Alhassanain(p) Network for Heritage and Islamic Thought

References

1. - The main methods in scientific, philosophical, and theosophical anthropology are respectively empirical, theoretical, and intuitional. Theological anthropology is based on referral to original texts of religion. Additionally, in general, scientific anthropology mostly endeavors to answer specific and detailed questions, while in the other approaches we are faced with questions that are more fundamental.

2. - Sūrah Fuṣṣilat (Ḥā Mīm) 41:53.

3. - Sūrah Ḥashr 59:19.

4. - See: ‘Allāmah Majlisī, Baḥār al-Anwār, vol. 2, p. 32.

5. - Sūrah Nisā’ 4:1.

6. - For examples of these Qur’anic verses, see: Sūrah A‘rāf 7:26, 27; Sūrah Isrā’ 17:70; and Sūrah Yāsīn 36:60.

7. - Sūrah Ṣād 38:71. For further examples, see: Sūrah Sajdah 32:7; and Sūrah A‘rāf 7:12. Various Qur’anic verses speak of “dirt” (such as Sūrah Āli ‘Imrān 3:59) or “water” (such as Sūrah Furqān 25:54) or similar terms (Sūrah Ḥijr 15:28, 15:33).

8. - On occasion, it is thought that religious teachings regarding the creation of the first human contradicts Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) theory of evolution through natural selection. Discussing the relationship of these two viewpoints requires an independent discussion. Here we shall suffice with three points:

a. Even though the theory of evolution, which is based upon natural selection, reveals truths regarding the evolution of various types of plants and animals, there are no consistent scientific rationales in favor of extending this theory to include humankind. In fact, with regard to the special distinctions of humans compared to advanced types of animals—such as simians—, numerous attestations repudiate this extension and render it unscientific and illegitimate.

b. The existence of fossils and other millions-of-year-old relics from humanoids cannot confirm the application of Darwin’s theory to humans. This is because the extreme probability has been proposed that humanoids have existed and become extinct before the introduction of humans—who have had an entirely different and independent genesis.

c. We cannot disregard a religious standpoint that is clearly based upon Qur’anic verses that speak of the unique genesis of Adam and humanity’s link to him on account of a scientific theory that has many critics even within the biologists’ society.

9. - Sūrah Mu’minūn 23:14.

10. - Sūrah Sajdah 32:9.

11. - The compound structure“ روحه ” (His spirit) is not a possessive compound but a “reverence compound”. In this type of compound, in order to show reverence and the lofty rank of an object, the object is attributed to one of great standing and honor. Thus, the attribution of spirit to God—like similar cases such as“ بيت الله ” (the House of God—the holy Kaaba) or“ ثار الله ” (the Blood of God—attributed to Imam Hussaīn (‘a))— states the reverence and greatness of the spirit among the creations of God.

12. - Many Moslem thinkers regard the spirit as incorporeal and immaterial and others believe it is a type of “subtle body” that is different in several qualities from the material body.

13. - This includes verses that term human death tawaffā“ توفّی ” (such as Sūrah Sajdah 32:11; Sūrah An‘ām 6:61; Sūrah Naḥl 16:70; etc.)

14. - Many profound matters may be discussed on the relationship of the body and soul, their qualities, the genetic antecedence of the soul over the body, and the materiality or spirituality of the ego. These discussions have been omitted for the sake of brevity.

15. - In truth, we have no direct or firsthand knowledge of the perceptions of animals. All our judgments regarding this issue are solely based on observation of various signs and effects. Based on these observations, there is no doubt that animals do not enjoy intellectual thought in the manner that humans do.

16. - Understanding good and evil and moral prerequisites and stipulations is in fact a part of humanity’s unique percipience; something that does not exist in animals. Even so, we mentioned this issue because of its close rapport with the discussion at hand.

17. - Sūrah Shams 91:7-8.

18. - Sūrah Ḥujurāt 49:7.

19. - Sūrah Baqarah 2:30.

20. - The use of a substantive sentence,“ إِنّي جاعلٌ ...”, which indicates continuity, and also the objections of the angels regarding the immorality and bloodshed of humans upon the earth show that the topic of the debate between God and the angels involved the establishment of the human species.

21. Sūrah Baqarah 2:31-33.

22. Sūrah Aḥzāb 33:72.

23. Sūrah Luqmān 31:20.

24. - ابر و باد و مه و خورشيد و فلك در كارند

تا تو ناني به كف آري و به غفلت نخوري

همه از بهر تو سرگشته و فرمانبردار

شرط انصاف نباشد كه تو فرمان نبري

25. - Sūrah Baqarah 2:34.

26. - Sūrah Isrā’ 17:70.

27. - In contrast, obtainable honor is a kind of honor that can only come about through faith and virtuous deeds. The highest ranks of this type of honor are specific to the truly pious.

28. - Sūrah Aḥzāb 33:72.

29. - Sūrah Ḥajj 22:66.

30. - Sūrah ‘Alaq 96:6.

31. - Sūrah Isrā’ 17:100.

32. - Sūrah Ma‘ārij 70:18.

33. - Sūrah Isrā’ 17:11

34. - Sūrah A‘rāf 7:179.

35. - در حديث آمد كه خلّاق مجيد خلق عالم را سه گونه آفريد

يك گُرُه را جمله عقل و علم وجود آن فرشته است و نداند جز سجود

نيست اندر عنصرش حرص و هوا نور مطلق زنده از عشق خدا

يك گروه ديگر از دانش تهي همچو حيوان از علف در فربهي

او نبيند جز كه اصطبل و علف از شقاوت غافل است و از شرف

و آن سوم هست آدميزاد و بشر از فرشته نيمي و نيمي ز خر

نيم خر خود مايل سفلي بود نيم ديگر مايل عِلوي شود

تا كدامين غالب آيد در نبرد زين دوگانه تا كدامين بُرد نرد

36. - The existence of various involuntary actions in humans does not validate determinism and refute belief in free will and libertarianism. In fact, finding even one volitional action in humans can prove free will.

37. - It is worthy of note that various rationales have been presented in verification of determinism. Some of these rationales are philosophical and others are based on psychological and sociological provisions. By referring to the physical characteristics of the human body, various determinists have claimed that no human action is truly volitional and free of physiological determinative factors. Thus, one may speak of the various approaches to determinism; such as the philosophic approach, the sociologic approach, etc. In this discourse, we shall discuss the Kalam approach that addresses the relationship of free will with various religious beliefs regarding the attributes of God.

38. - In philosophical terms, the necessity for occurrence of a volitional action is of the same type of the necessity for occurrence of an effect whose sufficient cause is realized. In other words, when the sufficient cause for the occurrence of a volitional action is realized

including the external and internal conditions of the agent such as selection, choice, and will-its occurrence becomes necessary.

39. - For examples see: Sūrah Yūnus 10:100; and Sūrah Takwīr 81:29.

40. - In various parts of the Mathnavī-e Ma‘navī (Spiritual Couplets), Maulānā has utilized these evidences and has regarded them as proofs of free will. Some of these verses include:

a. Intuition of Free will:

Doubtless, we have free will; feeling cannot refute it.

Free will is hidden within us; when faced with a dilemma it is revealed.

Intuition shows the same as feeling does; O brother, they both are of the same tier.

(Book V)

b. Indecision:

That you ask yourself tomorrow, should I do this or that; this itself is proof of free will, O Idol!

We are caught in indecision between two things; how can this indecision be involuntary?

How can ‘should I do this or that’ happen, if one’s hands and feet are tied?

(Book V)

c. Ordering and Forbidding Others:

No one tells a stone to come; and who would seek loyalty from a piece of clod?

No one tells a stone that it has come late; or that O stick! Why have you struck me?

Orders, forbiddance, wrath, respect, and retribution; go with nothing but free will, O true of heart!

(Book V)

d. System of Reward and Punishment:

Teachers beat their pupils; would they ever punish a black stone?

Would you ever tell a stone to come; and if not, I will punish the naughty?

(Book V)

e. Regretting Evil Deeds:

Our weeping is a reason of free will; our embarrassment has become a reason for compulsion.

If there is no free will, what is this shame; what are pity, humiliation, and modesty?

If all was compulsion, who would be embarrassed; if all was injustice who would be guardian?

(Book I)

41. - Sūrah Kahf 18:29.

42. - Sūrah Anbīyā’ 21:35.

43. - Sūrah Sāffāt 37:24.

44. - Sūrah Āli ‘Imrān 3:163.

45. - Sūrah Dhārīyāt 51:56.

46. - ‘Ilm ul-Yaqīn, vol. 1, p. 49. Also according to Sa‘dī :

رسد آدمي به جايي كه به جز خدا نبيند بنگر كه تا چه حد است مكان آدميت

Humans can reach the status that they see naught but God;

Behold the greatness of humanity’s position.

And Shaīkh Maḥmūd Shabastarī said in his book Gulshan-e Rāz:

به نزد آنكه جانش در تجلّيٰ است همه عالم كتاب حقْ تعاليٰ است

According to one whose whole being is infused with revelation;

The whole world is the book of Divine Truth (God).

47. - Sūrah Tawbah 9:128.

48. - Uṣūl-e Kāfī, vol. 1, p. 11.

49. - عقل ايماني چو شخص عادل است

پاسبان و حاكم شهر دل است

بس نكو گفت آن رسول دلنواز

ذره‌اي عقلت به از صوم و نماز

زانكه عقلت جوهر است اين دو عرض

اين دو تكميل آن شد مفترض

50. - Sūrah Āli ‘Imrān 3:191.

51. - Sūrah Ghāfir 40:65.

52. - Sūrah A‘rāf 7:55.

53. - These verses generally begin with the term “ربّنا” (Our Lord!) and relate the substance of the supplications of prophets, saints, and the faithful [mu’minūn]. For examples, see: Sūrah Baqarah 2:201, 2:250; and Sūrah Āli ‘Imrān 3:8-9, 3:16.

54. - In many Hadiths, Salāt is enumerated as one of the five pillars of Islam.

55. - The curve of the eyebrows is symbolic of God’s characteristics.

56. - در نمازم خم ابروي تو در ياد آمد

حالتي رفت كه محراب به فرياد آمد

57. - Comprehensive exposition of the spiritual and mystical secrets of Ṣalāt may be found in the two books Sirr uṣ-Ṣalāt (The Secrets of Ṣalāt) and Ādāb uṣ-Ṣalāt (The Disciplines of the Prayer, The Institute for Compilation and Publication of Imam Khomeini’s Works, Intrnational Affairs Department, Publisher,1996) of the perfect mystic Imam Khomeini (r) and also Shahīd-e Thānī’s Ādāb uṣ-Ṣalāt. In light of the fact that Islamic theosophy [‘irfān] has a very technical language and contains esoteric theosophical terms, we shall endeavor to elucidate the secrets of Ṣalāt in simple terms as much as possible.

58. - Wuḍu is a type of ritual partial ablution that is a prerequisite to Ṣalāt. [trans.]

59. - Takbīr is the name of the invocation“ اللهُ اكبر ” [Allāhu Akbar] meaning God is the Greatest. [trans.]

60. - It has been narrated of Imam Ṣādiq (‘a) that he asked the opinion of one of his followers about“ الله اكبر ” [Allāhu Akbar]. The follower replied, “God is greater than all objects.” The Imam (‘a) declared, “Is there any object next to God to which He may be greater?” He then interpreted Allahu Akbar thus:

الله اكبرُ مِنْ اَنْ يُوصَفَ

“God is greater than can be described.”

(Baḥār al-Anwār, vol. 84, p. 257)

61. - من از آن دم كه وضو ساختم از چشمه عشق

چار تكبير زدم يك سره بر هر چه كه هست

62. That is, I attest that there is no god but Allah (the One God):“ اَشْهَدُ اَنَّ لا اِله الّا الله ” . [trans.]

63. - This means, I attest that Muḥammad is God’s messenger:“ اَشْهَدُ اَنَّ مُحَمَّداً رسولُ الله ”. [trans.]

64. - The translation of which is, I attest that ‘Alī is God’s vicegerent:“ اَشْهَدُ اَنَّ علياً وليُّ الله ” . [trans.] It is worthy of note that this term is not part of Adhān or Iqāmah, even so, saying it is desirable and recommended [mustaḥabb].

65. - Which means, hasten towards Salāt:“ حَيَّ عَلَى الصَّلوة ” [trans.]

66. - This means, hasten towards salvation:“ حَيَّ عَلَى الفَلاح ” . [trans.]

67. - That is, hasten towards the best of deeds:“ حَيَّ عَلَىٰ خَيْرِ العَمَلِ ” . [trans.]

68. - There is no god but Allah:“ لا اله الا الله ” . [trans.]

69. - Verily, Salāt has commenced:“ قَدْ قٰامَتِ الصلوٰة ” .

70. - Sūrah Sajdah 32:16.

71. - The holy prophet (ṣ) has stated: “The best of people is one who loves worship, embraces it, and likes it with one’s whole heart…” (Uṣūl-e Kāfī, vol. 3, p. 131)

72. - For information regarding these issues, see exegeses of the Qur’an, especially mystical exegeses such as Imam Khomeinī’s interpretation of Sūrah Ḥamd.

73. - This is the direction of the Ka‘bah in Mecca towards which Muslims turn to pray in Ṣalāt. [trans.]

74. - Refer to the discussion “Understanding Divine Attributes” in section two of current chapter.

75. - According to the Qur’an (Sūrah Aḥzāb 33:40), prophet Muḥammad (ṣ) is the Seal of the Prophets. This means that he is the final prophet or the Seal in the line of divine prophets, which are said to number 124,000. Hence, the teachings of Islam are God’s final revelation unto humanity. [trans.]

76. - This is the Islamic salutation wishing health and peace. [trans.]