousand, million, million.

Each one of these living cells works in perfect co-operation with the next, and all of them follow the same aim. They are very quick to suffer, having little toleration, and nourishment must be correctly supplied for their needs.

The blood, with the help of the heart, performs this duty very well. The structure of the heart is of well-designed and perfect dimensions, so that it can supply blood to the whole body through the agency of the blood vessels and the capillaries.

The blood, after it has delivered nourishment to the cells, absorbs poisonous substances, which have accumulated there, and returns to the heart with a dull colour. The heart delivers this to the lungs, a filtering apparatus for the blood, whereupon it is re-supplied to the whole body with a bright colour and greater freshness.

While passing through the kidneys, other parts of these poisonous matters are removed, so that no kind of disturbance arises in the general working of the body.

Do we not see in the precise combination and quantity of the metals and elements from which the cell is formed as well as in the amazing structure of the heart and its way of working which is claiming the attention of the thinkers of today, a plan of perfect and superior design?

And if we see in the human body a mysterious whole and at the same time a design, are we exaggerating?

Without doubt no.

And in this same way we must confess that the world of existence is firm on the foundation of perfect orderliness, and undoubtedly every orderliness and design is the creation and accomplishment of a wise and powerful maker.

This subject will be investigated completely in further chapters.

The Main Points:

• From the smallest atom to the gigantic bodies in space all work by very strict laws and orderliness.

• Human body is an amazingly sophisticated creature and every part therein work in a marvellous orderliness.

• These amazing orderliness and super structures are huge evidence of the Existence of a Super intelligence, the Lord and the Creator of the universe.

Questions

1. If there were a single change in the Earth’s orbit, what would happen?

2. How strong is the “shield” or “armour” of the Earth?

3. To who does the responsibility of controlling the temperature on the surface of the Earth belong?

4. What would happen if the Earth did not have an atmosphere?

5. What is it that acts as the building blocks in human body?

6. What is the approximate number of cells in a man’s body?

7. What does blood give to the cells?

8. What does blood do to poisonous substances?

9. What does the heart do to the blood?

10. What do we are reminded of by the existence of order in nature?

11. Do different parts of human body, work independently or coordinately?

12. What would have happened if blood would not take poisons from the cells?

13. What is the function of the kidney in human body?

14. How much knowledge and intelligent do you think would be needed to make a cell in human body?

15. Do you agree with this statement: “every design is the creation and accomplishment of a wise and powerful maker?”

16. What other proofs can you present for the existence of God?

Note

1. The Evidence of God in an Expanding Universe Ed J.C. Monsma, New York 1958

Lesson 4: The Designer of the Universe

The Computer

Today, most people manage to do their most difficult work easily with the help of machines. One of the most amazing of these machines is the computer, about whose various capabilities most people have heard. For example, one variety of computers can, in a few minutes, accurately supply a doctor with medical records, which have been stored in it, and is capable of diagnosing illnesses. It investigates details of every condition reported in the past year or even ten years ago, and makes recommendations for the cure and therapy of disease.

This computer can, when necessary, recommend a suitable medicine to the hospital pharmacy, and inform the nurse, so that she can give the medicine to the patient. Some important factories also use computers for the control and adjustment of their machines.

Is it possible that an accident or chance brought the computer into existence, or is its astounding design rather a proof of the intelligence and genius of its maker?

Undoubtedly anyone faced with such a machine would agree that he is aware of the greatness of the intelligence and thinking of its maker.

The Automatic Kitchen

“Orbis” is the name of an apparatus, which can prepare excellent food for more than one thousand people in one hour.

In many present-day countries transport cafes and roadside restaurants make use of this apparatus; it is capable of doing the work of twenty trained cooks.

When you park your car in front of the restaurant, you press the button on a loudspeaker beside you, and immediately a voice asks you what you want. You give an order for various kinds of food, and exactly eight minutes later a special waiter brings your food.

How Does the Automatic Kitchen Work?

When the customer presses the button, a light switches on inside “Orbis”, and as the customer gives his order for food (e.g. a sandwich), someone sitting in front of the apparatus depresses special switches. The machine starts to work. In this way, first bread is cut by means of an automatic knife, and at the same moment a piece of meat is sent to the cooker, which grills it in exactly four minutes. Then it is transferred onto the bread and the other parts of the sandwich are also placed on the bread. At this point the warm sandwich is put into a plastic bag and is ready.

Is the automatic and well-designed “Orbis” without a maker or a designer, and did it come into existence as the result of an accident or chance? Or is it not rather the product of the ideas of a scientist who invented it using precise calculations?

Undoubtedly, this design and order, which you notice in the above examples, is the result of the thinking of its engineer and inventor. That is to say that if there had been no inventor, and if they had not been constructed on the basis of very exact calculations and measurements, these machines would never have come into existence.

The same argument demonstrates a general proof and its undoubted truth, that design and orderliness must take their origin in a source of knowledge and power. Chance cannot be the origin of marvels having design and orderliness, because, as to everything belongs a particular effect (e.g. cold water is an unlikely cause for being scalded), it is incorrect to suppose that design and reckoning should come from chance or mere accident.

It therefore follows that the wonderful design and orderliness which is observed in the brain, the nerves, the digestive system, the heart, the eyes, the ears and thousands of other examples constitutes complete evidence and a living proof. They prove that the world of creation has a wise and powerful designer and creator. Whatever attracts our attention among the secrets of the way creation is arranged, permits us to become more aware of the greatness of its creator. Can we say that the human brain and the wonders of the body are less significant than the computer?

Of course, you will acknowledge that all these things are proofs of the greatness and vastness of the knowledge and power of the Creator of the world - its designer. In addition to this, the understanding and intelligence, which is seen in man is clear evidence of the manifestation of something knowledgeable and intelligent which produced him. It is not possible for someone who has no understanding and intelligence to give to his constructions and creations such understanding and intelligence.

The Holy Qur’an points to this undoubted truth and shining reality in many verses, such as the following:

“God is He Who raised up the heavens without pillars you can see, He subjected the sun and the moon each one running to a term stated; He directs the affair; He distinguishes the signs; haply you will have faith in the encounter with your Lord.” (S.13; V. 2)

The existence of proper order with calculated design in creatures is evidence of the existence of their planers and the designers.

Questions

1. Are computers in an orderly manner?

2. Will computers work properly without receiving instructions?

3. Did computers come into existence by themselves?

4. Are the designers of computers intelligent or insane people?

5. Can every human being make computers or only those who know a lot about them?

6. Is the automatic kitchen a man-made device or grows like plants?

7. Did this device exist two hundred years ago?

8. Why did it not exist three hundred years ago?

9. Is making a computer easier or to make a human heart?

10. Is making an automatic computer easier or to make one of the major organs of human body?

11. Why are not people able to make human hearts?

12. What means are needed to make a computer?

13. Can the computer materials become computers without intelligent design?

14. Does designing computers require greater intelligence or building a human brain?

Whose existence do the design and order in nature prove?

Can you find an example of phenomena that would never follow designs and plans?

Lesson 5: Unveiling the Secrets of Nature

The amazing progress of man's knowledge is progressively uncovering the unknown and destroying misconceptions in physiology and the experimental sciences.

For example, it was once thought that some of the organs of the body were of no use. But modern science, after much analysis and research, has demonstrated specific uses for each of them, and in the future, when research tools have been further developed; more important functions will surely be discovered. We shall mention some examples to show what we mean.

1. The thymus is a small gland located in the mediastinum in front of the windpipe and behind the ribs. The specific function of the thymus had been unclear, and previous scientists had thought it to be a superfluous organ. But today it is known that the thymus plays an important role in resistance and defence against foreign substances that attack the body. The thymus gland produces lymphocytes and its fundamental use is in the making of anti-bodies that defend and protect the body against viruses and foreign protein.

Some scientists believe that this gland has an important influence on sexual function and the growth of the body after puberty. Its removal results in atrophy of the sexual organs and delayed puberty.

2. The pineal gland, or epiphysis is more complex than the thymus and it is situated in the brain. In the past some physiologists had attributed no use to it, but nowadays it is believed that tints gland is operative in controlling sexual activity and in preventing premature puberty. It also has other functions, which, if stopped, cause death.1

3. Previously, physicians had thought that the tonsils were without function, and in the event of swelling of the tonsils would advise their extraction, and would excise them. However, today, specialists understand their importance, and do not recommend their removal except in exceptional circumstances.

The tonsils produce white blood cells whose function is to defend the body against microbes. They perform the same function for the body as does quarantine for diseases coming into a country. They act as a strong barrier at the entrance to the respiratory passages, cleaning the inspired air against infection and destroying microbes. When the air is more polluted, or when microbes are more active, the tonsils work harder, and as a result they swell up. Removal of the tonsils is inadvisable because it results in an increased activity of microbes in the throat and lets them enter the glottis, the windpipe and the lungs, and causes illnesses such as bronchitis.

The skin lining the nose and the glottis becomes thinner than normal and causes dryness in the nose and throat (atrophy of the mucous membranes) What is more, at the time of various throat infections, the tonsils swell up and, like warning lamps, inform doctors of these illnesses. So, if they are not there the diseases will not be diagnosed, and this may result in further complications such as angina.

4. After much research, a group of scientists came to the conclusion that the appendix has an important role to play in the fight against cancer and its removal, when unnecessary, can be a cause of this fatal illness. It has been explained in the Journal of the American Medical Association that removal of the appendix in those who are in danger of getting cancer has an important effect and may itself cause cancer.

The study of the examples mentioned above, together with hundreds of others, shows that when we do not find any use or advantage for something, we should not come to the conclusion that it really has no use or advantage. Rather, we should wait until its secrets and functions are revealed in the light of science.

For, although man has made much progress, he is still at the first stages, and has not yet read even one line from the great Book of Nature.

Einstein said in his book The Philosophy of Relativity that what we have read from the Book of Nature has taught us many things, but we know that we are far from finding the complete solution and understanding of her secrets.

Williams James also remarked that the difference between our knowledge and our ignorance is like the difference between a drop and the ocean.

Therefore, do not those materialists who, because of incomplete knowledge of the secrets and properties of a thing, think to be without use or function make a serious mistake? Whereas if they were to be more careful, they would realize that there is a world of difference between not knowing a thing and its non-existence, and that it is not correct to assume that because a man does not find a thing therefore it does not exist.

It is obvious that man's not knowing the details of one or two things from the infinity of existents should not be an obstacle to him on comprehending the, Wise Creator of the universe through the secrets of the world of creation and its wonderful harmony.

There is no doubt that the study of even one of the parts of creation, or even just a fragment of that part, is sufficient to lead man to the Knowing Designer and Builder of the universe. If one picks up a book, which is written in a fully rational and logical manner, but one, does not understand some things because of one's lack of knowledge, what should be one's judgement on the book? Should one ignore all the useful matters there in which are derived from the writer's creative thinking and broad vision? Surely it is not so.

In the words of the poet:2

The world is as eye, cheek, mole and brow,

for everything in its place is good.

Ignorance of something is not evidence of its absence from the realm of existence.

Questions

1. Which gland in human body produces antibodies?

2. Is it true that some parts in human body are of no use?

3. What are some of the functions of the pineal gland?

4. What kind of hormones does pineal gland produce?

5. What are some of the functions of the tonsils in the human body?

6. Is it advisable to remove the tonsils?

7. Do the Tonsils produce white or red blood cells?

8. What is the major function of appendix in human body?

9. Is it advisable to remove the appendix?

10. Did William James or Einstein say, “ We are far from knowing the secrets of Nature”?

11. Did Einstein or William James say, “our ignorance of the world is an ocean and our knowledge of the world is like one drop?

12. What has the Journal of American medical Association has said about removing the Appendix?

13. How much of nature one would need to study to learn about its designer?

14. Does not knowing means that the unknown does not exist?

15. What has destroyed some of the misconceptions about the secrets of the world?

16. Can you point out the weakness of the argument in the text?

17. If you did find out any weakness can you compensate?

Notes

1. The pineal gland acts by secreting a hormone called Glomerulotrophin that circulates in the blood and causes another hormone called aldosterone. These are to be secreted from the surface of the adrenal gland. This latter controls the concentration of sodium and potassium in the blood. This is of importance because an imbalance in these concentrations and the stopping of the secretion of aldosterone results in death in less than one week.

2. Gulshan-i Raz, Shabistari

Lesson 6: Lavoisier’s Law and Creation

We have all seen names of fire, and we recognise what they are, but when we see these flames soaring up do we ever stop to ask what in fact they are. Today we know that flames are composed of gases combined with oxygen from the air. But, previously some chemists had thought that there was some invisible substance in charcoal and oil which, when there is ignition, is released in the form of flames. To this substance they gave such names as “sulphur” This idea gathered many supporters, and many scientists subscribed to it, calling this invisible substance “phlogiston”.

George Ernst Stahl; German scientist, chemist and biologist, who, in 1694, became professor at Hall University. (b. 1660, d. 1734) said that phlogiston was a substance, which escaped and which was the basis and essence of fire; that it was hidden inside inflammable materials; and that at the time of burning it was released in the form of flames.

He said that the reason that wood, charcoal and oil burn readily is that there is more phlogiston in them, but that in metal there is less of it. He and other followers of this idea believed that in the combustion of iron, phlogiston was released and what remained took the form of rust. They also said that when sulphur was burnt, phlogiston was released, and a colourless gas remained which was sulphur without phlogiston.

Rouelle [French scientist (b. 1703. d. 1770) a great chemist and the tutor of Lavoisier, also accepted this theory, and tried very hard to prove it. Lavoisier, the French scientist, one of the founders of modern chemistry, researched into what his teacher, Rouelle, and other scientists had said, spending much time thinking about their theory, until he realised that the belief in phlogiston was groundless.

In 1772, he effected the combustion of a piece of lead by focusing the rays of the sun on to it by means of magnifying lenses. He observed that its weight increased. He deduced that some part of the air had become combined with the metal and had added to its weight: if phlogiston had been there, the weight of the lead would have decreased. Thus, he claimed, the phlogiston theory should be abandoned.

In support of his view he asserted that if the 'burns' lead were heated it would return that part of the air which it had taken, and would again become lead.

In 1776 he performed another experiment in which he put a crucible of mercury over a heater and left it for 12 days. It was not long before a light red film was observed on the surface of the mercury. He found that the air in contact with the mercury could not support life. He deduced that a part of the air inside the crucible had reacted with the mercury, forming a light red film. In order to confirm this, he separated the light red film and heated it. He observed that a gas was released from it. This gas supported life. He came to the conclusion that there is nothing, which is given off from mercury when it is heated. But rather that there is a gas in the air which combines with the mercury to form mercurous oxide (HgO).

Lavoisier then asserted that there was no evidence for the existence of phlogiston. In chemical reactions the total weight of all substances entering into the reaction equals the total weight of all the substances resulting from that reaction. In other words, 'Rien ne se pera, et rien ne se crea.' (Nothing perishes, and nothing is created).

In this way the theory of phlogiston lost its supporters. We know today that when something catches fire it is because it enters into combination with oxygen, and not because an invisible substance comes out of the combustion in the form of flames. The history of phlogiston and the theory of Lavoisier show us clearly that when Lavoisier said 'Nothing perishes and nothing is created.' By this he meant that in a chemical reaction nothing disappears and nothing is added, and he was not referring to the origin of the creation of the world, which is a philosophical issue.

Unfortunately, some people, imagining that Lavoisier had wanted to answer a philosophical question, asserted that the event of creation was not compatible with Lavoisier's theory, because he has said that nothing is created and nothing is lost. How, they asked, could something be created from nothing? However, by referring to the history of the two theories, it becomes clear that Lavoisier was referring only to chemical reactions, which take place in the present world, and he meant that this world is such that within its bounds nothing extra can be added and nothing can disappear. And the problem of whether the world was created or whether it is eternal is a philosophical matter about which Lavoisier's theory remains totally silent.

The point is that when we learn about scientific theories and ideas, we must look deeply into what has been said, and be careful to examine them with specialists in each matter so that the truth may become clear. Because it is possible that inattention to these matters may result in a weakening of our beliefs.

Moreover, we must not submit to a theory without carefully examining it, so that we imagine it to be an indubitably ascertained fact. There have been many theories, which have been supported through the ages by various scholars, but which were refuted later and all traces effaced. An example of this is the theory of phlogiston whose history we have just related. Even the theory of Lavoisier has lost its original form (the principle of the conservation of matter), and has become the principle of the conservation of matter and energy. For example, if 8 grams of oxygen were made to react with I gram of hydrogen, Lavoisier's theory would predict that 9 grams of water would be formed. But we now understand, through more exact calculations that a small part of the substance is converted into energy and that the amount of water formed is a little less than 9 grams.

Questions

1. What substance forms the flame in a burning fire?

2. What was people’s opinion about this phenomenon before the opinion of Lavoisier?

3. Whose theory says, “Nothing perishes and nothing is created?”

4. What should be our attitude to the changing theories?

5. Should we accept some opinion without ascertaining its truth?

6. Is it true that flame is a certain form of substance that comes out of the burning materials?

7. Does Lavoisier’s theory deal with whether the world is created or not?

8. What happens to the gases coming out of the burning materials and the oxygen present around?

9. Is there a difference between a philosophical and a chemical issue?

10. Is Lavoisiers’s theory a chemical or a philosophical issue?

11. Does the principle of the conservation of matter prove that it is not created?

12. What change has taken place in the theory of conservation of matter?