Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

Table of Contents

Translator’s Introduction. 12

The Author 17

The Translation. 20

References 22

Part I: Introductory Discussions 23

Lesson One: A Glance at the Course of Philosophical Thought: (From Its Origins to the Islamic Epoch) 24

The Beginning of Philosophical Thought 24

The Appearance of Sophism and Skepticism. 24

The Period of the Flourishing of Philosophy. 25

The End of Greek Philosophy. 26

The Dawn of the Sun of Islam. 26

The Development of Philosophy in the Islamic Epoch. 27

References 29

Lesson Two: A Glance at the Course of Philosophical Thought (from the Middle Ages to the Eighteenth Century) 30

Scholastic Philosophy. 30

The Renaissance and the Comprehensive Change in Thinking. 30

The Second Phase of Skepticism. 31

The Peril of Skepticism. 32

Modern Philosophy. 32

The Fundamentality of Experience and Modern Skepticism. 33

Kant’s Critical Philosophy. 33

Lesson Three: A Glance at the Course of Philosophical Thought (in the last two centuries) 35

Objective Idealism. 35

Positivism. 36

Rationalism and Empiricism. 36

Dialectical Materialism. 37

Pragmatism. 37

A Brief Comparison. 38

Reference 40

Lesson Four: The Technical Meanings of “Science” and “Philosophy”  41

Introduction. 41

Homonymity. 41

The Technical Meaning of “Science” 43

The Technical Meaning of “Philosophy” 44

Scientific Philosophy. 44

Reference 46

Lesson Five: Philosophy and The Sciences 47

The Philosophy of the Sciences 47

Metaphysics 47

Science, Philosophy, Metaphysics and The Relations among Them. 48

The Division and Classification of the Sciences 49

The Standard for Distinguishing among the Sciences 49

Whole and Universal 50

The Branches of the Sciences 51

Lesson Six: What is Philosophy?. 52

The Relation between Subjects and Problems 52

The Principles of the Sciences and their Relationships with Subjects and Problems 54

The Subjects and Problems of Philosophy. 54

The Definition of Philosophy. 56

Lesson Seven: The Position of Philosophy  57

The Essence of the Problems of Philosophy. 57

The Principles of Philosophy. 59

The Aim of Philosophy. 60

Lesson Eight: The Method of Philosophical Inquiry  62

The Evaluation of the Rational Method. 62

Analogy, Induction and Deduction. 63

Rational Method and Empirical Method. 64

Conclusions 65

The Scope of the Rational and Empirical Methods 65

Lesson Nine: The Relation between Philosophy and the Sciences 67

The Relations among the Sciences 67

The Assistance given by Philosophy to the Sciences 67

The Assistance given by the Sciences to Philosophy. 69

The Relation between Philosophy and Gnosis (‘Irfān) 71

The Assistance given by Philosophy to Gnosis (‘Irfān) 72

The Assistance given by Gnosis (‘Irfān) to Philosophy. 72

Lesson Ten: The Necessity of Philosophy  73

The Man of the Age 73

Social Schools 74

The Mystery of Humanity. 75

The Solution to Some Problems 76

Part II: Epistemology. 79

Lesson Eleven: Introduction to Epistemology  80

The Importance of Epistemology. 80

A Brief Overview of the History of Epistemology. 80

Knowledge in Islamic Philosophy. 81

The Definition of Epistemology. 83

References 85

Lesson Twelve: The Self-Evidence of the Principles of Epistemology  86

The Nature of the Dependence of Philosophy on Epistemology. 86

The Possibility of Knowledge 87

A Survey of the Claims of the Skeptics 88

The Rejection of the Doubts of the Skeptics 89

Lesson Thirteen: The Divisions of Knowledge 91

In Search of the Cornerstone of Knowledge 91

The First Division of Science 91

Knowledge by Presence 92

The Reason Behind the Infallibility of Presentational Knowledge: 94

The Concomitance of Acquired Knowledge with Presentational Knowledge 94

Gradation in Knowledge by Presence 95

References 97

Lesson Fourteen: Acquired Knowledge 98

The Necessity for the Survey of Acquired Knowledge 98

Idea and Affirmation. 98

Elements of the Proposition. 98

Divisions of Ideas 99

Universal Ideas 100

A Study of Universal Concepts 101

A Response to a Doubt 102

A Survey of Other Views 103

References 104

Lesson Fifteen: Types of Universal Concepts 105

Types of Intelligibles 105

Characteristics of Each of the Types of Intelligibles 106

Respectival (I‘tibārī) Concepts 107

Ethical and Legal Concepts 107

Ought and Ought Not 108

Legal and Ethical Subjects 109

References 111

Lesson Sixteen: Empiricism. 112

Positivism. 112

A Critique of Positivism. 112

The Priority of Sensation or Intellect 113

Lesson Seventeen: The Role of the Intellect and Sensation in Ideas 116

The Fundamentality of the Intellect or Sensation for Ideas 116

The Table of the Categories 117

Critique 117

Inquiry into a Problem. 118

Lesson Eighteen: The Role of the Intellect and Sensation in Affirmations 121

Points about Affirmations 121

Inquiry about a Problem. 123

Reference 126

Lesson Nineteen: The Value of Knowledge 127

Return to the Original Problem. 127

What is Truth? 127

Criteria for the Recognition of the Truth. 128

Inquiry into a Problem. 129

The Criteria of Truth and Falsity of Propositions 130

The Case Itself (Nafs al-Amr) 131

Lesson Twenty: The Evaluation of Ethical and Legal Propositions 133

Features of Ethical and Legal Knowledge 133

The Criterion for the Truth and Falsity of Evaluative Propositions 133

A Review of the Most Famous Opinions 134

Inquiry about a Problem. 135

Answer to an Objection. 137

Relativism in Ethics and Law. 137

The Difference between Legal and Ethical Propositions 138

Part III: Ontology. 139

Lesson Twenty-One: Introduction to Ontology  140

Introduction to the Lesson. 140

Warnings about Concepts 140

Warnings about Language 142

The Self-evidence (Badāhat) of the Concept of Existence 143

The Relation between Existence and Perception. 143

Reference 145

Lesson Twenty-Two: The Concept of Existence 146

The Unity of the Concept of Existence 146

The Substantival Concept and the Copulative Concept of Existence 147

Existence and Existents 148

Lesson Twenty-Three: Entified Reality  150

The Self-evidence (Badāhat) of Entified Reality. 150

Ways to Deny Reality. 150

The Secret of the Self-Evidence of Entified Reality. 152

The Source of Belief in Material Reality. 153

Reference 155

Lesson Twenty-Four: Existence and Whatness 156

The Relation between the Topics of Existence and Whatness 156

How the Mind Becomes Acquainted with the Concept of Existence 158

How the Mind Becomes Acquainted with Whatness 159

Lesson Twenty-Five: Precepts of Whatness 161

Respects of Whatness 161

Natural Universals 162

The Cause of the Individuation of Whatness 164

Lesson Twenty-Six: Introduction to the Fundamentality of Existence 167

A Brief Look at the History of the Problem. 167

Explanation of Terms 167

Explanation of the Point of Contention. 170

The Benefits of the Discussion. 171

References 173

Lesson Twenty-Seven: The Fundamentality of Existence 174

Arguments for the Fundamentality of Existence 174

Philosophical Metaphor 175

The Resolution of Two Doubts 177

References 180

Lesson Twenty-Eight: Unity and Multiplicity  181

Remarks on Some Issues Pertaining to Whatnesses 181

Types of Unity and Multiplicity. 182

The Unity of the Concept of Existence 183

The Graduated and the Uniform. 184

Reference 186

Lesson Twenty-Nine: Unity and Multiplicity in Entified Existence 187

Individual Unity. 187

The Unity of the World. 190

Lesson Thirty: The Levels of Existence 192

Positions on the Unity and Plurality of Being. 192

The First Argument for Graduated Levels of Existence 194

The Second Argument for Graduated Levels of Existence 196

Part IV: Causality. 198

Lesson Thirty-One: Cause and Effect 199

Introduction. 199

The Concepts of Cause and Effect 199

The Ways in which the Mind becomes Acquainted with these Concepts 200

Types of Cause 201

References 204

Lesson Thirty-Two: The Principle of Causation  205

The Importance of the Principle of Causation. 205

The Purport of the Principle of Causation. 206

The Criterion of the Need for a Cause 207

Reference 210

Lesson Thirty-Three: The Causal Relation  211

The Reality of the Causal Relation. 211

Knowledge of the Causal Relation. 212

Distinguishing Features of Cause and Effect 213

Lesson Thirty-Four: The Causal Relation among Material Things 216

The Cause of Belief in the Causal Relation among Material Things 216

An Evaluation of the Above-mentioned Belief 217

The Way to the Knowledge of Material Causes 218

Lesson Thirty-Five: The Dependence of the Effect on the Cause 220

The Mutual Implication of Cause and Effect 220

The Simultaneity of Cause and Effect 220

The Persistence of the Effect is also in Need of a Cause 222

Lesson Thirty-Six: The Relations of Cause and Effect 225

The Homogeneity (Sinkhiyyah) of Cause and Effect 225

The Removal of a Doubt 226

Unity of an Effect for Unity of a Cause 227

Unity of Cause for Unity of Effect 228

Lesson Thirty-Seven: The Principles of Cause and Effect 230

Some Points regarding Cause and Effect 230

The Impossibility of a Causal Circle 231

The Impossibility of an Infinite Regress 233

Lesson Thirty-Eight: The Efficient Cause 235

Introduction. 235

The Efficient Cause and its Types 235

Points Regarding the Types of Agent 237

Will and Freedom. 238

Will 238

Freedom. 238

Reference 241

Lesson Thirty-Nine: The Final Cause 242

An Analysis regarding Free Actions 242

Perfection and Goodness 243

The End and the Final Cause 244

Reference 248

Lesson Forty: The Purposefulness of the Cosmos 249

Introduction. 249

Aristotle’s View regarding the Final Cause 249

Criticism. 249

The Solution to Several Problems 250

The Purposefulness of the Cosmos 252

Reference 254

Part V: The Material and the Immaterial 255

Lesson Forty-One: The Material and the Immaterial 256

Introduction. 256

The Meaning of ‘Immaterial’ and ‘Material’ 257

Characteristics of Corporeal and Immaterial Beings 258

References 260

Lesson Forty-Two: What is Location?  261

Introduction. 261

The Problem of Space and Time 261

The Difference between ‘Space’ and ‘Spatial Location’ and between ‘Time’ and ‘Temporal Location’ 262

The Reality of Space 263

Reference 265

Lesson Forty-Three: What is Time?. 266

Discussion about the Reality of Time 266

Lesson Forty-Four: Kinds of Substances 269

Theories about the Kinds of Substances 269

Corporeal Substances 270

Psychic Substances 271

Two Proofs for the Immateriality of the Soul 272

Lesson Forty-Five: Continuation of the Discussion of the Kinds of Substance 273

Intellectual Substance 273

The Doctrine of the Nobler Contingent 273

Imaginal Substance 275

Reference 278

Lesson Forty-Six: Matter and Form. 279

Views of the Philosophers on Matter and Form. 279

An Argument for the Aristotelian Theory. 280

Critique 281

References 285

Lesson Forty-Seven: Accidents 286

Views of Philosophers about Accidents 286

Quantity. 286

Relational Categories 287

Reference 290

Lesson Forty-Eight: Quality. 291

The Category of Quality. 291

Psychic Qualities 291

Sensible Qualities 292

Qualities Specific to Quantities 292

Dispositional Qualities 293

Conclusions 294

References 296

Lesson Forty-Nine: The Reality of Knowledge 297

Introduction. 297

A Review of the Types of Knowledge 297

The Reality of Knowledge by Presence 298

The Nature of Acquired Knowledge 299

The Immateriality of Perception. 300

Lesson Fifty: The Union of the Knower and the Known  303

Introduction. 303

The Controversy. 303

Explanation of the Topic 303

Types of Union of Existence 304

A Review of the Theory of Ṣadr al-Muta’allihīn. 305

Inquiry into a Problem. 307

References 308

Part VI: The Immutable and the Changing  309

Lesson Fifty-One: The Immutable and the Changing  310

Introduction. 310

An Explanation Regarding Change and Immutability. 310

Types of Change 311

The Positions of the Philosophers Regarding the Types of Change 312

Lesson Fifty-Two: The Potential and the Actual 314

Introduction. 314

An Explanation of the Concepts of the Potential and the Actual 314

The Division of Existents into the Actual and the Potential 315

The Relation between the Potential and the Actual 316

Reference 319

Lesson Fifty-Three: A Continuation of the Discussion of the Potential and the Actual 320

The Correspondence of Potentiality and Actuality in the Case of Change 320

Infinite Regresses of Material Events 321

The Principle of the Necessity of the Priority of Matter to Material Events 321

The Temporal Creation of the Material World. 322

Reference 324

Lesson Fifty-Four: Generation and Corruption  325

Introduction. 325

The Concepts of Generation and Corruption. 325

The Presence of Two Forms in a Single Matter 326

The Relation of Generation and Corruption to Motion. 328

Lesson Fifty-Five: Motion. 330

The Concept of Motion. 330

The Existence of Motion. 330

Problems Raised by those who Deny the Existence of Motion and their Solution  331

Lesson Fifty-Six: Properties of Motion  334

The Constituent Factors of Motion. 334

The Features of Motion. 334

The Requirements of Motion. 335

Lesson Fifty-Seven: Divisions of Motion  339

Introduction. 339

Divisions of Motion on the Basis of Acceleration. 339

The Evolution of the Moved due to Motion. 341

Lesson Fifty-Eight: Motion in Accidents 344

Introduction. 344

Spatial Motion. 344

Motion in Position. 345

Motion in Quality. 345

Motion in Quantity. 346

Lesson Fifty-Nine: Motion in Substance 348

Introduction. 348

Objections to Substantial Motion. 348

Answers to the Objections 348

Arguments for the Existence of Substantial Motion. 349

Lesson Sixty: Further Discussion of Substantial Motion  353

A Reminder of Some Points 353

Types of Substantial Motion. 354

The Relation between Substantial Motion and Actuality and Potentiality. 354

The Continuity of Substantial Motion. 356

Vertical Continuity. 356

Horizontal Continuity. 357

Part VII: Theology. 358

Lesson Sixty-One: The Way to Know God  359

Introduction. 359

The Science of Theology and its Subject 359

The Innateness of Knowledge of God. 360

The Possibility of Demonstrating the Existence of God. 361

Demonstrations from Cause to Effect and from Effect to Cause 362

References 363

Lesson Sixty-Two: Demonstrations of the Necessary Existent 364

Introduction. 364

First Demonstration (The Argument from Contingency) 365

The Second Demonstration (Ibn Sīnā’s Demonstration) 366

The Third Demonstration (Mullā Ṣadrā’s Demonstration) 367

References 369

Lesson Sixty-Three: Tawhīd. 370

The Meaning of Tawhīd. 370

Tawhīd in the Necessity of Existence 370

The Negation of Actual Parts 371

The Negation of Potential Parts, Time and Space in God. 371

The Refutation of Analytic Parts 372

Reference 374

Lesson Sixty-Four: The Unity of Divine Actions 375

Introduction. 375

Unity in Creation and Lordship. 375

Unity in the Emanation of Existence 377

The Refutation of Compulsion and Delegation. 377

Lesson Sixty-Five: The Divine Attributes 379

Introduction. 379

The Limits to Knowing God. 379

The Role of Reason in Knowing God. 380

Positive and Negative Attributes 380

Attributes of Essence and Attributes of Action. 381

Lesson Sixty-Six: Attributes of Essence 384

Introduction. 384

Life 384

Knowledge 385

Knowledge of Essence 385

Knowledge of Creatures 386

Power 387

References 389

Lesson Sixty-Seven: Attributes of Action  390

Introduction. 390

Hearing and Seeing. 390

Speaking. 390

Will 391

The Concept of Will 391

The Reality of Will 391

Wisdom and the Best Order 392

Reference 395

Lesson Sixty-Eight: The Purpose of Creation  396

Introduction. 396

Purpose and Final Cause 396

Some Points 397

The Purposefulness of God, the Supreme 398

References 401

Lesson Sixty-Nine: Divine Decree and Destiny  402

Introduction. 402

The Concepts of Destiny and Decree 402

A Philosophical Explanation of Destiny and Decree 402

Levels of Action. 403

The Relation of Destiny and Decree to Human Volition: 405

The Benefits of this Discussion. 406

Reference 408

Lesson Seventy: Good and Evil in the Cosmos 409

Introduction. 409

The Concepts of Good and Evil 409

A Philosophical Analysis of Good and Evil 410

The Secret of the Evils of the Cosmos 412